^UNIVERSnTo/miFQRNIA 


COLLEGE  of  MINING 


DEPARTMENTAL 
LIBRARY 


BEQUEST  OF 

SAMUElBENEDICTCHRlSTY 


PROFESSOR  OF 

MINING  AND   METALLURGY 
1885-1914 


TREATISE  ON  ORE  DEPOSITS, 


BERNHARD  VON  GOTTA, 

PROFESSOR    OF    GEOLOGY    IN    THE    ROYAL    SCHOOL    OF    MINES, 
FREIBERG,    SAXONY. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  SECOND  GERMAN  EDITION, 


BY 


FREDERICK   PRIME,   JR., 

MINING  ENGINEER. 


REVISED     BY     THE    AUTHOR. 


WITH  NUMEKOUS  ILLUSTKATIONS. 


NEW   YORK: 
D.     VAN     NOSTEAND,     PUBLISHER, 

23  MURRAY  STREET  AND  27  WARRSN  STREET. 
1870. 


IV 

is  a  duty  we  owe  to  the  bountiful  Giver?  as  well  as  to  those 
laborious  men,  who  by  their  observations  and  researches  have 
unlocked  the  treasures. 

The  importance  of  preserving  the*  distinctive  characteristics 
of  Professor  Von  Cotta's  work  has,  in  a  measure,  necessitated 
the  sacrifice  of  any  attempt  at  style.  My  absence,  while  the 
book  was  in  press,  prevented  a  personal  examination  of  the 
proof-sheets. 

I  have  great  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the  kind  and  con- 
tinued assistance  of  the  Rev.  Rt.  Wells  Whitford,  British  and 
American  Chaplain  at  Leipsic  (grandson  of  Robert  Wells,  of 
Charleston,  So.  Carolina),  during  the  progress  of  the  impression. 

I  am  much  indebted  to  my  friend,  Professor  Von  Cotta, 
for  the  encouragement  and  attention  he  gave  me,  until  he  was 
obliged  to  be  absent  from  Freiberg,  in  the  Altai  Mountains,  in 
his  official  employment  by  the  Russian  Government. 


FREDERICK  PRIME,  Jr. 


26  Broad  St.  New-York, 
February,   1869. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

My  former  pupil,  Mr.  Frederick  Prime  Jr.,  a  very  enthusi- 
astic student  in  this  branch  of  geology,  has  received  my  full 
approval  and  permission  to  translate  my  book  on  ORE  DEPOSITS. 
I  have  suggested  many  alterations,  and  additions,  which  he  will 
set  forth  in  this  translation;  so  that,  as  a  whole,  it  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  new  edition  (the  third  one)  of  my  work.  From 
the  attention  I  have  given  to  it,  as  the  translation  progressed, 
I  feel  justified  in  approving  it  as  a  whole.  * 


B.  VON  COTTA. 


Freiberg,  January,   1869. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


GENERAL    PART. 

Page 

§     1.     Ores  and  metalliferous  deposits    f.V,.  ,v  fj^-^^'Vr   ....  .1 

§    2.    Composition  of  metalliferous  deposits     .    .    .    .    .-  v;  .V  .    .    .  2 

§    3.     Minerals  which  especially  occur  as  ores     .",    .    .  ';../»    .     .  3 

4.  5.]  List  of  minerals    .    .    .  ;.    .    .    .",.,>  .'I •.-.,:   ^  ^V.,.^;  .    3  10 

6.    Texture  of  the  ores  and  vein-stones  .     ./J    .,..^  ^  £,;.. .,;.-.    .  10 

§    7.     Grouping  of  the  ores  and  vein-stones     .    ^.- .,':.-.  .t;y   >.-*  <  •  13 

§    8.    Succession  of  minerals  in  metalliferous  veins  and  geodes    ...  15 

§    9.    Occurrence  of  metalliferous  deposits  ..-.»,  .V..«,r  •..••--.*  -,.^/4;    .  17 

OEE-BEDS. 

§  10.    What  are  ore-beds?      /\^V.;v;:« 17 

§  11.    Peculiar  conditions  of  ore-beds      --V^l'-j    r'-:^;-    •    •  19 

§  12.    Occurrence  of  ore-beds,  and  distribution  of  ores  in  them    ...  21 

§13.    Origin  of  ore-beds -..-., -.^a'-  ^ "gV^   •  22 

§  14.    Prospecting  for  and  following  of  ore-beds „ 

§15.    Surface-deposits    .  s,i -,-,,..,„»•..  ^  ••;•    .    .    - 23 

METALLIFEKOUS  VEINS. 

§  16.    What  are  metalliferous  veins,  or  lodes? 26 

§17.    Classification  of  veins   .;  \  '-.'-.  i  •..;'/,:-/.  :C  f^'T .//;-v^'r>»  :^>-   •  27 

§  18.    Intersections  of  veins    »..  ^  .*.    «    »:   .    .  '_£' *".  *"v-v '.  f -..";.,>    .  29 

§  19.    Faults „ 

§20.    Results  of  dislocations •^'l\^'-:.\^'.'.''^'  .  32 

§21.    Occurrence  of  lodes V  *    ,,    .- X    .   V*  .,  .  33 

§  22.    Breadth,  strike,  and  dip,  of  lodes      .    .    .>.    .    .    .    :    .    ...  35 

§23.    Distribution  of  ores  in  lodes .*    • ,,»  ^•:;,v^    •  36 

§  24.    Differences  of  depth 37 

§  25.    Gossan,  iron  hat,  chapeau  en  fer,  Pacos,  Colorados     .....  38 


VIII 

Page 

§  26.    Primary  differences  of  depth      .    .  .-..;-.  -v.-.  -.    .  ..y."   .    .    .  39 

§27.    Theoretical  examination    .     .     ...    v^.    .    ,>' ',    t    .*.  -\    .     .  42 

§  28.    Influence  of  the  breadth  of  fissures  on  the  local  distribution  of  ores  43 

§  29.    Influence  of  the  nature  of  the  country  .     .  ::.    .   ..*_  V    .    .     .     .  45 

§  30.    Relation  of  ore-deposits  to  the  enclosing  rock  around  Freiberg   .  50 
§  31.    Distinction  between  red  and  grey  gneiss,  and  their  influence  on 

lodes   .    .V  .    . '.  .  o*. ,.    .:  .-  v   f  >    ...  52 

§  32.    Investigation  of  the  influence  of  the  country-rock  on  the  contents 

of  lodes .v-/  .   >  -.',,;'/   .-   v?V-.    .  53 

§  33.     Materials  for  a  theory  .    .  '.  • ^i7;  .*.-*.>.  54 

§  34.    Ability  of  rocks  to  conduct  heat   .    .    .    .  .-:  '.'>,  '*'  .. "?&•*'  .  55 

§35.     Density  of  rocks    .  *K.  />/.;    ^.  ^^,* >*.''.•   .    .-    .  56 

§36.    Porosity  of  rocks  •/'."'/ >.^;. '•'..•- ./'.-.    ,..:'.  „ 

§  37.     Smoothness  or  roughness  of  the  surfaces  of  rocks      .    .  'r,\    .     .  57 

§  38.     Chemical  reactions  of  rocks       ....    7    .  ^.    ..  ,°  ..  ->  ...  „ 

§  39.    Electric  currents     ' .    ."    .     .    .     .<    .-  r\'  i    v    .    /^-.    .    ;  ,,~"i  58 

§40.     Chief  results    .     .\~*. ,-'•-.    ,    .-W:  . ' -,;    ._  ^  ,,.'  .  59 

§  41.    Influence  of  strike  and  dip  of  lodes  on  their  richness     .  ..    ;    .  60 

§  42.    Determination  of  the  age  of  lodes 62 

§  43.    Age  of  lodes 63 

§  44.    Origin  of  lodes.    Formation  of  fissures 64 

§  45.    Possibility  of  dislocations      .   ..-  '. '.  ./  ;~»  J.  66 

§  46.     Filling  of  fissures      .     *  '  .    ;- ,     .     ..-  '?^ir'  .  68 

§  47.     Theories  of  the  formation  of  veins,  up  to  the  time  of  Werner    .  69 

§  48.     Theories  of  the  formation  of  veins,  since  Werner 71 

§  49.    Theories  of  contemporaneous  formation,  and  of  descension      .     .  „ 

§50.    Theory  of  lateral-secretion     .     .    /^;.    .    /_.    ,    ..  \  ^.    .    .     .  72 

§51.     Theory  of  infiltration    .-.,    T^:;\ '//...     r  .     .    .     .    .    .     .  73 

§  52.     Theory  of  sublimation ,. ':*L  ,%-^~V  ..,,'.  74 

§  53.    Theory  of  injection w    ..- 75 

§  54.     Concluding  observations     .     «    ..«jl" • 76 

§  55.     Search  for  lodes  .'v -..'-. 79 

§  56.    Following- up  of  lodes 80 

SEGREGATIONS. 

§57.    What  are  segregations? •...    ..'.  81 

§  58.     Recumbent,  and  vertical,  segregations    .....     „    .     .,  .     .  „ 

§  59.     Particular  kinds  of  segregations 84 

§  60.    Occurrences  of  segregations  .     •     .    > 85 

§  61.    Distribution  of  the  ores  in  the  segregations 86 

§  62.    Search  for  and  following-up  of  segregations 87 

IMPREGNATIONS. 

§  63.     What  is  unde  stood  by,  or  comprised  in  impregnations  V  .87 

§  64.     Occurrence  of  impregnations 88 

§  65.    Modes  of  occurrence  of  ores  in  impregnations    .    .     .     ."  V  ,     .  „ 


IX 

Page 

§66.    Distribution  of  impregnations  .    ..^^  ;    ^^^ /w  ^  ;,^;r    .  .  89 

§  67.     Origin  and  age  of  impregnations       ....    i;  ;;'*:.:•*/>*:'•',-  -•  •  9° 

§  68.    Search  for  and  following-up  of  impregnations    .  :.  >  -^  .^  ^  .  92 

ORE-DISTRICTS. 

§69.    What  are  ore-districts?    .    *   .^.  V^  ^,i>>,v.,  ^   ...  */,; ..   ,    .  .  93 


SPECIAL    PART. 


A  COLLECTION   OF  EXAMPLES. 

§70.  Summary    .  --. •>,;._>,  '."J-Z-^ -.    •    -    .    •:' ':^"->  ^ 'VJV' ;il;*/  *\    .  95 

GERMANY. 

I.     THE   ERZGEBIRGE. 

§  71.  Geological  formation • 96 

§  72.  Ore-deposits  of  the  Erzgebirge  in  general 97 

§73.  Ore-district  of  Freiberg ,. ... V,A»-. .  «  ^t^l^V" -•"•  98 

§  74.  Ore-district  of  Altenberg      ....  ;.  *-'.,,-»- 105 

§  75.  Altenberg  tin  stockwerk 106 

§  76.  Tin-deposits  of  Zinnwald 109 

§  77.  Tin-deposits  of  Graupen,  and  Poebel ill 

§  78.  Hematite  deposits  of  the  Altenberg  district  .    ,-  ..   ^   >  "X    •    •  •» 

§  79.  Ore-district  of  Berggiesshiibel       :,    >.    ..    .    %  112 

§  80.  Ore-districts  of  Katharinenberg  and  Saida     .    .    .    >-.^-V.   •     •  113 

§81.  Marienberg ^  ^   -^  ?^i,:    v^.^^.v   •    -114 

§  82.  Ehrenfriedersdorf  and  Geyer   .    ,:  .    .    .    -./  '!   .r>,«iv  v.-.   •    •  115 

§83.  Annaberg  district    .     ./,.    .     .  ^  . .- .  . .' 118 

§  84.  Joachimsthal  district    .;./...  -1    .    4:.<    -i?.v  r«, '----uv^    '  119 

§  85.  Ore-district  of  Schwarzenberg      120 

§  86.  District  of  Johanngeorgenstadt  and  Eibenstock 123 

§87.  Schneeberg  district      .    .    ..,.'.,.    .;\    ,^  .    >t  ,  ,v   ..-/.".  126 

§88.  Bleistadt v  -^..^^, ''•* :< '-.v ...:'-:, ;.  130 

n.     THE    FICHTELGEBIRGE. 

§89.  Geological  formation ^  ,i-f  *.- -. -.  -v "  .    1    .  131 

§90.  Lodes  in  the  Voigtland  slates ^  ;    .:.'.>..  132 

§  91.  Iron-deposits  in  the  south-eastern  schist-region 134 

§  92.  Gold  and  antimony  ore-deposits  at  Goldkronach 135 


X 

III.     THE    THURINGIAN    FOREST. 

Fage 

§  93.  Geological  formation 136 

§  94.  Ore-deposits  in  the  eastern  Silurian  formation  of  the  Thuringian 

forest '•  .  .  ?•• 137 

§  95.  Magnetite  deposits  of  the  Northwestern  Thuringian  forest  .  .  138 
§  96.  Manganese  and  iron-lodes  in  the  porphyries  of  the  Thuringian 

forest .>'",. r •  •  •  139 

§  97.  Argentiferous  ore-deposits  in  the  Carboniferous  formation  .  140 

§  98.  Iron-deposits  in  the  sechstein -formation  V  V  -""  •.•'*•*•  ''  '  '  142 

IV.     THE    HARTZ. 

§    99.  General  geological  formation 145 

§  100.  Iron-ore-deposits    .    ../.,.";* 147 

§  101.  Manganese  deposits    .    .>. 148 

§  102.  Antimony  lodes 149 

§  103.  Lead  and  silver-lodes.    A.  Harzgerode  and  Neudorf    ....  „ 

§  104.  B.  Andreasberg  district .  150 

§  105.  C.  District  of  Clausthal 153 

§  106.  General  remarks  on  the  Clausthal  lodes      .         157 

§  107.  Rammelsberg  near  Goslar ...  158 

§  108.  Lautersberg  district 164 

§  109.  Copper-slates  in  the  Hartz,  Thuringia,  and  Hesse 165 

V.     THE    RHINE. 

§  110.  Geological  formation .173 

§  111.  Iron-ores  in  the  Carboniferous  formation 1?5 

§  112.  Iron-deposits  in  the  Devonian 

§  113.  Iron-ores  in  the  Hundsriick    .    -.   -.    t.)V1  179 

§  114.  Manganese  deposits 

§  115.  Zinc-  and  lead-deposits 

§  116.  Copper,  lead,  silver,  nickel,  and  cobalt-lodes   .     . 

§  117.  Holzappel  group 

§  118.  Rheinbreitenbach  .^:    .1--.  •>    ....  ...     191 

§119.  Agger  valley     ,  -.-^ '..    .    ,    . 192 

§  120.  Dillenburg     .    .    ;-.:.%/..    .    . 

§  121.  Antimony  ore-deposits 

§  122.  Lead-ore-deposit  near  Commern      •     •     196 

§  123.  Gold-deposits 197 

VI.    THE   PALATINATE. 

§  124.    Quicksilver-deposits .200 

VII.     THE    BLACK    FOREST. 

§  125.    Geological  formation       

§  126.    Lodes  in  the  Kinzig  valley 204 


XI 

Tage 

§  127.    Lodes  in  the  southerly  portion  of  the  Black  Forest    ....  207 

§  128.     Pisolithic  iron-deposit  at  Eanderii  .    ';    f  .-/-   .    .    >.  -."." -~\ '  . ; .-  \  208 

§  129.    Smithsonite  deposits  at  Wiesloch  in  Baden     ....    :'   v.   v  211 

§  130.    Gold-deposits  in  the  Rhine  valley  .    .'/".',;'.,  -..   V,  V  ,. -.    .  212 

VIII.  THE    SUABIAN    AND    FRANCONIAN    JURA. 

§  131.    Geological  formation  ^^^^  ^^"^v'' ^C:  v)^  'f^." :.;    •     •  214 

§132.    Iron-deposits      .    .    . '  ,^'\'l\"^ ''*''v'-*V1?:^ -. '^T •'.;.  ;•.-.-';;,  .    .  216 

IX.  THE    BOHEMIAN    FOREST,    AND    BOHEMIA. 

§133.    Geological  formation       .    .    .    /  ^  .,.^f  J?.  .^^:.  ;l-,1.^>^^  ' .  217 

§  134.    Bodenmais    y'  •< V    ....    .  ...  '"'•*".,,  »r* ''-\-\  •"**  •    •    •    •  218 

§135.    Erbendorf r'^  ^  \    .    '.  .  .V^.],-,    • .  .    .  220 

§  136.    Schlackenwald  near  Carlsbad     .  •  ;-„'...     .     .    .    t/.^3^.-  -v  221 

§137.    Przibram     .,  .'^ ;. .  ^-  .'  ' -.\ ,  '>- " .- •'.  . ,\:. - ; ...   .  '. -;'.,' ^^ •.  l.  222 

§  138.    Mies      .     .     .    v--.     .     .     .     .    ^^Sf    •     •     •     .  '   .    T  t.     .     .  224 

§139.     Horzowitz     *-viVs,»   ^-,.f .:-    ,^-.x  * ,  ^     ?p>    .     -^V  .     •     .     .  225 

§140.    Magnetite  in  the  lordship  of  Radnitz  .     .    .    ..; /;"•«-;.   ..    -  „ 

§  141.    Adamstadt  and  Rudolstadt  in  southern  Bohemia,   northeasterly 

of  Budweis ~..^;'H--ii    .  226 

§  142.    Kuttenberg   %v>    .     ....  ^^^^^-/•v,^  4V^t- i  227 

§  143.    Copper-ores  in  the  rothliegendes  near  Boehmischbrod      .    .     .  228 

X.     THE    RIESENGEBIRGE. 

§144.    Geological  formation  7,    7  "...  .  "^  ^ ";._...  ••>.-• 230 

§  145.     Copper-ores  in  the  rothliegendes  of  northern  Bohemia,  and  in 

the  crystalline  schists  at  Rochlitz  .    .    .,  J 281 

§  146.    Kupferberg  in  Silesia    .    .^.''."^:'-^\^'.^'^^.^:^\—J'^^ 

§147.    Eisenkoppe  near  Altenberg    .    V  '  .  T.-^rS^/' .    ,  ,T  ^^  . '\    '.  238 

§  148.    Voigtsdorf-Querbach .    .    .    .    _v>  '\'^.J  .' ^  v".  -."v    .    .    .  „ 

§  149.    Iron-ore-deposits  near  Schmiedeberg '£* ;'  '-•?  '  •    >  239 

§150.    Gablau,  westerly  of  Waldenburg     .    .    .iC.    /;...;;    .    »  241 

§151.    Zuckmantel !*•'/"-•    .,:V  -,\  -s  -  .-'   .    .  242 

XI.     ELEVATED    PLATEAU    OF    UPPER    SILESIA. 

§152.    Geological  formation "V; ;'x-''.ii  ,'i?- '. '^r-^  -.  243 

§  153.    Clay-ironstone  of  the  Carboniferous  formation 244 

§  154.    Clay-ironstone  of  the  Keuper  formation  .    ..  '\  :. 245 

§  155.    Smithsonite,  galena,  and  limonite-deposits  in  the  muschelkalk- 

formation 247 

XII.     THE    NORTH    GERMAN    PLAINS. 

§  156.    Geological  formation 255 

§  157.     Cottbus  256 


XII 

THE  CARPATHIAN  COUNTRIES. 

XIII.     THE  NORTHERN  CARPATHIANS. 

Page 

§  158.    Geological  formation      . 257 

§  159.    Ironstone-beds  in  Carpathian  sandstone 258 

§  160.     Copper-ore-beds  near  Poschorita,  and  Domokos 261 

§  161.    Lead-  and  silver-ore-deposits  at  Kirlibaba '  .    .    .  263 

§  162.    Veins  of  auriferous  pyrites  at  Borsa  .    ,    .. 265 

XIV.     TRANSYLVANIA. 

§  163.    Geological  formation      .    .    ...".. .  -v.-SV'  .%  N    .  "  .    ..    .  267 

§  164.    Sinka  near  Kronstadt     .     .    .  \;    .'•/.    V 268 

§165.    Western  Transylvania    .     .    ,    I    .  ;  .    .V ,  - 270 

§166.    Vorospatak   .    ;--,:'..  '•"..">''•  V  "•. '  M\.  -?  • 271 

§167.     Offenbanya    .     ."    ,v  .;    .""-Y_     .     .     . 277 

§168.    Nagyag     .     .   y vi-v;."'.«  '-V, 28° 

XV.     THE    BANAT,    AND    SERVIA. 

§  169.    Geological  formation 284 

§170.    Lunkany  *.•-•••"•' •*;,:,  frV. -'   .  "Y  .'y  ,  • .  .  v 285 

§171.    The  Banat  ore-segregations   .    .    -.-;,..: 286 

XVI.     HUNGARY. 

§  172.    Geological  formation .    v-' .    .  ;  ;'*--<-    .  294 

§  173.     Schemnitz      .  -7    i    i(  ,     ;  ,.    .    /,.    ..  .     ....   ^  '..  ^ .  .     .  295 

§174.    Kremnitz       .    .   '..^ -;;'.^^ /.' -'.,'V-  -•'"' '•"   ^ ''• '  '•  '*  ?  ^ '•''•    -  2" 
§  175.    Herrengrund    -'.''   *>f\^.  '.  ^..^    ^    .  \*    -    -    '  >  '  •    !-  V  "'^^^ 

§176.     Magurka  .     .  '.  •-•-.     .     .  v  ,  :\    . . -;v.  ^  .\  U './ '.  ^ ' '• 300 

§  177.    Dobschau      .  -f^-'l    *:;  .  >  ;'> ; 301 

§  178.     Schmollnitz 303 

§  179.    Nagybanya,  Felsobanya,  Kapnik,  and  Olalaposbanya    ....  304 

XVII.    THE  ALPS. 

§180.     Geological  formation      v-.iV\rij    f, -:* •  ;f .  >^.» > v ';•  -^  •    5    •  309 

§181.    Gold-deposits  of  the  Alps  .     ': ""'.  / 'v* '^ "; '"  '^.' ": " '/'? ''.    '.    -  310 

§  182.     Gold- veins  in  the  Salzburg  Tauern  chain 313 

§  183.     Gold-deposits  on  the  Heinzen  Mountain 317 

§  184.    Gold-veins  on  the  Callajida  in  Graubiinden 318 

§  185.    Gold-veins  of  La  Gardette 319 

§  186.    Copper-  and  lead-deposits  at  Klausen  in  the  Tyrol      ....  320 

§187.     Copper-deposit  at  Agordo  .    -..,  .^  ..  :.  -.     .\.    v  ,.    /  ^r  ,     .  323 
§  188.     Silver-  and  copper-deposits  in  Alpine  limestone   at  Brixlegg  in 

the  Tyrol /  .  "".  \     ."';     !'^.     .v  X     ....  327 

§  189.     Silver-   and  copper-deposits  in  Alpine  limestone  at  Schwatz  in 

~lt-    the  Tyrol ..>'. .A "  4M<;VV;  .  328 


XIII 

Page 

§  190.     Silver-deposits  of  Chalanches  near  Allemont,  Dept   of  Isere     .  328 

§  191.    Lead-  and  zinc-deposits  of  Carinthia       .    *    .^ -^;r  :  v  :  .;   .     .  329 
§  192.     Cobalt-  and  nickel-deposits,    at  Schladming  in  Styria,    on  the 
Nockel  Mountain  in  the  Leogang  valley,  and  in  the  Val  d'An- 

niviers  in  the  Canton  of  Valais       ...     ;    ?    •  V  '".!  -"~.-^>'   ..  .  341 

§  193.     Quicksilver-deposits  of  Idria  in  Carniola     .     .  . ....    .  -.   "    .     .  342 

§  194.     Iron-deposits  in  the  crystalline  schists  of  the  Eastern  Alps     .  344 

§  195.    Iron-deposits  of  the  Lower  Palaeozoic  in  the  Eastern  Alps  .    .  ,. 

ITALY. 

§  196.     Preliminary  remarks      "  "  *"  '^r%.;.^..  »    *-~\^u.  ••*•*'•  :'^' •'•'•'    *  S47 

XVIIL     MOUNTAINS    OF    MO'DENA    AND    TUSCANY. 

§  197.     Cinnabar-deposits  at  Ripa  in  Modena      .   V  .  _^   .  >.;-T^  .     .  347 

§  198.    Lead-  and  copper-ores  in  the  Apuanian  Alps  .     .     .    V    .     .     .  348 

§  199.     Copper-ores  in  the  serpentine  of  Modena    .    ,    ..! 349 

§200.    Copper-  and  lead-deposits  of  Tuscany     .     .    .    .    >lfcj*Hf>:.  .    .  350 

XIX.     THE    ISLAND    OF    ELBA. 

§201.    Cape  Calamita,  and  Rio     r./.-."  \-^  ./  ^  * •.•& ,'."  .•./>''  •*,  •    .  354 

FRANCE. 

§202.    General  remarks    ....  :.~.:i':r'j^*<^.r>i±-:Z.'^.:>i.^.^  357 

XX.     IRON-DEPOSITS   OF   FRANCE. 

§  203.    Oolithic  ores,  and  iron-deposits  in  the  Jurassic  group     >    .     .358 

§  204.    Oolithic  deposits  in  the  Swiss  and  French  Jura      .     ....  359 

§  205.    Iron-deposits  near  Thionville 360 

§  206.    Tertiary  iron-ores  in  the  Dept.  of  the  Lot      .    .  .  r  .;   .  T_.  362 

XXI.     CENTRAL   DISTRICT   OF   FRANCE. 

§207.    General  remarks    .    .    .    './  .-'I*'.  **.'  •'.-.-  %:  .  -  :-  .^^.-^ ,-.  363 

§  208.    Lead-lodes  of  the  Forez     .. :^  7    .  '.    ^    ."  .;^/N?:^>    .  369 

§209.    Ore-deposits  in  the  Aveyron-district    .     .    .'-.-  .     ?  ..^.     .     .  370 

§  210.    Lodes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pont-Gibaud  near  Clermont  .    .  375 

§  211.    Manganese-deposits  of  Romaneche  in  the  Dept.  of  Saone-et-Loire  376 

§  212.    Copper-deposits  at  Chessy  near  Lyon     .   -;-.,.  ^..   ?_ y-&-tfjr  :i  377 

XXII.     BRITTANY. 

§213.    Geological  formation .  ^.    .    -.  380 

§  214.    Tin-deposits       381 

§  215.    Lodes  of  Poullaouen  and  Huelgoat 383 


XIV 
XXIII.     THE    PYRENEES. 

Page 

§216.     Geological  formation      .     .    *•' 1    ./«-...,?.•-    A    *'.'/    •  385 

§  217.    Manganese-deposits  in  the.Dept.  of  Hautes-Pyrenees       .    .    .  386 

§  218.     Culera  in  Catalonia    .     .     .  \    .    .    f  .     .   '.    \ -  V   /  • '.'.;.     •  387 

XXIV.    SPAIN. 

'--/;/  "It.  s  A.  •'••> '::*'-  lit'Vs     *'•     -V-   <  '"  ">^'~   ^  -'•-'•        •ifC'' 

§219.    General  summary -:v^^^  '•    "•;^^  389 

§  220.     Calamine -deposits  in  the  province  of  Sant-Ander     .  , .-'.I,  "    -  390 

§  221.    Lodes  of  Hiendelencia  in  the  province  of  Guadalajara     ...  391 

§  222.    Lodes  in  the  Sierra  de  Carthagena    .     .    .    -.-•.*'  .,-.;•..  >   ,     .  392 

§  223.    Lodes  in  the  Sierra  Almagrera  ....  ~;*y:^/^';:f';£  1  'i  393 

§  224.    Lead-lodes  near  Linares,  in  Andalusia .•  ,'    '     •  396 

§  225.     Copper-deposits  in  the  province  of  Huelva,  in  Andalusia      .     .  397 

§  226.    Quicksilver-deposits  at  Almaden  in  Estremadura      .    .   -^  .    .  399 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

§227.     Summary ..  •' V:  ^ :'rc-',  1'.^;. : ''VWV    •  401 

XXV.     CORNWALL. 

§  228.    Geological  formation .v;^^r^i     .  402 

§  229.     Summary  of  the  ore-deposits  in  Cornwall 406 

§230.    Lodes  of  Cornwall -£''.* -'.;"-.'.-'.•   .-'^': "/  .  .  fev    .  408 

§  231.    Distribution  of  ores  in  Cornwall 417 

§232.     Stream-works  of  Cornwall ;,  v  ^  ,-».-^r .-..* ,t>'    •  420 

§  233.    Theoretical  remarks  on  the  Cornwall  ore-district     .    .   '-.;•   .    .  422 

XXVI.     WALES. 

§234.    Lodes  of  ^Cardiganshire      .  ",  '^'-+  ">". ^,  ^^.  '^:- .'jt'.    •     •  427 

XXVII.  DERBYSHIRE. 

§  23tf>;    Geological  formation      /;='-.  ;"•'."  ;V    .-". '."  .     .     .     .     .!''.".     .  430 

§236.    Lead-deposits    .  ,.>/  V7'^ -  r.^^3V->-'^i;i^&j^;'- '''>7  •/.-;•'    '•'•••  431 

XXVIII.  CUMBERLAND. 

§237.     Lead-deposits ;^:>  ^^'>,^^-:-;^^s  J;    .  434 

XXIX.     IRELAND. 

§  238.     Wicklow ^ i^^Z-^?  y^^^:'^^     •  436 

SCANDINAVIA. 

XXX.     NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN. 

§239.     General  remarks ;.    r^  >»;:  ;;  V  •  438 

§  240.     Contact-deposits  in  the  neighborhood  of  Christiania     ....  440 


XV 

Page 

§241.  Kongsberg "  ".  K    -. X .•'/. >  '•>  'Jvr. '.'. .'    . ./«:•  /    »  442 

§  242.  Fallbands  of  cobalt-ore  at  Skutterud  and  Snarum  j..:  •*;*>>/.    .  445 

§243.  Magnetite-deposits  of  Arendal    .  ...<^..-"': .j\-~~ *,'  .-''  *'/•••••?*.    •    •  447 

§  244.  Copper-deposits  of  Roraas  in  Norway      .    J&f"  •"*  ^l ' ....  450 

§  245.  Copper-deposits  of  Eaafjord  and  Raipas  in  Norway      ....  451 

§246.  Copper-deposits  at  Falun  (Sweden)   V   -"-^    •    •'  ^    •    •    •  452 

§247.  Sala  (Sweden) /    .^  ;.-<%.' V'i.    .    .     •     '  454 

§  248.  Deposits  around 'Philipstad  (Sweden)       .    .    .*X?<,;;i  .*    .    .  456 

§  249.  Magnetite-deposits  at  Dannemora  (Sweden)     .                       .    .  459 

§250.  Ore-deposits  of  Tunaberg  (Sweden)     .    .•.>;>'- '  V :      ....  460 

§  251.  Lake-  and  bog-ores  of  Sweden  .    .    .     .    .    .     .    ."    .    :    .    .  461 

§  252.  Deposits  of  Pittkaranda  (Finland)  .    .    .  ','    .  "..  \  ~  .    .         .462 

THE  URAL  MOUNTAINS. 

§253.  Geological  formation      ^-Vp^^-i- >'-'•    '..   .:.    .-..;-  463 

§  254.  Copper-deposits  of  Gumeschewskoy     .x/%.  i-:-^'-  /-^-'WY -• -  '  ,  465 

§  255.  Copper-deposits  of  Bogoslowsk  .  ;. '.  V   ^••'*  >  ,          ....  466 

§  256.  Copper-deposits  of  the  Permian  formation  »  > .".                   •     •  467 

§  257.  Deposits  of  gold  and  platinum  in  the  Urals    . 'V  V1   ....  470 

§258.  Gold-deposits  at  Beresof    .     .    v  •*-'. VvV£ "/';-^  ••'  •  \  "•    •    •  472 

§259.  Other  gold-j)lacers  in  the  Urals      .  ,:v^. ••^•v  V»  *^*H'*\  •    •  474 

THEOEETICAL  RETROSPECTS. 

§260.  Summary  .   '^.^, .. .:-  .'  :.c  -T .' . .:;:.  :'•'<  .^.^  .  .'•'.'•   ^' >   '.^-  "*:•>•-.,.  475 

§  261.  Diversities,  differences,  and  grouping  of  ore-deposits    .  /.',>..  479 

§  262.  Tin-formation 481 

§  263.  Freiberg  older  silver-lodes 486 

§  264.  Barytic  lead-formation ,  *:  ^   '    ;    ;'  :     '  487 

§  265.  Veins  of  ironstone     .  A'V/  T  .y  .^'.c'  .    ., ''-'. ;  "7   *-   -' '  •- >  '' v '' '.  490 

§  266.  Metalliferous  greenstones  in  the  neighborhood  of  Schwarzenberg  491 

§  267.  Telluric  and  auriferous  lodes  of  Transylvania 493 

§  268.  Silver-lodes  of  Andreasberg  in  the  Hartz    .    .     .  _./.>-:^..^r  494 

§269.  Segregations  of  pyrites  .     .     .;  V^^:^: ;.;.,..    ......   Vr  .  495 

§  270.  Lead-  and  zinc- deposits  in  limestone  and  dolomite.     . ."%'.  "V  -»  496 

§271.  Fallbands .,.;.,;.-.  500 

§  272.  Impregnations  of  copper-ores  in  mechanical  sediments      .  -      •  5°1 

§  273.  Deposits  of  spathic  iron     .  .^.-V  .*-.'-.-".>.'...-*    i    >••  502 

§274.  Distribution  of  ore-deposits    .     .- -1  ^.v.;  r    v;  .. .  .^v  1.,  : .    \  -.  509 

§  275.  Relations  of  the  rocks  to  the  ore-deposits  .    ',    .  -.    .^^,.-    -  516 

§276.  Distribution  of  the  ores  in  the  deposits  .:/.    './V,.    ".     .     .  522 

§  277.  Conditions  of  age  of  the  ore-deposits      .  jsj  -:'r-'/ : '. • '  ',' '     "~i ••-.  526 

§278.  Age  of  metals V/>^..'  534 

§  279.  Manner  of  formation  of  the  ore-deposits     .     * :^  's^-,.V    i,    -v  •  546 

§  280.  Determination  of  the  value  of  the  ore-deposits    .    ,    .    :,   .     .  552 


GENERAL  PART, 

ORES  AND  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS. 

§  1.  Under  the  general  term  ores  are  comprehended  all 
minerals  and  mineral  aggregates,  which  from  their  metallic  con- 
tents attract  the  attention  of  the  miner.  Metalliferous  de- 
posits are  therefore  for  us  all  local  accumulations  of  minerals  or 
mineral  aggregates,  which  correspond  to  this  demand. 

The  idea  of  the  terms  ores  and  metalliferous  deposits, 
in  mining  parlance,  cannot  be  well  expressed  in  a  more  precise 
or  scientific  manner.  There  is  not  any  particular  class  "of 
minerals,  or  of  rocks,  corresponding  to  these  terms.  To  them 
belong  native  metals,  metallic  oxides,  metallic  sulphides,  and 
even  metallic  salts  and  their  combinations;  but  on  the  other 
hand  not  all  metalliferous  species  of  the  Mineral  Kingdom, 
because  many  of  these  cannot,  either  from  their  nature,  or  the 
too  small  percentage  of  a  metal  they  contain,  proportionally  to 
its  worth,  be  worked  with  profit.  No  rock,  for  example,  contain- 
ing 5  per  cent  of  oxide  of  iron  can  be  considered  as  an  ore ; 
while  on  the  other  hand  a  vein  of  quartz,  with  but  1  per  cent  of 
gold,  would  be  regarded  as  a  very  rich  and  valuable  metallic 
deposit;  so  relative  is  the  idea. 

It  is  even  possible,  and  has  already  occurred,  that  a  mineral, 
which  for  a  long  time  was  useless  to  the  miner,  and  on  this 
account  was  not  considered  as  an  ore,  has,  by  means  of  new 
discoveries,  been  included  in  the  category  of  ores.  Blende,  for 
example,  when  it  did  not  contain  valuable  metals,  could  hardly 
have  been  considered  formerly  as  an  ore,  though  commonly  defi- 
ned as  such;  but  since  a  method  has  been  discovered  of  extract- 
ing Zinc  from  it  with  profit,  it  may  be  ranked  without  doubt 
among  the  ores.  Far  more  striking  are  the  cases  of  Clay  and 

1 


2  COMPOSITION  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS. 

Cryolith  from  which  Aluminum  is  produced;  for  these  minerals, 
which  formerly  no  one  would  have  considered  as  such,  belong 
now,  when  strictly  defined,  to  the  category  of  ores. 

The  expression  t  met  a  Hi  feroujs  deposit'  defines,  as  before 
mentioned,  the  local  accumulation  of  any  sorts  of  ores  in  any 
form.  I  divide  all  metalliferous  deposits,  according  to  their  forms, 
into  Regular  and  Irregular.  The  first  are  agaija  divided  into 
Beds  and  Veins:  the  last,  into  Segregations  and  Impregnations. 
These  forms  are  general:  that  is,  they  are  repeated  with  many 
modifications  in  very  many  localities  of  the  Earth,  and  all  known 
occurrences  of  ores  can  be  classified  under  them. 

These  separate  forms  of  metalliferous  deposits  are  sometimes 
so  typical,  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  peculiar  charac- 
ter; sometimes,  however,  undefined;  and  the  forms  passing,  to  a 
certain  degree,  into  one  another;  so  that  it  is  by  no  means 
always  easy  to  determine,  to  which  class  they  belong;  while  these 
changes  again  have  many  modifications,  which  will  be  more 
specially  treated  of  hereafter.  I  propose  first  to  consider  the 
Nature  and  Grouping  of  the  ores,  without  noticing  the  particular 
form  of  the  deposits  in  which  they  occur. 

COMPOSITION  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS. 

§  2.  The  metalliferous  deposits,  like  the  rocks,  consist  of 
minerals ;  only  their  composition  is  a  much  more  complicated  one, 
a  much  larger  number  of  minerals  taking  an  essential  share  in 
them,  and  being  often  much  more  irregularly  distributed. 

Some  of  these  minerals  are  especially  rich  iri  metals:  these 
are  the  ores;  the  rest  of  them  form  the  'gang'  or  Vein-stone'. 
The  ores,  as  well  as  the  'gang',  consist  frequently  of  other 
minerals,  besides  those  which  generally  compose  the  widely  ex- 
tended rocks. 

Many  metalliferous  deposits,  like  many  of  the  rocks,  consist 
essentially  of  only  one  ore;  for  example,  Spathic  Iron,  Magnet- 
ite, Hematite,  Limonite,  and  the  like :  others,  on  the  contrary,  in 
fact  the  greater  part,  consist  of  two  or  more  ores  combined  with 
one  another  and  with  different  kinds  of  gang;  for  example,  argenti- 
ferous Galena,  Blende,  Copper  Pyrites,  Mispickel,  Quartz,  Heavy 
Spar,  Fluor  Spar,  Calcite,  etc.  The  metalliferous  veins  appear  to  be 
the  most  complicated  in  their  composition,  the  stratified  deposits 
the  most  simple;  the  reverse  is  however  exceptionally  the  case. 


LIST  OF  MINERALS,  AS  ORES.  3 

MINERALS  WHICH 'ESPECIALLY  OCCUR  AS  ORES. 

§  34  The  number  of  minerals  occurring  as  ores  is  very 
large;  of  which  many  are  very  rare,  or  from  other  causes  are, 
up  to  the  present  time,  unimportant  for  practical  purposes.  It  is 
impossible  to  draw  a  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
important,  and  the  unimportant  ones ;  since  the  unimportant  may, 
through  the  progress  of  science,  become  important.  In  the  follow- 
ing list  I  have  included  most  of  the  minerals  that  can  be  con- 
sidered as  ores,  those  which  are  at  present  unimportant  being 
printed  in  smaller  type.  Those  characteristics  being  added,  which 
are  of  the  most  importance  for  the  miner  and  smelter:  viz.  H, 
the  hardness;  G,  the  specific  gravity,  and  the  chemical  compo- 
sition ;  the  last  only  in  approximate  numbers,  which  are  the  result 
of  calculation,  and  are  better  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  this  book, 
than  the  special  results  of  separate  Analyses,  which  can  never 
be  generally  adopted,  and  are  only  of  value  for  the  particular 
case  where  they  occur.  The  most  common  constituents  are 
considered;  small  decimals  being  left  out  and  large  ones  consi- 
dered as  whole  numbers.  The  list  is  arranged  according  to 
Dana's  Mineralogy,  4th  edition.  Besides  the  abbreviations  above- 
mentioned,  monomet.  is  used  for  monometric,  dimet.  for  dimetric, 
trimet.  for  trimetric,  hex.  for  hexagonal,  monoclin.  for  monoclinic, 
triclin.  for  triclinic. 

LIST  OF  MINERALS. 

GOLD.  Monomet.  H=2'5  —3.  G=15— 19.  Generally  alloyed  with 

silver,  frequently  up  to  40  per  cent,  also  with  copper  and  iron. 

PLATINUM.    Monomet.  H=4— 4-5.  G=16— 19.  Nearly  always 

.  alloyed  with  somewhat  of  iron  and  iridium,  more  rarely  with 

rhodium,  palladium  and  osmium,  or  even  with  copper  and  lead. 
Platiniridium.  H=6— 7.  G=16— 23. 
Palladium.  Monomet.  H=4'5— 5.  G=12.  Palladium  alloyed  with 

a  little  platinum  and  iridium. 

Quicksilver.  G=13.  Mercury  with  sometimes  a  little  silver. 
AMALGAM.  Monomet.  H=3  -3-5.  G=10— 14.  Ag  26—35,  Hg 

74-65. 

Arquerite.  Monomet.  H=2— 2'5.  G=10.  Ag  87,  Hg  13. 
Gold  Amalgam.  G=15,  Hg58-61,  Au  38— 42,  Ag  0— 5. 
SILVER.    Monomet.    H=2'5-3.    G=10— 11.   Silver  frequently 

alloyed  with  other  metals. 


4  LIST  OF  ORE-MISEKAL5 

Bismuth  Silver.  Bi27.  Pb337  Agio.  Fe4,  Cu  1 .  S  16. 
COPPER.    Monomet.  H=2-b-3.  G=8.  Pure  copper  often  con- 
taining silver  disseminated  through  it. 
Iridosmine.   Hex.  H=6-7.  G=19<-21.  IT  20— 73,  Os  25— 80, 

firequendy  with  iron. 

Tellurium.  Hex.  H=2 — 2-5.  G=6.  Tellurium  with  gold  and  iron. 
BISMUTH.  Hex.  TT     "     "1   T     7  F      T      nl      'Hi  iMMiiii    1 

traces  of  arsenic. 
Tetradymite.  Hex.  H=l"5 — 2.  G=7 — 8.   Bismuth  and  tellurium 

in  varying  proportions  with  arsenic. 
ANTIMONY.    Hex.    H=3— 3-5.  G=6.  Antimony  containing  at 

times  silver,  iron,  or  arsenic. 
ARSENIC.    Hex.    H=3'5.    G=6.    Arsenic  often  with  traces  of 

other  metals. 

Arsenical  Antimony.  Hex.  H=3«5.  G=6.  As  65,  Sb  35. 
REALGAR.  Monodm.  H=l-5— 2.  G=3.  S  30,  As  70. 
ORPIMENT.  Triniet  H=l-5— 2.  G=3-  S  39,  As  6J. 
Bismuthine.  Trimet.  H=2-25.  G=3.  S  18,  Bi88L 
Stibnite.  Trimet.  H=2.  G=4.  S  27,  Sb  73. 
Discrashe.  Trimet.  H=3*5-^.  G=9.  Sb237  Ag  77. 
Domeykite.  H=3— 3'5.  As^8,  Cu  72. 

SILVER  GLANCE.   Monomet.  H=2-2-5.   G=7.  S  13,  Ag87. 
ERUBESCITE.     Monomet.    H=3.  G— 4— 5.  S  28,  Cu  56,  Fe  16. 
GALENA.  Monomet.  H=2  5-3.  G=7.  S  13,  Pb  87. 
Manganblende.  Monomet.  H=3'5 — 4.  G=4.  S  37.  Abn63. 
Sulphuret  of  Iron  and  Nickel.  Monomet.  H=3'5 — 4.  G=5.  S  37, 

Fe41,  Ni.22. 

Clausthalite.  Monomet.  H=2*5— 3.  G=7— S.  Se28,  Pb  72. 
Kaumannhe.     Monomet  H=2-5.  G=8.  Se  27,  Ag  73. 
Tiemannite.  H=2'5.  G=7.  Se  25.  Hg  " 
Lerbachite.  G=8.  Contains  lead,  mercury  and  selenium. 
Berzelianhe.  Se38,  Cu62. 
Eocairite.  Se  32,  Cu  25,  Ag  43. 
Hessite.  H=2— 3  5.  G=8.  Te  37,  Ag  63. 
Altahe.  Monomet  H=3— 3-5.  G=8.  Te38,  Pb62. 
Grunauite.  Monomet   H=4'5.    G=r      -     _.  Bi  10.  Ni  22,  Fe  6, 

Co  11,  Cu  12,  Pb  7. 
BLENDE.  Monomet  H=3-5— 4.  G=4.  S33,  Zn67,  often  with 

much  iron. 
COPPER  GLANCE.  Trimet  H=2-5-3.  G=5.  S20,  Cu80. 


LIST  OF  ORE-MISERAL8-  5 

Stromeyrite.  Trimet  H=2'5— 3.  G=6.  8  16,  Ag53,  Cu31. 

CINNABAR  Hex.  H=2— 2*5.  G=£.  S  14,  Hg86. 

Millerite.  Hex.  H= 3— 3-5.  Gh=5.  835,  NI65. 

PYRRHOTINE.  Hex.  H=3'5— 4-5.  G=4.  859,  Fe41. 

Greenockite.  Hex.  H=3— 3'5.  G=o.  .<  22,  Cd  78. 

Onoirite.  H=2-5.  G=7.  Se25,  Hg  75. 

COPPER  NICKEL.  Hex.  H=5— 55.  G=7.  As  56,  Ni  44. 

Breithauptite.  Hex.  H=5'5.  G=7.  Sb  69,  Ni31. 

IRON  PYRITES.  Monomet.  H=6— 65.  G=5.  S53,  Fe47. 

S3IALTINE.  Monomet.  H=o-5— *5.  G=7.  As  72— 92,  Co  0—28, 

NiO— 28,  FeO— 9. 

CHLOANTHITE.  Monomet.  H=5'5.  G=6   As  72,  Ni  28. 
COBALTINE.  Monomet  H=5'5.  G=6.  8  19,  As  45,  Co  36. 
Gersdorffite.  Monomet.  H=5'5.  G=6.  S  19.  As  45.  Ni  36. 
Ullmannite.  Monomet.  H=5—  5'5. 
MARCASITE.  Trimet.  H=6— 6-5.  G^=4.  S53,  Fe47. 
Leucopyrite.  Trimet.  H=5 — 5'-=>.  G=7.  As  73,  Fe^7. 
MISPICKEL.  Trimet.  H=O-O— 6.  G=6.  As46?  S20,  Fe34. 
Sylvanite.  Trimet.  H=1'5— 2.  G=5— S.  Te56.  An  28,  Ag  16. 
Nagyagite.    Dimet.    H=l— 1-5.   G=7.   S  3—10,  Te  13—32,  Pb 

51-61,  Au6— 9. 

Covelline!  Hex.  H=l«5-2.  G=4.  834,  Cn66. 
MOLYBDENITE.  Hex.  H=l— 1  5.  G=4.  S41?  Mo  59. 
Skutterndite.  Monomet.  H=6.  G=7.  As  79,  Co  21. 
LINNAITE.  Monomet.    H=5-5.  G=5.  842,  Go  58. 
Cuban.  Monomet.  H=4.  G^=4.  836,  Cu23,  Fe4L 
CHALCOPYRITE  (Copper  Pvrites>  Dimet.  H=3-5-4.    G=4. 

8  35,  Cu  35,  Fe  30. 
Birnliardthe    HomichlineX  H=3-5.  G=4.  S30— 35,  Cn43— 4S. 

Fe21— 22. 

Tin  Pyrites.  Dimet.  H=L  G=4.  8  30,  8n  27,  Ca  30,  Fe  13. 
Siernberghe.  Trimet  H=l— 1*5.  G=4.  834,  Ag32,  Fe34. 
Wolfsbeigite.  Trimet  Hf=3— 4.  G=4.  S  25,  Sb  50,  Ca  25. 
Berthierite.  H=2— 3.  G=4.  829,  8b58,  Fe  13. 
Zinkenite.  Trimet  H=3— 3-5.  G=5.  S  22,  Lb  34,  Pb  44. 
Miargyrite.  Monoclin.  H=2— 2-5.  G=o.  821,  Sb43,  Ag36 
Ragionite.  Monoclin.  H=2-5.  G=5.  8  21,  8b  38,  Pb  41 
Jamesonite.  Trimet  H=2— 2*5.  G=5.  S20,  Sb36,  Pb44. 
Heteromorjtoe.  H=l— 3.  G=6.  819,  Sb31.  Pb50. 
Chiviatite.  G=7.  818,  Bi61.  Pb  17,  CuS,  Fe  1. 
Dufrenoysite    Monomet  H=2— 3.  G=5.  830,  As  31,  Cu39. 


6  LIST  OF  ORE-MINERALS. 

Binnite.  Trimet.  H=3.  G=5.  S  22,  As  21,  Pb  57. 

PYRARGYRITE  (Ruby  Silver).  Hex.  H=2— 2-5.  G=6.  S  18, 
Sb  23,  Ag  59.  * 

PROUSTITE  (Ruby  Silver).  Hex.  Ek=2— 2-5.  G=5.  S  20,  As  15? 
Ag  65. 

Freieslebenite.  Monoclin.  H=2— 2'5.  G=6.  S  19,  Sb  27,  Pb  30, 
Ag  24. 

Bournonite.  Trimet.  H=2'5— 3.  G=r6.  S  20,  Sb  25,  Pb  42,  Cu  13. 

BOULANGERITE.  H=2-5-3.  G=6.  S  18,  Sb  24,  Pb  58. 

Aikinite.  Trimet.  H=2  5.  G=6.  S  17,  Bi  36,  Pb  36,  Cu  11. 

Wolchite.  Trimet.  H=3.  G=6.  S  20,  Sb  25,  Pb  42,  Cu  13. 

TETRAHEDRITE.  Monomet.  H=3— 4-5.  G=5.  Contains  sul- 
phur, arsenic,  antimony,  silver,  copper,  iron,  zinc,  and  mer- 
cury, in  most  varying  proportions. 

Tennantite.  Monomet.  H^3'5— 4.'  G=4.  S  28,  As  19,  Cu  49, 
Fe  4. 

Geocronite.  Trimet*  H=2-3.  G=6.  S  16,  Sb.  17,  Pb  67. 

POLYBAS1TE.  Hex.  H=2-3.  G=6.  S  16,  Sb  13,  Ag  71. 

STEPHANITE.  Trimet.  H=2— 2-5.  G=6.  S  16,  Sb  14, 
Ag  70. 

ENARGITE.  Trimet.  H=3.  G=4.  S  33,  As  19,  Cu  48. 

Xanthocone.  Hex.  H=2.  G=5.  S  21,  As  15,  Ag  64. 

Fireblende.  Monoclin.  H=2.  G=4.  Contains  sulphur,  antimony, 
and  silver  up  to  62  per  cent. 

Wittichite.  Trimet  (?).  H=3'5.  Gh=5.  S  19,  Bi  43,  Cu  38. 

Calomel.  Dimet.  H=l^-2.  G=6.  Cl  15,  Hg  85. 

KERARGYRITE  (Horn  Silver).  Monomet.  H=l— 1-5.  G= 5. 
Cl  25,  Ag  75. 

EMBOLITE.  Monomet.  H=l— 1-5.  G=5.  Cl  13,  Br  20,  Ag  67. 

Megabromite.  Monomet.  H=2'5— 3.  G=6.  Cl  9,  Br  27,  Ag  64. 

Mikrobromite.  Monomet.  H=2  5— 3.  G=5.  Cl  18,  Br  12,  Ag  70. 

Bromyrite  (Bromic Silver).  Monomet.  H=l— 2.  G=6..Br43,  Ag57. 

lodyrite  (lodic  Silver).  Hex.  H=l— 1-5:  G^r5.  I  54,  Ag-46. 

Coccinite  (lodic  Mercury).  I  56,  Hg  44.  - 

RED  COPPER.  Monomet.  H=3'5-4.  Gh=6.  Cu  89,  O  11. 

Martite.  Monomet.  H=6.  G=5.  O  30,  Fe  70. 

Iserine.  Monomet.  H=6— 6'5.  G=5.  TiO255,  FeO  29,  FeaO315. 

Irite.   Monomet.  H=?  G=6.  Ir  55,  Os  9,  Fe  11,  Cr  10,  O  15. 

MAGNETITE  (Magnetic  Iron  Ore).  Monomet.  H=5'5-6.  G= 5. 
O  28,  Fe  72. 


LIST  OF  ORE-MINERALS.  7 

FRANKLINITE.  Monomet.  H=5'5— 6'5.  G=5.  0  25,  Fe  45, 
Mn  9,  Zn  21. 

CHROMIC  IRON.  Monomet.  H=5'5— 6.  G=4.  Cr2O3  55,  AL,O3  6; 
Fe2O312,  FeO  18,  MgO  9. 

PITCH  BLENDE.  Monomet.  H=5'5.  G=6— 8.  O  15,  U  85. 

Melaconite.  H=3.  G=6.  O  20,  Cu  80.. 

Plumbic  Ochre.  G=8.  O  7,  Pb  93. 

ZINCITE.  Hex.  H=4-4'5.  G=5.  O  20,  Zn  80. 

HEMATITE  (Specular  Iron).  Hex.  H=5'5— 6'5.  G=5.  O30,  Fe70. 

ILMENITE.  Hex.  H=5— 6.  G=5.  TiO2  45,  Fe2O3  15,  FeO  40. 

Braunite.  Dimet.  H=6-6'5.  G=5.  O  30,  Mn  70. 

Hausmannite.  Dimet.  H=5 — 5'5.  G=5.  O  28,  Mn  72. 

CASS1TERITE  (Tin  Ore).  Dimet.  H=6— 7.  G=7.  O  22,  Sn  78. 

PYROLUSITE.  Trimet.  H=2— 2-5.  G=5.  O  37,  Mn  63. 

Minium,  G=4.  O  9,  Pb  91. 

Crednerite.  Monoclin.  H=4'5.  G=5.  O  26,  Mn  39,  Cu  35. 

Voltzite.  H=4-5.  G=3.  ZnS  83,  ZnO  17. 

Matlockite.  Dimet.  H=2-5— 3.  G=7.  Cl  14,  Pb  83,  O  3. 

Mendipite.  Trimet.  H=2'5— 3.  G=7.  Cl  10,  Pb  86,  O  4. 

Gothite.  Trimet.  H=5— 5'5.  G=4.  Fe2O3  90,  HO  10. 

Manganite.  Trimet.  H=4.  G=4.  Mn2O3  89,  HO  11. 

Polianite.  Trimet.  H=6  5—  7.  G=5.  MnO.2. 

LB1ONITE  (Brown  Hematite).  H=5— 5'5.  G=4.  Fe203  86, 
HO  14. 

PSILO^IELANE.  H=5— 6.  G=4.  Consists  of  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese and  water  with  varying  quantities  of  alkaline  earths. 

WAD.  H=0*5— 6.  G=3.  Essentially  the  same  as  the  last. 

ATACAMITE.  Trimet.  H=3— 3-5.  G=4.  Cl  16,  Cu  15,  CuO  56, 
HO  13. 

Sercarmontite.  Monomet.  H— 2— 2'5.  G=5.  Sb  84,  O  16. 

Valentinite.  Trimet.  H=2'5— 3.  G=5.  Sb  84,  O  16. 

Bismuth  Ochre.  G=4.  O  10,  Bi  90. 

Kermesite  (Red  Antimony).  Monoclin.  H=l— 1-5.  G=4.  S  20, 
O  5,  Sb  75. 

Cervantite.  G=4.  O  20,  Sb  80. 

Ammiolite.  Is  an  antimonite  of  mercury. 

Molybdine.  O  34,  Mo  66. 

Eulytine.  Monomet.  H=4'5.  G=6.  Silicate  of  bismuth. 

Willemite.  Hex.  H=5«5.  G=4.  SiO3  27,  ZnO  73. 

Dioptase.  Hex.  H=5.  G=3.  SiO3  39,  CuO  50,  HO  11. 

CHRYSOCOLLA.   H— 2-3.   G=2.  SiO3  35,  CuO  45,  HO  20. 


8  LIST  OF  ORE-MINERALS. 

CALAMINE.  Trimet.  H=4'5— 5.  G=3.  Si03  25,  ZnO  67,  HO  8. 
Scheeletine    (Tungstate    of  Lead).     Dimet.     H=2'5— 3.     G=8. 

W03  51,  PbO  49. 
Wulfenite  (Molybdate  of  Lead).  Dime!  H=2'5— 3.  G=6.  Mo03  39, 

PbO  61. 
WOLFRAM.     Trimet.     H=5— 5-5.    Gh=7.    W03  76,  MnO  15, 

FeO  9. 

Crocoisite.  Monoclin.  H=2'5-3.  G=6.  CrO3  31,  PbO  69. 
Vauquelinite.    Monoclin.    H=2'5— 3.    Gh=5.    CrO3  28,  PbO  61 

CuO  11. 

Melanochroite.  Trimet.  H=3— 3-5.  G=6.  Cr03  23,  PbO  77. 
Dechenite.  H=4.  G=6.  V03  45,  PbO  55. 
Descloizite.  Trimet.  H=3'5.  G=6.  V03  29,  PbO  71. 
Vanadinite.  Hex.  H=2'5— 3.  G=7.  Cl  2,  VO3  20,  PbO  71,  Pb  7. 
Volborthite.  Hex.  H=3.  G=3.  VO3  37,  CuO  58,  HO  5. 
ANGLESITE.  Trimet.  H— 2  5-3.  G=6.  S03  26,  PbO  74. 
Leadhillite.   Trimet.  H=2'5.  G=6.  PbO,  S03  27,  PbO,  C02  73. 
Caledonite.  Trimet.  H=2'5— 3.  G=6.  PbO,  S03  56,  PbO,  C02  33, 

CuO,  C02  11. 

Susannite.  Hex.  H=2'5.  G=6.  PbO,  SO3  27,  PbO,  C02  73. 
Lanarkite.     Monoclin.     H=2— 2-5.    G=7.    PbO,  S03  53,  PbOr 

CO  47. 
Cyanosite  (Sulphate  of  Copper).  Triclin.  H=2— 2-5.  G=2.  S03  32, 

CuO  32,  HO  36. 
Voltaite.    Monomet.    A  sulphate  of  the    protoxide  and  peroxide 

of  iron. 

Goslarite.   Trimet.   H=2— 2-5.  G=2.  SO3  28,  ZnO  28,  HO  44. 
COPPERAS  (Sulphate  of  Iron).  Monoclin.  H=2.  G=2.  S03  29, 

FeO  26,  HO  45. 

Bieberite  (Cobalt  Vitriol).   Monoclin.   SO3  28,  CoO  26,  HO  46. 
Botryogen.   Monoclin.  H=2 — 2 '5.  G=2»  Is  a  hydrated  sulphate 

of  iron,  magnesia,  and  lime. 
Copiopite.  Is  a  sulphate  of  iron. 
Coquimbite.    Hex.   H=2 — 2'5.   G=2.    Is  a  hydrated  sulphate  of 

the  peroxide  of  iron. 
Jarosite.   Hex.  H=3 — 4.    G=3.  Is  a  hydrated  sulphate  of  potash 

and  the  peroxide  of  iron. 
Linarite.    Monoclin.    H=2'5-3.    G=5.    PbO;S03  76,  CuO  20, 

HO  4. 

Brochantite  Trimet.  H=3'5-4.  G=4.  S03  18,  CuO  70,  HO  12. 
Lettsomite.  Is  a  hydrated  sulphate  of  copper,  alumina,  and  iron. 


LIST  OF  ORE-MINERALS.  9 

PYROMORPHITE.     Hex.    H=3«5— 4.     G=7.    P06  16,   01. 2, 

PbO  74,  Pb  8. 

Mimetene.   Hex.   H=3'5.  G=7.  AsO6  23,  01  2,  PbO  68,  Pb  7. 
Triphyline.  Trimet.   H=4— 5.   G=3.  P06  45,  FeO  40,  MnO  6, 

LiO  7,  MgO  2. 

Triplite.   Trimet.   H— 5— 5*5.  G=4.  PO5  33,  MnO  33,  FeO  34. 
Thrombolite.  H=3— 4.  0=3.  P05  44,  CuO  39,  HO  17. 
Vivianite.  Monoclin.  H=2.  G=2.  A  hydrated  phosphate  of  iron. 
Erythrine  (Cobalt  Bloom).  Monoclin.  H=1'5— 2-5.  G=3.  As05  38, 

CoO  38,  HO  24. 

Annabergite.  H=2— 2'5.  Gh=3.  AsO5  39,  NiO  37,  HO  24. 
Kottigite.  AsO5  37,  ZnO  31,  CoO  7,  NiO  2,  HO  23. 
Symplesite.  Monoclin.  H=2-5.  G=2.  A  hydrated  arsenate  of  iron. 
Scorodite.  Trimet.  H=3«5— 4.  G= 3.  AsO5  50,  Fe2O3  34,  HO  16. 
Libethenite.  Trimet.  H=4.  G==4.  PO5  30,  CuO  66,  HO  4. 
Olivenite.  Trimet,  H=3.  G=4.  As05  40,  CuO  56,  HO  4. 
Conichalcite.     Is  a  hydrated   arsenate  and  phosphate  of  copper 

and  lime. 

Euchroite.  Trimet.  H=3'5— 4.  G=3.  As05  34,  CuO  47,  HO  19. 
Arseniosiderite.   H=l— 2.    0=4.  As05  38,  Fe203  39,  CoO  14, 

HO  9. 

Erinite.  H=4-5— 5.  Gh=4.  As05  35,  CuO  60,  HO  5. 
Phosphocalcite  (Lunnite).  Monoclin.  H=5.  G=4.  P05  21,  CuO  71, 

HO  8. 
Tyrolite.     H=l-5— 2.    G=3.     As05  25,   CuO  44,  CoO,CO2  11, 

HO  20. 
Aphanesite  (Abichite).    Monoclin.    H=2'5— 3.    G=4.    As05  30, 

CuO  63,  HO  7. 

Chalcophyllite.  Hex.  H=2.  G=2.  As05  18,  CuO  50,  HO  32. 
Liroconite.     Monoclin.     H=2— 2-5.     G=3.    As05  26,  CuO   37, 

A1203  12,  HO  25. 
Uranite.    Trimet.    H=l— 2.    Gh=3.    P05  15,  CoO  6,  U2O3  63, 

HO  16. 
Chalcolith.  Dimet.  H=2— 2-5.  0=3.  P05  15,  CuO  9,  U203  61, 

HO  15. 
Plumbo-resinite  (Bleigummi).  H=4—4-5.  G=6.  PO6  8,  PbO  38, 

M2O3  35,  HO  19. 
CHALYBITE  (Spathic  Iron).  Hex.  H=3'5— 4-5.  Q=4.  C02  38, 

FeO  62. 

SMITHSONITE.  Hex.  H=5.  O=4.  CO2  36,  ZnO  64. 
CERUSITE.  Trimet.  H=3— 3-5.  G=6.  C02  16,  PbO  84. 


10  TEXTURE  OF  ORES,  AND  VEIN-STONES. 

MALACHITE.   Monoclin.  H=3*5— 4.    G=4.  CO,  20,  CuO  72, 

HO  8. 

AZURITE.  Monoclin.  H=3-5  -4.  G= 4.  CO2  26,  CuO  69,  HO  5. 
Aurichalcite  (Buratite).  H=2.   G=3/CO2  16,  CuO  29,  ZnO  45, 

HO  10. 

ZINC  BLOOM.  G=3-5.  C02  14,  ZnO  75,  HO  11. 
Emerald  Nickel.  H=3.  G=2.  C02  12,  NiO  59,  HO  29. 
Bismuthite.  H= 4-4-5.  G=7.  BiO,CO2+BiO,  SO3. 
Cerasine.  Dimet.  H=2'5-3.  G=6.  PbCl  51,  PbO,C02  49. 

THE  TEXTURE  OF  THE  ORES  AND  VEIN-STONES. 

§  6.  The  metallic  deposits  are  composed,  like  the  common 
rocks,  of  minerals  combined  in  the  most  heterogeneous  manner. 

The  following  varieties  of  texture  may  be  especially  distin- 
guished. 

1.  Compact:   when  the  individual  mineral  particles  cannot 
be  distinguished — compact  dimonite,  compact  hematite. 

2.  Granular:  .the  separate  particles  form  grains  of  about 
the  same  size — Granular  Magnetite. 

3.  Irregular  granular:    by  this  name  I  mean  the  com- 
mon modification  in  metallic  deposits  of  the  granular  texture,  in 
which  the  separate  individual  ingredients   are   of  different  sizes, 
unlike    forms,    and    generally    also    unevenly    distributed.     This 
structure   is  very  common  in   metallic  veins  and  floors  (Stock- 


4.  Disseminated:  when  the  separate  ores  are  distributed, 
in  general  unequally,  as  independent  grains,  lamins,  or  crystals, 
in    a    uniformly    compact    granular    or  schistose   mass.     If  they 
form  crystals,    this  texture    completely    coincides    with   the  por- 
phyritic   structure    in    rocks.     This  texture   is   quite   common  in 
metallic  deposits. 

5.  Combed  or  banded:  the  separate   ingredients,  or  com- 
binations of  two  or  three  of  them,  form  layers  of  equal  or  unequal 
thickness. 

This  variety  of  texture  is  particularly  common  in  metallic 
veins:  the  layers  are  then  parallel  to  the  fissure;  the  first  or 
oldest  comb  (-a)  was  deposited  on  both  the  sides  of  the  cleft,  on 
this  the  second  (b\  and  so  on  (c,  d\  until  the  whole  fissure  was 
filled.  In  this  manner  the  same, -or  at  least  very  similar  bands 
are  symmetrically  deposited  from  the  sides  to  the  middle. 


SIMPLE,  AND  EEPEATED  SYMMETRY. 


11 


d   c 


In  the  annexed  ideal  wood-cut, 
the  separate  layers  or  combs  (a, 
5,  c,  d)  are  all  represented  as 
being  of  different  composition, 
but  the  same  on  both  sides  of 
the  centre ;  so  that  one  and  the 
same  mineral,  or  mineral  aggre- 
gation, occurs  but  once  from 
either  side  to  the  middle.  I  call 
this  the  simple  symmetry 
of  the  layers.  It  is,  however, 
often  the  case  that  similar  layers,  separated  by  discrepant  ones, 
are  repeated  several  times;  as  in  the  following  example  from  the 
Drei  Prinzen  vein  near  Freiberg. 


lende 
Quartz 
Fluor  fpar 
Blende 

Heavy  spar 
ron  pyrites 
eavy  spar 
ron  pyrites 

Fluor  spar 

Iron  pyrites 

Calcite 


Calcite 
Iron  pyrites 
Fluor  spar 

Iron  pyrites 
:Heavy  spar 
on  pyrites 
spar 

Blende 
jFluor  spar 

[Quart* 
ilende. 


Drei  Prinzen  lode,  from  a  drawing  by  Von  Weissenbach. 

I  call  this  last  case  a  symmetrical  repetition  (or  self- 
repeating  symmetry)  of  the  layers.  The  symmetry  of  the 
combed  texture  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  destroyed  by 
later  causes;  as  for  example,  through  repeated  re-opening  of  the 
same  fissure,  by  which  is  formed  a  dislocation  of  the  veins 


12 


SELF-REPEATING  SYMMETRY. 


themselves,   or   double,    or  even   manifold  veins,   which    on  first 

appearance  seem  to  form  but  one. 

The  following  wood-cut  represents  a  vein,  which  appears,  on 
a  b  6  ft  c  d  d  tne  °ther  hand,  to  be  formed  by 
seven  unsymmetrically  arranged 
combs,  but  in  truth  consists  of  the 
three  veins  (A,  B,  0,)  formed  next 
to  and  after  one  another,  of  which 
A.  and  C.  also  consist  of  combs, 
while  B.  consists  of  but  one  band. 


The  combed  texture  is  not  con- 
fined to  veins  alone,  it  also  occurs 
in  concentrical  bands  formed  in 
Floors,  so  that  the  layers  surround 
some  nucleus,  most  commonly  a 
fragment,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  wood-cut. 

Such  formations  are  generally  called 
cockade-ores  (Cocardenerze)  or  r  i  n  g  - 
ores  (Ringerze}. 

The  banded  texture  frequently  affords 
an  opportunity  of  observing  the  successive 
deposit  of  the  separate  mineral  substances, 
similarly  to  where  they  crystallize  over 
one  another  in  amygdaloidal  cavities. 

6.  Brecciated:  the  metallic  deposits  frequently  contain 
fragments  of  the  rock  enclosing  them  (wallrock),  or  those  which 
come  from  still  older  formations  of  ore.  When  these  fragments 
are  numerous,  the  texture  is  brecciated;  these  formations  are 
sometimes  called  in  German  Brockengestein. 

The  following  modifications  may  be  distinguished: 

a.  the  fragments  lie  in  the   deposit  without  showing  any 
peculiar  appearance; 

b.  the    fragments    are   surrounded    by    concentric    layers 
(cockade  ore,  ring  ore)  or  by  a  radial  crystalline  texture  (Spharen- 
textur)  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  following  wood-cut; 


GROUPING  OF  ORES  AND  VEIN-STONES. 


13 


c.  the  fragments  come  entirely  from  the  wallrock; 

d.  the  fragments  come  from  older  metallic  deposits;  which 
is  particularly  striking  when  showing  a  banded  texture ;  or 

e.  the  fragments  predominate;  and  are,  in  part,  very  large 
and    flaky:    this    form    passes    into    broken-up    masses    of   rock 
traversed  by  numerous  metallic  threads. 

7.  Amygdaloidal:  the  metallic  deposits  are  traversed  by 
numerous  irregular,  generally  angular  or  almond-shaped  cavi- 
ties, whose  sides  are  lined  with  crystals.  These  cavities  are  a 
very  common  occurrence  in  metallic  deposits,  when  more  scat- 
tered; and  generally  take  a  central  situation  in  combed  veins, 
while  they  seem  to  occur  everywhere  between  the  fragments 
in  brecciated  metallic  deposits.  The  two  following  wood-cuts 
attempt  to  represent  this  relation  in  an  ideal  manner. 


Lode  possessing1  (a)  combed  texture, 
with  geode  (d}  in  the  middle.    . 


Brecciated  lode  with  fragments 
of  the  country  rock  (5)  and  geodes  (d). 


The  outer  limits  of  metalliferous  deposits,  especially  of  veins, 
are  called  selvages  (Salbander),  when  they  have  a  marked  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  deposits  and  the  country  rock. 

GROUPING  OF  THE  ORES  AND  VEIN-STONES. 
§  7.     In  metallic  ^deposits,  as  well  as  in  rocks,  certain  min- 
erals appear  to  be,  more  frequently  than  others,  combined  or  associa- 


14 


TABLE  OF  MINERAL  COMBINATIONS. 


ted :  so,  for  example,  Blende  and  Galena,  Pyrites  and  Chalcopy- 
rite, Cobalt  and  Nickel  ores,  Tin  and  Wolfram  ores,  Heavy 
Spar  and  Fluor  Spar.  Quartz  is  but  seldom  entirely  wanting  in 
any  combination.  These  combinations  are,  however,  more  com- 
plicated, and  not  always  so  constant  as  is  the  case  in  the  common 
rocks:  to  which  must  be  added,  that  the  number  of  mineral 
species  forming  them  is,  generally,  much  greater.  For  these 
reasons  it  is  hardly  possible  to  enumerate  all  the  combinations 
already  known  to  exist  in  metallic  deposits,  or  even,  as  in  the 
case  of  rocks,  to  give  them  particular  names.  Such  combina- 
tions of  ores  and  vein-stones  are  sometimes  called  ore-formations, 
vein-formations,  vein-types,  etc.,  which  will  be  more  fully  treated 
of  hereafter. 

The  cause  of  the  combination  of  certain  minerals  into  groups, 
is  probably  a  chemical  and  not  a  geological  one,  but  yet  differing 
from  that  of  the  combination  of  the  elements  forming  the 
minerals.  It  consists,  possibly,  in  the  fact,  that  certain  substances 
possess  the  ability  to  be  dissolved,  and  to  crystallize,  under  like 
conditions ;  and  that  they  exist  side  by  side  in  the  same  solution ; 
while  others  on  the  contrary  do  not.  In  place  of  the  list  of 
combinations  which  here  follow  in  the  German  edition,  and  which 
appear  more  suitably  under  the  examples  hereafter  given;  I  here 
insert,  according  to  the  wish  of  the  Author,  a  short  tabular 
abstract  of  combinations  of  two,  three,  four,  and  more  minerals, 
which  are  particularly  frequent  in  metallic  deposits. 


Two 
Members. 

Three  Members- 

Four  or  more  Members. 

Galena, 
Blende.  .- 

Galena,    Blende  , 
Iron  pyrites. 
(Silver  Ores.) 

Galena,  Blende,  Iron  pyrites,   Quartz,   —  and 
Spathic  Iron,  Dialogite,   Brown  Spar, 
Calc.  Spar,  —  or  Heavy  Spar. 

Iron  pyrites, 
Chalcopyrite. 

Iron  pyrites,  Chal- 
copyrite, Quartz. 
(Copper  Ores.) 

Iron  pyrites,  Chalcopyrite,  Galena,  Blende,    — 
and  Spathic  Iron,  Dialogite,  Brown  Spar, 
Calc.  Spar,  —  or  Heavy  Spar. 

Gold,  Quartz. 

Gold,  Quartz, 
Iron  pyrites. 

Gold,  Quartz,  Iron  pyrites,  Galena,  Blende,  — 
and  Spathic  Iron,  Dialogite,  Brown  Spar, 
Calc.  Spar,  —  or  Heavy  Spar. 

Cobalt  and 
Nickel  Ores. 

Cobalt  and 
Nickel  ores,  Iron 
pyrites. 

Cobalt  and  Nickel  Ores,  Iron  pyrites,  —  and 
Galena,  Blende,  Quartz,  Spathic  Iron,  Dialogite, 
Brown    Spar,    Calc.    Spar,  —  or  Heavy   Spar. 

Tin,  Wolfram. 

Tin,  Wolfram, 
Quartz. 

Tin.    WTolfram,     Quartz,     Mica,     Tourmaline, 
Topaz,  etc. 

Gold,  Tellu- 
rium. 

•-'«**- 

Gold,  Tellurium, 
Tetrahedrite. 
(Various  Tellu- 
rium ores.) 

Gold,  Tellurium,  Tetrahedrite,   Quartz.  —  and 
Brown  Spar,  —  or  Calc    Spar. 

SUCCESSION  OF  MINERALS  IN  VEINS  AND  GEODES.          15 


Two 
Members. 

Three  Members. 

Four  or  more  Members. 

Cinnobar, 
Tetrahedrite. 

Cinnobar,  Tetra- 
hedrite, Pyrites. 
(Various  ores  of 
Quicksilver.) 

Cinnobar,  Tetrahedrite,  Pyrites,  Quartz,  —  and 
Spathic  Iron,  Dialogite,  Brown  Spar, 
Calc.  Spar,  —  or  Heavy  Spar. 

Magnetite, 
Chlorite. 

Magnetite,  Chlo- 
rite, Garnet. 

Magnetite,    Chlorite,   Garnet,  -Pyroxene,  Horn- 
blende, Pyrites,  etc. 

SUCCESSION  OF  MINERALS  IN  METALLIFEROUS 
VEINS  AND  GEODES. 

^  8.  As  the  association  (combination)  of  minerals  in  me- 
talliferous deposits  is  not  merely  accidental,  but  is  limited  by 
certain  laws  of  affinity,  or  conditions  of  origin;  so  is  the  suc- 
cession of  the  individual  minerals  also,  which  manifests  itself,  either 
in  the  series  of  dissimilar  combs,  or  in  the  successive  crystalliza- 
tions in  geodes.  Von  Weissenbach,  30  years  ago,  observed 
the  following  succession  of  separate  vein-stones  from  the  sides 
(selvages)  to.  the  middle  of  the  vein,  in  the  system  of  lodes 
around  Brand,  near  Freiberg:  — 

1.  Quartz    veins   containing  Iron    pyrites,    black    Blende, 
Galena,  and  Mispickel  affording  a  moderate  percentage  of  silver. 

2.  Dialogite  and  Brown  Spar  (Rhomb  Spar)  with-the  above- 
mentioned  ores,    but  richer  in  silver,   and  containing   in  certain 
portions  Tetrahedrite,  argentiferous  Tetrahedrite,    and  such    like 
rich  silver  ores. 

3.  Spathic  Iron,  Fluor  Spar,  and  Heavy  Spar,  over  which 
a  more  uncommon  variety  of  Brown  Spar  (the  tautokliner  Kar- 
bonspath  of  Breithaupt)  has  sometimes  formed.     Ores  the  same 
as  in  2,  but  less  of  them;  the  galena  disseminated  in  the  Heavy 
Spar  generally  contains  but  little  silver. 

4.  Calcite,  sometimes  containing  rich  silver  ores,  but  without 
the  ores  of  1. 

Some  of  the  so-called  Formations,  which  have  been  discrimi- 
nated in  the  system  of  veins  around  Freiberg,  nearly  correspond 
to  these  successions  of  combinations  in  a  vein:  viz.  the  so-called 
pyritic  lead-formation  (kiesigen  Bleiformation),  the  noble  lead- 
formation  (edlen  Bleiformation),  and  the  barytic  lead-formation 
(barytischen  Bhiformatiori).  These  so-called  Formations,  besides 


16  MINERAL  SUCCESSIONS  IN  VEINS  AND  GEODES. 

occurring  separately,  are  also  found  together  in  the  same 
vein  and  succeeding  one  another.  Where  the  barytic  combina- 
tion occurs  alone,  it  frequently  forms  numerous  combs  of  almost 
the  same  composition,  which  are  often-  repeated,  that  is,  a  repeated 
alternation  of  Heavy  Spar,  Galena,  and  Blende,  often  with  some- 
what of  Pyrites,  Fluor  Spar,  Quartz,  etc.  The  same  process  of 
Formation  must  have  been  periodically  continued,  in  such  cases, 
for  a  long  period.  More  recently  Breithaupt  and  Kenwood  have 
carefully  examined  the  succession  of  minerals  in  veins  and  amyg- 
daloidal  cavities,  whereby  a  certain  conformity,  even  in  parts  of 
the  earth  most  removed  from  one  another,  has  been  proved. 
While  it  was  not  possible  to  deduce  any  general  law  of  succes- 
sion from  these  series,  still  many  accordant  facts  were  discovered. 
In  the  first  place,  nearly  all  these  series  commence  with  Quartz. 
Very  commonly  the  same  minerals  follow  one  another  in  the 
same  order.  It  is  sometimes  possible  to  combine  several  series 
occurring  in  the  same  vein,  and  to  complete  them  mutually ;  ,by 
which  the  series,  apparently  simple,  become  complex,  and  some- 
times such  as  are  repeated. 

By  the  observation  of  such  or  similarly  recurring  mineral 
successions,  in  different  districts,  the  question  necessarily  arises, 
as  to  what  caused  them.  These  causes,  as  well  as  those  where 
the  same  combinations  recur,  appear  to  be  chiefly  of  a  chemical 
nature,  and  withal  of  great  geological  importance. 

The  worth  of  mineral  combinations,  and  of  mineral  successions, 
is  certainly  misapprehended;  if  it  be  supposed,  that  they  are 
characteristic  of  particular  geological  Periods;  that  their  nature 
is  dependent  on  the  period  of  their  origin ;  that  in  every  period 
everywhere  similar  combinations  or  successions,  in  different  pe- 
riods dissimilar  ones,  were  formed ;  and  that  it  is  possible,  from  the 
nature  of  these  combinations  or  successions,  to  determine  their 
geological  age.  In  each  separate  portion  of  the  earth  they  cer- 
tainly appear  to  follow  one  another  in  nearly  the  same  relative 
order  as  to  age,  in  so  far  as  they  are  the  gradual  result  of  simi- 
lar geological  events.  But  these  events  have  taken  place  in  the 
various  regions  of  the  earth  at  different  periods,  or  have  even 
been  repeated  at  intervals ;  and  it  would,  in  this  case,  be  equally 
incorrect  to  consider,  that  like  combinations  or  successions  were 
of  the  same  age,  as  if  the  long  since  exploded  idea  were  still 
maintained,  that  like  rocks  must  all  have  been  formed  at  the  same 
time.  It  may  however  be  correct,  that  like  or  similar  combina- 


OCCURRENCE  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS.  17 

tions  or  successions  were  formed,  in  confined  and  geologically 
conformable  districts,  just  as  the  similar  rocks  have  been  formed 
almost  contemporaneously. 

OCCURRENCE  OF  METALLIFEROUS  DEPOSITS. 

§  9.  Generally  considered,  it  cannot  be  stated,  that  the 
occurrence  of  metalliferous  deposits,  joined  to  other  determined 
geological  phenomena,  is  always  united  with  them,  or  is  confined 
to  particular  rocks  or  formations.  The  most  that  can  be  asserted 
is,  that  they  are  more  commonly  found  in  mountainous  regions 
than  in  plains,  that  they  appear  to  be  more  frequent  in  the  older 
rocks  and  formations  than  in  the  very  recent  ones,  and  that  the 
new  volcanic  rocks,  in  particular,  appear  to  contain  but  few  of  them. 

But  the  case  is  entirely  different,  when  particular  forms  or 
kinds  of  deposits  are  spoken  of.  It  is  immediately  apparent, 
for  example,  that  the  metalliferous  veins  and  floors  occur  prin- 
cipally near  the  limits  of  differently  formed  rocks;  that  they 
chiefly  occur  only  between  older  rocks  and  formations,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  they  are  mostly  found  in  mountainous 
regions  5  and  that  certain  kinds  or  combinations  of  ores  appear 
to  be  especially  united  with  certain  rocks;  as  for  example,  tin 
ores  with  greisen,  granite,  gneiss,  mica  schist,  and  quartz  porphyry. 
I  will  return  to  these  specialities  hereafter,  as  also  to  the  origin 
of  metalliferous  deposits. 

We  will  now  more  closely  examine  the  four  principal  forms, 
in  which  they  occur. 


ORE-BEDS. 

WHAT  ARE  ORE-BEDS? 

'§  10.  Aggregations  of  ore,  which  lie  parallel  to  the  strati- 
fication or  foliation  of  the  rock  enclosing  them,  consequently  form- 
ing one  or  more  subordinate  layers  between  any  stratified  or 
foliated  rock,  are  called  ore-beds.  To  this  class  I  consider 
to  belong  the  superficial  deposits,  lying  loose  upon  the  surface, 
which  were  evidently  formed  by  precipitation  or  denudation; 

2 


18  WHAT  ARE  ORE-BEDS? 

as  Bog-Iron  ore  and  auriferous  sand.  The  first  of -these,  I  call 
parallel  layers;  the  last,  surface  deposits.  I  must,  however,  some- 
what modify  the  definition  of  parallel  layers,  by  adding  that  they 
are  only  true  beds  or  layers,  whei*  it  is  evident  from  the  nature 
of  their  origin,  that  they  were  formed,  in  most  cases,  contem- 
poraneously with  the  rocks  in  which  they  lie;  that  is,  after  the 
layers  which  originally  lay  under  them,  and  before  those  covering 
them:  as  for  example  the  Black-band  in  many  coal  formations. 

Does  any  circumstance  on  the  contrary  prove,  that  they  only 
correspond  in  their  general  form  and  extension  to  the  parallel 
strata,  and  as  having  more  recently  filled  a  fissure,  which  has 
opened  parallel  to  the  stratification  or  foliation ;  they  are  then 
not  true  beds,  but  bedded  veins,  that  is,  veins  having  the  form 
of  beds.  This  distinction  is  sometimes  easy,  sometimes,  on  the 
contrary,  very  difficult;  sometimes  unimportant  for  the  practical 
miner,  sometimes  of  great  importance ;  naturally,  always  a  sub- 
ject of  interest  to  geologists. 

In  general  there  are  no  such  sharp  limits,  between  true  beds 
and  the  enclosing  rock,  as  in  bedded  veins.  It  is  impossible 
for  true  beds  to  cause  faults,  they  can  never  cut  through  a  vein 
or  other  bed,  they  never  send  off  veinlike  branches  in  the  ori- 
ginal superstrata,  nor  can  they  contain  fragments  of  these.  But 
all  these  negative  characteristics  may  naturally  also  occur  in 
bedded  veins.  If  the  mass  of /the  deposit  is  of  such  a  different 
nature  from  the  enclosing  rock,  that  the  same  origin  cannot  be 
properly  ascribed  to  both;  it  is  already  a  reason  to  consider  it 
a  vein,  or  that  at  least  subsequent  metamorphic  action  or  im- 
pregnation has  taken  place.  If  the  bed,  on  the  contrary,  follow 
very  constantly  the  flexures  of  the  stratification  or  cleavage,  or 
if  many  such  are  formed  in  one  zone;  by  which  I  mean  len- 
ticular deposits  lying  separated  from  one  another  between  two 
layers;  there  is  then  reason  to  think,  that  these  are  true  beds. 
There  are  cases  frequently  occurring,  in  which  the  question  can 
not  be  positively  determined. 

Some  mining  laws,  without  paying  attention  to  the  manner 
of  their  formation,  distinguish  beds  and  veins  by  the  angle  of 
their  dip;  the  slightly  inclined  veins  being  called  beds,  the  greatly 
inclined  beds,  veins.  This  is,  self-evidently,  a  very  unscientific 
method  of  classification;  since  a  bed  can  as  well  have  a  dip  of 
90°,  as  a  vein  lie  horizontally.  From  what  has  been  said  it  is 


PECULIARITIES  OF  ORE-BEDS.  19 

evident,  that  true  ore-beds  can  only  occur  in  stratified  deposits, 
or  in  such  as  have  a  foliated  texture ;  since  a  parallel  stratifi- 
cation does  not  exist  in  massive  rocks. 


PECULIAR  CONDITIONS  OF  ORE-BEDS. 

"  W  * ' ' 

§  11.     The  extension  of  a  bed  in  a  horizontal  line  is  called 

the  strike;  hence  a  horizontal  line  on  the  surface  of  the  beds 
shows  the  direction  of  the  strike.  The  slope  of  the  layers,  or 
the  angle  which  the  beds  make  with  the  plane  of  the  horizon, 
is  called  the  dip ,  which  is  consequently  at  right  angles  with  the 
strike:  the  direction  of  the  dip  is  the  point  of  the  compass 
towards  which  the  beds  slope.  The  direction  of  the  strike  and  that 
of  the  dip,  is  determined  by  means  of  a  pocket  compass,  while  the 
angle  of  the  dip  is  measured  by  an  instrument  called  a  clinometer. 
When  a  bed  is  much  folded,  the  general  strike  and  dip  must 
be  determined,  in  addition  to  the  strikes  and  dips  of  the  different 
portions  of  the  layer. 

The  layer  immediately  under  the  metalliferous  bed  is  called 
the  floor  or  footwall:  that  lying  directly  over  it,  the  roof  or 
hanging  wall.  The  thickness  of  the  beds  must  always  be  mea- 
sured in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  walls;  it  may  be  very  variable 
in  different  portions  of  the  same  bed;  and  the  bed,  by  thinning 
out,  may  entirely  disappear.  The  outcrop  is  that  portion  of  the 
bed  appearing  at  the  surface. 

Ore-beds,  like  other 
strata,  sometimes 
are  much  distorted, 
forming  flexures, 
basins,  saddles,  and 
even  air- saddles, 
when  the  upper  por- 
An  air-saddle.  tion  is  removed  by 

denuding  action. 

The  beds  are  sometimes  divided  by  intervening  layers,  so  as 
to  form  two  or  more  branches  separating  at  a  very  acute  angle. 
A  disturbance  of  the  strata  is  also  frequently  occasioned  by  faults, 
which  will  be  more  fully  treated  of  under  the  head  of  veins.  The 
mass  of  the  bed  is  sometimes  most  curiously  distorted  and  dis- 
located by  such  disturbing  influences,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying woodcuts. 

2* 


20 


PECULIARITIES  OF  ORE-BEDS 


In  the  fifth  figure  the  strata  are  synclinal',  did  they  slope 
away  from  one  another,  they  would  be  anticlinal. 

The  ore-beds  do  not  possess  so  great  a  variety  as  the  veins, 
segregations,  and  impregnations,  in  regard  to  their  extent  or  com- 
position; as  a  rule  they  are  enclosed  between  two  nearly  parallel 
layers  of  rock,  whose  limits  are  not  always  apparent,  since  the 
bed  frequently  passes  imperceptibly  into  the  wallrock. 


OCCURRENCE  OF  ORE-BEDS,  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF   ORES.    21 


OCCURRENCE  OF   ORE-BEDS,   AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
THE  ORES  IN  THEM. 

§  12.  True  ore-beds  can,  from  their  nature,  only  occur  in 
stratified  or;  at  least,  foliated  rocks,  or  on  the  surface ;  they  occur 
in  rocks  of  all  ages  belonging  to  this  class,  the  oldest  as  well  as 
the  most  recent; — occurring,  as  a  rule,  more  commonly  and 
of  a  more  complex  nature  m  the  older  formations  than  in  the 
more  recent. 

Of-  all  ores,  those  of  iron  occur  the  most  frequently  in  beds  ; 
in  the  case  of  other  ores  the  distinction  between  true  beds  and 
zones  of  impregnation,  recumbent  segregations  and  bedded  veins, 
is  extremely  difficult  to  determine. 

Many  beds  consist  of  one  or  more  layers  of  compact  or 
granular  ore,  as  limonite,  hematite,  magnetite,  spathic  iron, 
spherosiderite,  and  clay -ironstone.  The  ores  in  such  cases  natu- 
rally occur  pretty  evenly  distributed,  only  depending  in  amount 
on  the  variations  in  thickness.  Such  deposits  may  possess  sharp 
and  well  defined  limits  at  the  floor  and  roof,  they  may  also  pass 
imperceptibly  into  the  enclosing  rock. 

In  some  metalliferous  beds,  especially  those  consisting  of 
spherosiderite,  the  mass  of  ore  forms  one  or  more  layers  of 
nodules  in  a  particular  bed  or  zone  of  some  stratified  rock. 
These  nodules  may  be  so  isolated  as  hardly  to  form  a  bed;  in 
which  case  they  may  be  regarded  as  scattered  recumbent  segre- 
gations or  nodules.  The  texture  of  many  iron  ore-beds  is  oolithic, 
in  which  case  the  limits  are  more  or  less  clearly  defined. 

Other  ore-beds  consist  only  of  an  aggregation  of  very  small 
particles  of  ore  in  a  distinct  layer  or  stratum,  as  the  copper 
slates  ( Kup fers chief er)  of  Thuringia,  and  the  Fallbands  in  the 
crystalline  schists  of  Scandinavia,  which  are  probably  more  cor- 
rectly impregnations.  In  this  case  the  limits  are  generally  not 
well  defined,  and  the  distribution  of  the  ore  is  irregular:  that 
is,  the  bed  contains  richer  and  poorer  portions.  The  reason  of 
this  has  not,  up  to  the  present  time,  been  discovered ;  conse- 
quently, the  ore  can  only  be  found  by  chance. 

A  true  ore-bed  can  never  possess  a  combed  texture  with 
symmetrical  layers,  this  being  only  found  in  veins.  A  true 
bed  can,  also,  hardly  possess  a  real  irregular  granular  texture, 
and  the  irregular  distribution  of  ore  so  often  combined  with  it. 


22    ORIGIN,  PROSPECTING,  AND  FOLLOWING  OF  ORE-BEDS. 

The  composition  of  ore-beds;  in  general,  is  a  much  more 
simple  one  than  that  of  lodes. 

Sometimes  an  ore-bed  shows  itself  particularly  rich  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  intersecting  veins ;  this  Inequality,  as  a  rule,  is  not 
original,  but  caused  by  impregnation  from  the  veins.  In  placers 
the  particles  of  ore  are  distributed  according  to  purely  mecha- 
nical laws,  which  will  be  more  fully  spoken  of  in  §  15. 

OKIGIN  OF  ORE-BEDS. 

§  13.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  all  true  ore-beds  were 
originally  formed  by  mechanical  or  chemical  precipitation  from 
water.  Their  condition  may  have  been  much  changed  after- 
wards; thus  under  certain  conditions  hematite  may  have  been 
formed  from  limonite,  etc. ;  but  their  origin  remains  a  precipita- 
tion. However  certain  this  may  be,  still  the  origin  of  the  me- 
talliferous portions  of  some  of  the  beds  remains  unexplained. 

Iron  is  a  metal  so  widely  distributed  in  its  different  forms, 
so  common  in  all  rocks,  and  held  in  solution  in  so  many  springs ; 
that  the  origin  of  the  strata,  in  which  it  predominates,  appears 
by  no  means  obscure.  On  this  account  deposits  of  iron-stone 
only  require  an  explanation  of  their  state  of  aggregation  and 
manner  of  occurrence  in  each  particular  case.  The  case  is  different 
with  most  of  the  other  metalliferous  beds,  such  as  those  of 
chalcopyrite,  and  copper-slate;  in  these  the  origin  of  the  metals 
is  still  somewhat  obscure,  and  by  no  means  so  easy  of  explana- 
tion as  in  the  case  of  iron-stone  beds.  The  metals  they  contain 
must  necessarily  have  come  from  the  interior  of  the  earth,  whether 
in  a  state  of  vapor  or  dissolved  in  water;  that  is,  they  must  have 
formed,  in  some  other  condition,  a  part  of  the  earth's  crust  or 
interior  ;  their  concentration  in  a  bed  was  always  the  result  of 
secondary  causes. 

The  presence  of  ore  in  fragmentary  deposits  and  placers  is 
easy  to  explain.  They  come  from  the  mechanical  destruction  of 
metalliferous  rocks  by  the  action  of  water ;  a  natural  process  of 
dressing  has  concentrated  the  heavier  portions  in  particular  layers 
or  localities. 

• 
PROSPECTING  FOR  AND  FOLLOWING  OF    ORE-BEDS. 

§  14.  The  prospecting  for  and  following  of  an  ore-bed  is 
based  on  much  simpler  principles  than  those  for  the  other 


SURFACE-DEPOSITS.  23 

metalliferous  deposits.  If  it  be  supposed  that  a  certain  district 
contains  a  bed  of  ore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  examine  the  strata 
carefully,  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur;  any  other  method 
would  be  erroneous;  the  search  can  be  made  by  means  of  adits, 
borings,  trenches,  or  shafts.  Only  when  traces  of  such  a  bed 
have  been  discovered,  is  it  advisable  to  follow  it  in  the  direction 
of  its  strike  and  dip,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  it  develops  greater 
width  or  richness  in  any  direction.  Naturally,  the  inferior  and 
superior  layers  forming  the  walls,  must  be  chiefly  observed ; 
since  the  continuation  of  the  bed  can  be  looked  for  only 
between  them ;  and  as  they  are  frequently,  from  their  greater  thick- 
ness or  peculiar  character,  easier  to  recognise  than  the  outcrop 
of  the  bed  itself,  they  lighten  the  tracing.  It  is  self-evident,  that 
all  disturbances  of  the  original  stratification,  all  foldings  or  faults, 
must  be  carefully  observed. 

Sometimes  probable  conclusions  can  be  drawn  a  priori  from 
the  encreased  or  diminished  thickness  of  the  whole  strata,  or 
from  the  manner  in  which  it  was  originally  deposited  in  basins 
or  saddles.  All  these  conditions  are  unfortunately  of  such  a  nature, 
that  no  general,  rules  can  be  deduced  from  them;  much  more 
depends  on  a  sound  and  careful  observation  of  the  special  case; 
and  it  is  thus  that  geological  education,  observation,  or  knowledge 
of  details,  is  proved. 

SURFACE-DEPOSITS. 

§  15.  It  is  well  known  that  gold,  platinum,  tin  ores,  and 
many  precious  stones,  are  very  frequently  found  in  loose  aggre- 
gates on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  which  undoubtedly  they 
were  not  formed,  but  were  brought  there  by  the  destruction  of 
other  deposits.  These  deposits  have  been  called  surface  deposits, 
placers,  or  washings^  this  last,  because  the  metallic  particles  or 
gems  are  obtained  from  the  bed  by  various  manners  of  washing; 
and  also  because  a  concentration  takes  place  by  means  of  a  natural 
crushing  and  dressing. 

All  surface-deposits  have  been  formed  by  the  destruction 
of  some  other  kind  of  deposit.  During,  or  after  the  decomposi- 
tion, the  greater  part  of  the  enclosing  rock,  being  specifically 
lighter  or  more  easily  dissolved,  is,  as  a  rule,  carried  away  by 
the  water.  Only  a  portion  of  the  same  remained  with  the  speci- 
fically heavier  and  less  easily  destructible  metallic  or  ore  part- 
icles, and  has  been  again  deposited  with  these.  This  is  the  reason 


24  CLASSES  OF  SURFACE-DEPOSITS. 

why  for  the  most  part  only  gold,  platinum,  tin  ores,  or  certain  hard 
precious  stones,  magnetite,  specular  iron,  and  a  few  rare  metals  or 
metallic  minerals,  are  found  in  surface-deposits.  Precisely  these 
minerals  are,  but  slightly,  or  not  at  «dl,  decomposed  by  the  action 
of  water  and  the  atmosphere,  and  they,  also,  possess  a  greater 
specific  gravity  than  many  other  mineral  bodies. 

This  manner  of  origin  is  at  the  same  time  the  reason  why 
the  very  heavy  and  indestructible  metals  gold  and  platinum  are, 
in  comparison  with  their  rare  general  dissemination,  found  so 
particularly  often  in  surface  deposits,  and  why  their  production 
from  the  same  is  so  much  more  profitable  than  from  the  original 
deposits.  However  finely  disseminated  and  sparingly  distributed 
they  were  in  these  last,  they  are  being,  or  have  been,  concen- 
trated in  the  surface-deposits  as  if  by  an  artificial  dressing;  and 
hardly  any  portion  ot  them  has  been  lost.  In  fact  it  has  already 
been  often  found  that  the  working  of  such  deposits  was  very 
profitable ;  while  it  was  impossible  to  find  the  original  deposits  or, 
when  found,  to  work  them  with  advantage ;  because  the  ores  were 
in  them  too  sparingly  distributed.  The  surface-deposits  generally 
possess  the  advantage  of  an  easy  working  of  their  loose,  and 
never  thickly  covered  material. 

The  origin  of  the  deposits  may  be  twofold,  and  the  deposits 
have  certainly  been  formed  in  both  ways,  the  only  difficulty 
being  to  determine  at  times  in  which  of  the  two. 

Many  surface-deposits  lie,  even  now,  over  the  deposit,  from 
partial  displacement  of  which  they  originated,  covering  its  outcrop,  or 
on  its  very  site.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  have  been  deposited  at 
various  distances  from  their  original  source.  The  first  were  formed  on 
the  spot  by  weathering  and  partial  erosion;  the  last,  through  preci- 
pitation ;  in  that  the  brooks,  rivers,  or  streams  of  some  kind,  tore 
the  material  away  and  deposited  it  again  in  another  place,  at 
the  same  time  separating  the  heavier  and  lighter  portions  from  each 
other.  The  first,  those  which  have  been  formed  on  the  spot,  are 
the  most  rare,  and  generally  the  poorest.  They  are  characterized 
by  their  position  on  high  table-lands  or  even  on  mountain  de- 
clivities, as  also  by  the  homogeneous  nature  of  their  composition 
from  the  products  of  weather-drift :  they  are  not  formed  of  matter 
which  has  been  washed  together,  and  in  certain  cases  been 
rounded,  nor  of  sand  and  mud. 

The  last,  the  deposits  which  have  been  washed  together, 
are  always  found  only  in  indentations  of  valleys,  basin-shaped 


KULES  OF  SURFACE-DEPOSITS.  25 

depressions;  or  low  ground,  for  example,  in  true  valleys,  or  at  the 
foot  of  mountains.  They  show  a  much  greater  complexity  in 
their  composition,  being  composed  of  mud,  clay,  sand,  boulders,  etc. 
The  heavy  metalliferous  particles  are  much  more  concentrated 
in  particular  spots,  than  is  the  case  with  the  former  class.  The 
solid  bodies  in  them  are  generally  rounded  by  the  action  of 
water.  They  are  also  very  differently  composed,  according  as 
they  were  formed  by  only  one  water-course,  or  several.  The 
surface-deposits  appear  always  to  belong  to  'a  very  recent  age: 
many  are  still  in  process  of  formation;  in  others  the  operation 
is  long  since  finished;  in,  or  over,  some  of  them  remains  of 
animals,  belonging  to  the  Post-tertiary  period,  have  been  found. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  any  surface-deposits  exist,  of  a  more  remote 
age,  than  the  Post-tertiary;  all  known  real  metalliferous  surface- 
deposits  may  be  provisionally  referred  to  the  same. 

From  the  manner  in  which  surface-deposits  originated,  certain 
general  and  even  a  priori  rules  about  those  spots  where  they 
are  richest,  may  be  deduced  from  physical  laws,  which  have 
also  been  confirmed  by  experience.  Here  are  the  following: 

1.  Where   surface-deposits    have    been    formed    over    those 
from  which  they  sprang,  the  distribution  of  the  metals,  corresponds 
to  what  it  was  in  these  last. 

2.  When  surface-deposits  have  "been!  washed  together,  those 
spots  will  be  relatively  the  richest,  where  the  current  was  broken, 
whether  by  a  more  moderate  descent,  sudden  change  of  direction, 
or  the  discharge   of  a   side-stream.     The   absolute   richness,   the 
special  relations,   must   be   determined  for  each   particular   case 
by  experience;   the  size  and  weight  of  the  particles,  which  have 
been  washed  together,  being  taken  into  consideration. 

3.  Slight  depressions,  holes,   channels,,  and  open  fissures,  in 
the  solid   rock    over  which   the  current  passes,    are  often  parti- 
cularly rich. 

4.  The  deepest  layers  of  each  period  of  deposit  are  generally 
the  richest. 

5.  Sometimes   several  periods  of  deposit  have   followed  one 
another,   and  then  several    especially  rich   layers   lie  one  above 
another. 

6.  Not  only  the  present  river-channels,  but  especially  ancient 
channels,  must  be  carefully  examined. 

Besides  such  general  rules,  which  every  one  can  deduce  for 
himself,  no,  particular  characteristics  of  the  richest  spots  can 


26  METALLIFEROUS  VEINS,  OR  LODES. 

be  given;  especially  none  which  can  be  deduced  from  the 
mineralogical  nature  of  the  mass  washed  together.  This  varies 
very  much  in  the  different  sedimentary  deposits  according  to 
their  origin,  being  now  clay,"  now  sand;:  again  gravel ;  conclusions 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  metallic  particles  can  at  times  be  drawn 
however  from  their  composition. 


METALLIFEROUS  VEINS. 

WHAT  ARE  METALLIFEROUS  VEINS,  OR  LODES? 

§  16.  Veins  are  aggregations  of  mineral  matter  in  fis- 
sures of  rocks.  Lodes  are  therefore  aggregations  of  mineral 
matter  containing  ores  in  fissures. 

As  all  veins  are  aggregations  in  fissures  ,  their  form  neces- 
sarily approaches  the  tabular.  Veins  are  never  really  tabular;  as 
they  not  only  thin  out  gradually  towards  their  ends,  but  very 
frequently  exhibit  irregularities  in  their  whole  extent,  which  are 
caused  by  unequal  breadth,  and  deviations  from  the  plane  of 
their  course. 

The  rock  in  which  a  lode  occurs  is  called'  the  country, 
country-rock  or  wall-rock;  or  those  sides  next  to  the  lode,  the 
walls;  or  when  the  lode  is  not  perpendicular,  the  wall  over  it  is 
called  the  hanging  ivall,  that  under  it  the  foot-tcall.  The  exten- 
sion of  a  lode  in  a  horizontal  direction  is  called  the  strike;  the 
angle  which  it  makes  with  the  plane  of  the  horizon,  the  dip.  If 
the  sides  of  a  lode  make  many  undulations,  the  dip  must  be 
taken  a  number  of  times :  the  average  of  the  observations  is  the 
true  dip.  A  cross  vej?i  or  flu  can  is  a  vein  containing  no  ore. 
A  branch  or  leader  is  a  small  vein'  striking  out  from  the  main 
lode.  A  selvage  is  a  thin  band  of  earthy  matter  between  the 
lode  and  the  walls,  or  the  sharp  line  of  demarcation  often  observed 
between  the  lodes  and  the  wall-rock.  The  outcrop  is  that 
portion  of  a  vein  appearing  at  the  surface. 

The  breadth  or  size  of  veins  is  very  variable :  some  are  not 
thicker  than  a  sheet  of  paper,  while  others  are  several  hundred 
feet  thick.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  mean 
breadth  for  lodes;  although,  as  a  rule,  most  paying  lodes  average 
between  6  inches  and  5  feet. 

A  vein  is  in  the  cap,  when  it  is  much  contracted. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEINS. 


27 


A  vein  is  said  to  split  up,   when   a   single  broad   fissure   is 
divided  into  several  smaller  ones. 


The  broader  veins  are,  so  much  the  more  regular  is  their 
course,  and  so  much  the  nearer  do  they  approach  the  tabular  form. 
Very  narrow  veins  are  often  very  irregularly  formed.  The  length 
of  lodes,  like  their  breadth,  is  very  variable.  As  a  rule,  the  broad- 
est veins  are  the  longest.  Many  so-called  shorts  or  gash-veins 
are  only  a  few  inches  long,  and  are  generally  confined  to  a 
single  member  of  the  formation  in  which  they  occur,  while  many 
lodes  have  been  traced  for  a  distance  of  over  five  miles.  The 
depth,  to  which  fissures  extend,  must  at  all  events  hold  a  cer- 
tain relation  to  their  breadth,  and  still  more  to  their  length.  The 
bottom  of  true  veins  has  probably  never  been  reached;  although 
many  shorts,  as  well  as  many  veins  which  contain  only  aggre- 
gations of  rock,  thin  out  towards  the  surface  or  the  bottom. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEINS. 

§  17.  Veins  have  been  divided,  according  to  their  texture 
and  the  extension  of  the  country-rock,  into 

1.  true  veins, 

2.  bedded  veins, 

3.  contact   veins,    as  well    as,    owing  to  their   peculiar  form 
and  extent, 

4.  lenticular  veins. 


28 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VEINS. 


By  the  first  are  understood  veins  (a)  which  traverse  a  rock 
or  formation  independently  of  its  texture  and  position,  and  not 
parallel  to  its  stratification  or  foliation :  most  of  the  veins  around 
Freiberg,  Saxony,  belong  to  this  class.  Bedded  veins,  on  the 
contrary,  are  those  (b)  which  traverse  the  country  parallel  to 
its  stratification  or  foliation:  they  might  be  easily  mistaken  for 
beds,  were  it  not  for  their  secondary  character  (fissure-nature), 
which  is  characterized  by  peculiar  circumstances,  as  for  example 
sending  out  branches  as  by  (e).  Contact  veins  are  those  which 
occur  between  two  dissimilar  formations,  as  by  (c),  and  conse- 
quently, separate  the  formations  from  one  another. 

Lenticular  veins  are  those  which  thin  out  in  all  directions, 
as  by  (d)j  which  are  in  part,  however,  only  local  expansions  of 
really  continuous  fissures,  in  part,  on  the  contrary,  lentiform  se- 
cretions, and  are  not  then  properly  veins. 

In  every  district  where  metalliferous  veins  occur,  there  are 
generally  quite  a  number  of  them  together,  which  often  seem  to 
form  groups  in  which  they  are  parallel  to  one  another,  as  follows: 


The  veins  of  Clausthal  in  the  Hartz  form  a  very  characte- 
ristic example  of  a  group. 

When  on  the  contrary,  as  sometimes  happens,  a  district  or 
rock  is  traversed  irregularly  in  all  directions  by  a  net-work  of 


INTERSECTIONS  OF  VEINS. 


29 


veins,  this  district  or  rock  is  in  Germany  called  a  Truemerstock ; 
of  which  Altenburg  and  Zinnwald  in  Saxony   are  examples. 

INTERSECTIONS  OF  VEINS. 

§  18.  Where  two  veins  intersect  one  another,  they  form 
junctions.  It  is  self-evident  that  the  intersecting  vein  must  be 
more  recent  than  the  one  intersected,  as  it  fills  a  fissure  in  the 
latter.  All  veins  which  meet  one  another  do  not  intersect.  Some 
veins  are  most  intimately  combined  at  the  point  of  junction; 
the  fissures,  in  the  earth's  crust,  in  which  they  lie  having  been 
cotemporaneously  filled  :•  others  which  meet  at  a  very  acute  angle 
run  parallel  to  one  another,  one  or  both  of  them  bending  and 
altering  their  course.  Generally  but  one  of  them  changes  its  di- 
rection, in  which  case  it  is  always  the  one  last  formed  (b). 

It  sometimes  occurs,  that 
such  veins,  after  running 
parallel  to  one  another,  form 
a  junction  and  intersect;  as 
in  the  following  woodcut. 


Many  veins  after   once  coming  in  contact  continue   parallel 
to  one  another,  and  are  then  called  double  veins. 

FAULTS. 

§  19.     With  the  intersections  of  veins   is  frequently  joined 
a  fault.    A  fault  is  a  dislocation  of  an  intersected  vein  from  its 


30  FAULTS. 

original  position,  so  that  the 
extension  of  its  plane  110  longer 
exactly  meets  its  continuation 
on  j$ie  opposite  side  of  the  in- 
tersecting vein,  as  shown  in 
the  wood- cut. 

The  term  heave  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  horizontal  disloca- 
tion which  occurs  when  one  lode  is  intersected  by  another;  a  slide 
is  a  vertical  dislocation  of  a  lode.  The  Germans  include  all 
the  above  under  the  common  name  Verwerfung.  All  faults  are 
caused  by  a  movement  of  the  country;  although  such  a  motion 
does  not  necessarily  cause  a  fault.  It  is  only  necessary  that  the 
hanging-  or  foot- wall  should  have  been  dislocated;  on  the  other 
hand  botlTwalls  may  have  been  dislocated  in  contrary  directions 
or  with  different  degrees  of  intensity.  Most  faults  are  to  be 

explained  by  a  sinking  or  rising 
of  the  hanging-  or  foot -wall; 
some  by  a  horizontal  dislocation, 
or  even  by  a  subversion.  The 
appearance  of  a  fault  may  be 
&  caused  merely  by  the  opening 
of  a  fissure ;  when,  as  in  the  wood- 
cut, the  vein-fissure  (b)  intersects 
an  already  existing  vein  (a)  ob- 
liquely, instead  of  at  right 
a  angles. 

In  all  faults  the  extent  to  which  the  vein  has  been  thrown 
is  dependent  on 

1.  the  extent  of  the  dislocation,  and 

2.  the  angle  which  the  direction  of  the  motion   makes  with 
the  line  of  intersection. 

If  this  angle  =  O,  then  is  the  fault,  even  in  the  greatest  dis- 
location, imperceptible  in  the  position  of  the  halves  of  the 
vein;  or  more  properly  speaking,  no  real  fault  occurs;  it  can 
only  be  recognised  in  the  dissimilarity  of  the  contiguous  halves 
of  the  (intersected)  vein  which  have  been  severed  by  the  inter- 
secting vein.  In  the  following  wood-cut  the  vein  B  has  not 
heaved  the  lode  A,  which  is  here  supposed  to  lie  in  the  plane  of 
the  paper,  out  of  its  plane,  but  has  thrown  up  the  zone  (a)  more 
on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  When  this  angle  =  90°,  the 
fault  appears  as  great  as  the  motion  has  been. 


COMPLICATED  FAULTS 


31 


It  is  often  of  importance  to  the  miner,  to  be  able  to  deter- 
mine beforehand;  where  a  lode,  which  has  been  thrown,  continues 
on  the  other  side  of  the  fault:  this  can  be  only  done  with  a 
certain  degree  of  safety,  when  the  above  conditions  are  known. 
These,  especially  the  size  and  direction  of  the  throw,  can  only 
be  determined  for  particular  cases  by  practice;  that  is,  when  it 
has  been  observed,  how  the  lode  (a)  faults  the  lode  (£),  it  can  be 
calculated  how  the  same  lode  a  would  fault  a  third  and  older 
lode  (c). 


It  is  self-evident,  that  under  such  and  similar  circumstances 
the  position  of  the  lode  sought-for  can  be  accurately  calcula- 
ted. This  mathematical  portion  of  the  Theory  of  Veins  is  spe- 
cially treated  of  by  Schmidt  in  his  'Theorie  der  Verschiebungen 
alter  er  Gcinge',  Frankfurt.  1810;  Zimmermann  in  his  '  IVieder- 
ausrichtung  verworfener  Gauge,  Lager  und  Flotze' ,  Leipsic,  1828; 
by  Von  Carnall  in  Karsteris  Archiv,  vol.  IX.  1832;  and  by  Ch. 
Combes  in  his  'Traite  de  T exploitation  des  mines',  vol.  I. 

Sometimes  very  complicated  cases  of  faults  occur,  which 
appear  hardly  explicable ;  until  the  position  of  the  planes  of  the 
lodes  is  exactly  known,  and  it  has,  at  the  same  time,  been  de- 
termined, which  of  the  fissures  were  combined  with  the  faults. 
A  few  examples  may  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  great  possi- 
bility of  such  complicated  cases,  whereby  no  one  should  permit 


32    COMPLICATED  FAULTS,  AND  RESULTS  OF  DISLOCATIONS. 

'^^w 

himself  to  doubt  the  mathematical  correctness  and  solution  of  all 
these  appearances. 

Two  lodes  (a)  and  (b\  which,  in  a  cross-section,  are  apparently 
parallel,  seem  to  be  heaved-  in  opposite  directions  by  the  inter- 
section of  a  third  and  more  recent  lode  (c);  which  appearance 
is  easily  explained,  when  the  lodes  (a)  and  (6)  dip  towards  each 
other,  and  the  section  A  of  the  country  has  been  raised,  or  the 
section  -B  sunk. 


A 


Further,  an  older  lode  apparently  faults  a  more  recent  one; 
as  for  example,  the  more  recent  lode  (&),  in  the  following  wood- 
cut, intersects  the  older  (a)  and  is  still  heaved;  this  has  however 
not  been  caused  by  the  original  fissure  of  the  lode  (a),  but  by  a 
later  tearing  open  of  a  fissure  (c),  which  has  not  been  filled,  by 
the  side  of  the  lode  (a). 

In  the  same  manner  two  lodes  may  apparently  fault  one  another. 


RESULTS  OF  DISLOCATIONS. 

§  20.  When  one  half  of  a  rock-mass,  traversed  by  a 
fissure,  has  slidden  up  or  down,  other  phenolnena  besides  faults 
may  be  produced. 


OCCURRENCE  OF  LODES.  33 

For  example:  1.  great  irregu- 
larity in  the  thickness  of  the  mass 
filling  the  fissure  of  the  slide.  As 
the  fissures  rarely  follow  true 
planes,  but  are  more  or  less 
curved ;  it  frequently  happens, 
that  the  convexities,  as  also  the 
concavities,  of  one  of  the  walls 
are  opposite  those  of  the  other. 

In  the  extreme  case,  which  the 
woodcut  represents,  and  in  all  simi- 
lar ones,  the  width  of  the  fissure  or 
thickness  of  the  lode  must  of 
course  be  locally  very  variable. 

2.  By  reason  of  the  disloca- 
The  white  dotted  line  is  supposed  tions,  which  cause  a  violent  tri- 

to  represent  the  vertical  section  of  the  turation  of  the  walls  On  each  other, 

orifriniil     line  •  of    tlio   iissiirG     owin^r   to  i  •    ?             •  7                  /••*•                   /» 

dislocation  the    arts  a  and  a1   b  and  b2  **&£&*  Sides    or  jrtction   Surfaces 

which  originally  were  opposite  one  an  are     very      Commonly      produced, 

which  exhibit  a  smooth,  some- 
times, even  polished  surface:  on 
these  parallel  furrows,  grooves  or  scratches  are  very  frequently 
perceptible,  which  at  the  same  time  indicate  the  direction  in 
which  the  dislocation  has  taken  place. 

3.  These  dislocations  have  also  frequently  produced  a  line 
powder,  which  has  been  afterwards  transformed  by  softening 
into  a  sort  of  clay.  The  origin  of  many  clay  veins  and  clay 
selvages  can  be  explained  in  this  manner,  while  some  are  per- 
haps only  the  result  of  decomposition. 

OCCURRENCE  OF  LODES. 

§  21.  As  a  rule,  lodes  occur  associated  together;  so  that 
when  one  lode  has  been  discovered,  there  is  a  great  probability 
that  others  of  a  similar  kind  will  be /ound  in  the  neighborhood: 
they  are  generally  arranged  in  groups  tolerably  parallel  to  one 
another,  and  form  what  the  Germans  call  a  Gangzug,  of  which 
several  may  traverse  the  same  district  in  different  directions. 
As  for  example,  at  Freiberg. 

Lodes  are  also  usually  found  in  regions,  in  which  igneous  rocks 
have  burst  through  crystalline  schists  or  stratified  deposits.  In  a 

3 


34  OCCURRENCE  OF  LODES. 

general  sense  they  belong  to  the  contact-phenomena  of  igneous  rocks, 
many  are  even  contact- veins  in  the  more  restricted  meaning;  in 
consequence  of  which,  they  are  much  more  frequent  in  moun- 
tainous regions  than  in  plains ;  since^the  upheaval  of  the  igneous 
rocks  has  very  commonly  caused  the  elevation  of  mountains, 
either  directly  or,  at  least,  as  a  consequence. 

Fournet  has  even  attempted  to  bring  particular  classes  of 
lodes  in  causal "  combination  with  particular  kinds  of  igneous 
rocks,  to  co-ordinate  them.  Although  I,  myself,  translated  Four- 
net's  instructive  treatise  on  this  subject  in  1846,  still  a  special 
co-ordination  of  this  kind  appears  to  me  no  longer  tenable, 
although  the  idea  is  upheld  by  many  facts. 

Lodes  occur  more  frequently  in  rock  formations  of  great 
age,  than  in  the  very  recent  ones :  certain  classes  of  them,  as  the 
lodes  of  tin  ore,  are  found  only  in  the  oldest  rocks.  The  more 
recent  the  formation  of  the  igneous  rocks,  so  much  the  more 
rarely  are  they  accompanied  by  lodes,  the  very  recent  only  by 
lodes  of  ironstone.  The  fact  of  lodes  accompanying  igneous  rocks 
by  no  means  excludes  the  possibility,  that  the  last  should  be 
traversed  by  them;  it  depends,  much  more,  on  a  similar  relation 
to  their  respective  age ;  as  in  the  case  of  the  crystalline  schists, 
and  the  still  distinctly  sedimentary  deposits. 

All  these  circumstances  are  in  the  best  accord  with  the 
hereafter  to  be  proved  acceptation;  that  the  fissures  of  lodes  are 
the  consequences  of  plutonic  or  volcanic  concussions ;  their  filling, 
the  result  of  more  or  less  deep  underground,  consequently  in 
this  sense  plutonic,  actions.  The  formation  of  fissures,  as 
well  as  .their  filling,  still  continues.  This  continuous  (only 
locally  changing)  process  gives  near  the  surface  a  different  result 
from  that  in  the  interior  of  the  earth;  hence  occurs  the,  to  a  certain 
extent,  constant  difference  of  age.  Metalliferous  veins,  which, 
from  their  nature,  were  formed  at  a  great  depth,  could  first  attain 
the  surface  only  by  means  of  a  great,  and  consequently  very  long 
continued,  decomposition  and  erosion  of  the  rocks  covering 
them.  The  less,  on  the  contrary,  the  original  covering  (depth)  . 
was,  under  which  they  were  formed;  so'  much  the  more  easily 
and  rapidly  could  it  (the  covering)  under  otherwise  like  circum- 
stances be  destroyed,  and  what  lies  under  it  be  laid  free.  All 
plutonic  formations  must  consequently  appear  older,  the  greater 
the  depth  at  which  they  were  originally  formed. 


BREADTH,  STRIKE.  AND  DIP.  OF  LODES.  35 

There  may,  indeed,  be  exceptions  to  this  rule,  when  the  decom- 
position and  erosion  has  in  any  place  been  very  energetic  and 
rapid;  but  the  general  rule  is  not  altered  by  such  exceptions. 
In  the  prospecting  for,  and  tracing  of,  metalliferous  veins,  it 
is  well  to  keep  this  rule  in  mind.  I  will  return  to  this  subject 
hereafter. 

BREADTH,  STRIKE,  AND  DIP,  OF  LODES. 

§  22.  As  already  remarked  in  §  16,  it  is  impossible  to  give 
a  mean  breadth  for  lodes  in  general;  there  are  some  exceeding 
a  fathom  in  breadth,  although  the  majority  remain  under  this. 
The  breadth  of  each  separate  lode  also  is  frequently  very 
variable  in  different  portions.  This  dissimilarity  is,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  consequence  of  slides,  which  the  enclosing  walls  of  the 
fissure  have  undergone,  whereby  every  deviation  of  the  fissure 
from  a  plane  would  cause  a  widening  or  narrowing  of  the  same. 

Nor  can  any  determined  general  direction  of  strike  and  dip, 
or  a  measure  of  their  extension  in  length  and  depth,  be  given. 
The  direction  of  their  strike  and  dip  is  indeed  at  times  a  toler- 
ably constant  one;  they  occur  every  where  more  nearly  approaching 
a  perpendicular,  than  the  horizontal  position.  But  even  locally 
many  variations  occur  in  the  strike  and  dip ;  and  still  less  can  two 
separate  districts  of  veins  be  traced  back  to  a  special  law  of  the 
strike  and  dip.  If  we  consider  that  the  upheaval  of  igneous  rocks 
has  caused  the  formation  of  fissures,  it  cannot  well  be  other- 
wise, since  the  extent  of  their  length  follows  no  determined  law. 
What  Riviere  states  in  the  Compt.  rend.  Vol.  45.  p.  969,  about 
the  constant  direction  of  lodes,  especially  those  in  Europe  con- 
taining galena  and  blende,  appears  to  me  to  be  a  fantasy  similar 
to  that  of  Elie  de  Beaumont  concerning  the  law  of  crystallo- 
graphic  elevation. 

The  extension  of  lodes  in  the  direction  of  their  dip  is,  cer- 
tainly, in  most  cases  a  far  greater  one,  than  has  yet  been  attained  in 
mining.  It  is  customary  to  follow  lodes  substantially  in  both 
directions,  only  so  far  as  they  give  hopes  of  profit.  In  the  direc- 
tion of  the  strike,  that  is  essentially  conditioned  by  their  contents; 
for  when  a  vein  has  been  followed,  as  an  almost  sterile  fissure, 
for  a  couple  of  hundred  fathoms,  the  search  in  that  direction  is 
generally  given  up;  while  it  is  very  possible  that  it  would,  in 
the  next  hundred  fathoms,  prove  very  rich.  In  the  direction  of  the 

3* 


36  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORES  IN  LODES. 

dip,  that  is  in  depth,  the  following'  of  a  vein  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult, on  account  of  encreased  difficulties  in  exploitation;  and  is 
impossible  beyond  a  certain  distance.  It  may  be  said  that,  by 
the  methods  employed  at  present  in'mining,  this  distance  must 
occur  at  a  perpendicular  depth  of  3000  feet ;  and  that  probably 
a  distance  of  10,000  feet  in  the  interior  of  the  earth  will  never 
be  reached.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is  very  probable,  that 
most  lodes  continue  to  a  far  greater  depth,  than  miners  can  follow 
them.  Up  to  the  present  time  it  has  never  been  proved,  that  a 
lode  has  been  followed  to  its  end,  that  is  to  where  the  fissure 
actually  ceased;  most  of  the  stated  cases,  concerning  the  wedging 
out  of  veins,  or  their  becoming  sterile  with  encreased  depth,  rest 
on  the  fact,  that  ores  are  generally  irregularly  distributed  in  the 
veins,  and  that  trial  workings  are  more  difficult  to  drive  in  the 
direction  of  the  dip,  than  of  the  strike.  As  long  as  the  fissures 
exist,  there  remains  a  possibility  of  their  widening  out  and  con- 


taining ore. 


On  this  subject  see  Burat  in  the  Annales  des  Mines  XI.  p.  27,  and 
Pernobet,  vol.  XII.  p.  307. 

The  so-called  'Gash  veins'  play  a  very  peculiar  part  in 
the  experience  of  vein  miners;  they  are  veins  which  continue, 
or  are  at  least  only  worth  mining,  for  a  short  distance  under 
the  sod;  and  are  always  confined  to  one  formation.  It  is  possible 
that  subordinate  fissures  of  the  earth's  crust  were  mechanically 
filled  with  ore,  from  above  inwards,  and  only  for  a  very  short 
distance;  so  for  example  with  stream  tin,  gold  sand,  oolithic  iron 
ore,  etc.  These  are  then  no  true  fissure  veins. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORES  IN  LODES. 

§  23.  The  unequal  distribution  of  the  ores  in  lodes  is  a 
very  important  subject  for  the  miner,  and  interesting  in  a  scien- 
tific point  of  view. 

In  very  many  lodes,  especially  those  the  gang  of  which 
consists  chiefly  of  quartz,  brownspar,  dialogite,  calcite,  spathic 
iron,  heavy  spar,  fluor  spar  or  combinations  of  the  same,  the 
ores  mingled  with  these  are  by  no  means  equally,  much  rather 
unequally  distributed;  in  consequence  of  which  the  richer  spots 
are  distinguished,  from  the  poorer  and  sterile  ones,  by  such  names 
as  chimneys,  bonanzas,  finds,  nests  of  ore,  etc.  Such  lodes 
are  very  seldom  paying  in  their  whole  extent:  as  a  rule,  only 


DIFFERENCES  OF  DEPTH.  37 

separated  aggregations,  necessitating  the  search  for  other 
similar  ones  after  these  have  been  worked  out.  It  would,  naturally, 
be  not  only  scientifically  interesting,  but  also  practically  of  the 
greatest  importance,  to  learn,  if  possible,  the  causes  or  the  law 
of  this  unequal  distribution  of  ores.  Unfortunately  this  has 
not,  up  to  the  present  time,  been  discovered;  approaches  to 
this  knowledge  having  been  only  recently  begun,  and  most 
of  the  researches  in  this  direction  being  still  much  scattered. 

I  shall  attempt  to  collect  here  the  most  important  researches 
already  made,  adding  a  few  remarks: — these  researches  relate 
chiefly  to  differences  of  depth,  breadth,  country,  local  direction 
of  strike  or  dip;  and,  as  regards  the  lodes,  to  still  unknown 
causes. 

DIFFERENCES  OF  DEPTH. 

^  24.  In  many  districts  where  vein  mining  is  pursued,  there 
exists,  or  did  for  a  long  time  exist,  the  opinion,  that  lodes  are 
only  productive  to  a  certain  depth,  all  below  this  depth  being 
sterile.  This  opinion  has  been  caused  in  most  cases  by  the  cir- 
cumstance, that  the  opening  and  working  of  mines  are  easier  at 
small  depths  than  at  great  ones,  that  the  difficulties  to  be  over- 
come encrease  with  the  depth,  and  that  in  consequence  much 
more  extended  trial-workings  have  been  driven  in  the  horizontal 
direction  of  the  strike,  than  in  the  perpendicular  or  inclined  one 
of  the  dip.  When  a  chimney  or  pocket  of  ore  accidentally  ceased 
at  a  depth  of  100  fathoms,  the  miners  determined  with  much 
greater  reluctance  to  sink  50  fathoms  farther  on  a  lode  destitute 
of  ore,  in  order  perhaps  to  reach  a  new  chimney,  than  to  drift 
50  fathoms  in  a  horizontal  direction.  All  statements  relating  to 
a  real  disappearance  of  the  ore  in  a  vertical  direction  are  there- 
fore to  be  accepted  with  a  certain  degree  of  distrust,  and  must 
be  first  subjected  to  a  most  searching  examination.  It  is  a  priori 
very  improbable,  that  lodes,  as  such,  should  cease  at  the  pro- 
portionally slight  depth  which  mining  is  able  to  reach.  It  is 
entirely  another  thing,  when  experience  shows  that  the  nature  of 
the  ore  changes  with  encreasing  depth. 

That  is  already  a  priori  probable;  and  mining  experience 
would  give  many  more  proofs  of  the  same,  were  not  the  field  of 
observation  such  a  limited  one  in  the  direction  of  the  depth. 
There  are  but  very  few  metal  mines,  which  have  reached  a 
greater  perpendicular  depth  than  2000  feet;  by  far  the  greater 


3H  VARIOUS  NAMES  OF  OUTCROP. 

number   of  observations   relate    therefore    to   the   slight   zone   of 
2000  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

A  certain  kind  of  difference  is  very  generally  observed  be- 
tween the  upper  and  lower  depths  of4odes;  namely,  those  which 
are  caused  by  decompositions  and  transformations  of  the  outcrop. 
This  is  not  a  primary,  but  a  secondary  difference,  caused  by 
the  penetration  of  atmospheric  air,  infiltration  of  water,  etc.  As 
really  occurring  this  is  important  to  the  miner,  but  must  be  most 
carefully  separated  from  real  difference  of  depth;  which,  often 
.difficult,  is  always  more  so,  where  both  kinds  of  difference  of 
depth  occur  together.  I  will  first  examine  the  secondary  diffe- 
rences of  the  outcrop,  and  then  pass  to  primary  differences  of 
depth. 

GOSSAN,  IRON  HAT,  CHAPEAU  EN  FER,  PACOS, 
COLORADOS. 

§  25.  The  altered  outcrop  of  lodes  has  received  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  these  various  names;  which  are  all  to  be 
attributed,  according  to  Haidinger's  Terminology,  to  anogene l 
metamorphoses. 

In  Germany  the  outcrop  or  upper  portion  of  many  lodes, 
especially  those  rich  in  metallic  sulphides,  has  been  called  Iron 
Hat  (eiserner  Hut)',  since  the  peroxide  and  hydrated  peroxide 
of  iron  are  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphides  con- 
taining a  large  percentage  of  iron  (iron  pyrites,  magnetic  pyrites, 
chalcopyrite,  mispickel,  blende) ;  which,  being  disseminated  through 
the  whole  gang,  gives  a  predominant  red  or  brown  color. 
This  mass  resembles  iron  stone,  and  can  in  some  cases  be  used 
as  such.  Other  substances  besides  the  metallic  sulphides  and 
spathic  iron  have  been  subjected  to  decomposition,  but  contri- 
bute less  to  the  peculiar  coloring  of  the  iron  hat;  for  example 
from  galena,  chalcopyrite  and  copper  glance,  all  the  other  lead 
and  copper  ores  have  been  formed.  This  formation  of  the  iron 
hat  in  lodes,  by  the  decomposition  of  the  sulphides  and  spathic 
iron  (frequently  extending  to  a  depth  of  many  fathoms),  natu- 
rally presupposes  that  the  sulphides  and  spathic  iron  were  origi- 
nally present;  and,  as  these  are  frequently  combined  with  silver 
and  lead  ores  or  gold,  it  may  be  an  indicator  of  rich  deposits 
of  ore.  From  this  circumstance  sprang  the  old  German  rhyme 

1  Set\  §  171  foot-note. 


PRIMARY  DIFFERENCES  OF  DEPTH.  39 

Es  that  kein  Gang  so  gut, 

Er  hat  einen  eisernen  Hut. l 

This  rule  is  subject  to  many  exceptions,  and  only  holds  good  for 
those  districts  of  veins  in  which  the  sulphides  occur  with  rich 
ore.  The  Cornish  term  Gossan  has  sprung  from  similar,  but  not 
always  predominating  ferriferous  and  red-colored,  products  of  decom- 
position; the  same  is  true  ofthePacos,  Colorados,  and  Negril- 
lo s  of  the  South  American  miners,  which  frequently  show  a  very 
variegated  color  caused  by  different  oxides  and  salts  of  copper, 
chloride  of  silver  (bromide  and  iodide  of  silver),  salts  of  lead,  etc. 
The  general  character  of  these  altered  outcroppings  of  lodes 
consists  in  a  decomposition  and  softening  of  the  mass  of  the 
wall  rock,  lack  of  sulphides,  predominance  of  metallic  oxides, 
metallic  salts,  combinations  with  water,  carbonic  acid,  phos- 
phoric acid,  arsenic  acid,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  etc.,  which 
frequently  produce  very  dazzling  colors:  these  products  of  trans- 
formation are  frequently  accompanied  by  metallic  copper  and 
silver,  whkh  have  separated.  With  encreasing  depth  these  pro- 
ducts of  decomposition  pass  over,  often  very  gradually,  into  the 
sulphides  and  spathic  iron,  which  at  last  altogether  predominate. 

PKIMARY  DIFFERENCES  OF  DEPTH. 

§  26.  I  will  begin  the  examination  of  this  subject  by  enu- 
merating a  few  examples. 

1.  On  the  Rathhausberg,  Raurieser  Tauern,  etc.,  in  the 
Salzburg  Alps  the  crystalline  schists  are  traversed  by  veins  of 
auriferous  quartz.  These  same  veins  are  apparently  traversing 
the  neighboring  valley  gorges,  which  are  in  some  places  over 
200  feet  deep.  These  veins  appear  to  contain  no  gold  in 
the  niveau  of  the  valleys,  at  least  this  is  only  obtained  from 
them  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  at  a  height  of  6  to  8000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  consequently  under  very  unfavorable  circum- 
stances as  regards  climate.  It  would  be  in  every  way  more 
profitable,  were  it  possible,  to  work  the  lodes  from  the  deep 
valleys;  but  the  quartz  veins  appear  to  contain  gold  only  in 
their  upper  portions,  it  being  no  longer  present  in  those  por- 
tions which  have  been  laid  open  by  the  deep  valleys.  As  this 
phenomenon  recurs  in  many  lodes  of  this  district,  it  cannot  be 


1  There  is  no  lode  like  that, 
Which  has  an  iron  hat. 


40 


PRIMARY  DIFFERENCES  OF  DEPTH. 


properly  assigned  to  chance.  At  Ponte  grande,  in  the  Province 
of  Ossola,  auriferous  pyrites  are  only  obtained  at  a  height  of 
about  3000  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  valley. 

2.  According  to  Oscar  Lieber,  many  lodes  in  North  and  South 
Carolina  appear  to  contain  gold  in  their  upper  portions,  which 
lower  down  contain  lead  and  copper  ores  and  hardly  any  gold. 
According  to  Lieber  the  succession  from  above  downwards  was 
gold,  lead,  copper ;  not  observed,  it,  is  true,  in  one  and  the  same 
lode,  but  deduced  from  a  combination  of  several  observations. 
He  found  that  lodes  in  North  and  South  Carolina  of  otherwise 
very  similar  mineralogical  character  contained,  in  the  depths 
reached  by  mining,  now  gold,  now  lead  ores,  now  copper  ores; 
and  that  in  some  cases  lead  ores  occurred  under  the  gold,  in 
others  copper  ores;  while  in  still  other  lodes  the  copper^ores 
were  found  under  lead  ores.  From  these  facts  he  constructed 
a  plan  of  the  succession  of  ores  as  shown  in  the  woodcut. 


Gold 


Lead 


Copper 


The  line  aa  represents  the  original,  the  line  bb  the  present 
surface.  The  lode  1  would  still  contain  all  three  of  the  metalli- 
ferous zones,  the  lode  2  only  the  lead  and  copper  zones,  3  again 
all  three,  4  only  the  gold  and  copper  zones,  finally  5  only  the 
copper  zone. 

This  representation  is  certainly  very  hypothetical;  but  it  is,  ac. 
to  Lieber,  sustained  by  facts,  many  of  which  he  has  contributed 
to  the  Author's  Gangstudien,  from  which  it  appears  to  follow 
that  the  gold  is  only  found  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  lodes. 
Prof.  Shepard  and  James  Eights  in  the  N.  Y.  Mining  Magazine 
for  1858,  Vol.  X.  p.  27 1'  and  Vol.  XL  p.  136,  assert,  on  the  con- 
trary, that  the  quartz  lodes  in  North  Carolina  and  Georgia 
also  contained  auriferous  copper  and  iron  pyrites  at  greater 


PRIMARY  DIFFERENCES  OF  DEPTH.  41 

depths ;  but  that  the  gold  is  only  perceptible  and  easily  recogni- 
sed in  their  upper  decomposed  portion  (gossan),  in  the  ferru- 
ginous quartz  and  iron  ochre,  while  at  great  depths  it  is  imper- 
ceptible in  the  undecomposed  pyrites.  Murchison  is  also  of  the 
opinion,  that  gold  decreases  with  the  depth  in  all  gold  veins,  and 
soon  entirely  ceases :  a  statement,  which  is  apparently  contra- 
dicted by  the  Grass  Valley  and  other  mines  of  California. 

3.  Near  Seiffen  in  the  Erzgebirge  many  tin  lodes  are  known 
in  the  gneiss  district,  which,  according  to  company  reports,  grad- 
ually pass  over  with  encreasing  depth  into  lodes  of  argentiferous 
copper  ore. 

4.  In  the  ore  district  lying  north  and  northwest  of  Freiberg 
it  has  been  found,  that  in  the  so-called  edle  Quarzformation  (as 
for  example,  the  Alte  and  Neue  Hojjnung  mines)  the  veins  be- 
came poorer  with  the  depth,  while  in  the  lodes  of  the  barytische 
Bleiformation  they   encreased    in  richness.     Up    to    the  present 
time  it  has  been  impossible  to  determine,  whether  this  change  is 
dependent  on  the  depth,  or  has,   perhaps,   been  caused  by  other 
circumstances. 

5.  According  to  Vogelgesang,   the   real  percentage   of  iron 
in  the  lodes    of  Przibram    in  Bohemia    is    often   greater   in  the 
g  ossan  than  in  the  undecomposed  portions  of  the  lodes;  the  upper 
decomposed  regions  contain,  on  the  other  hand,  but  little  silver, 
even  in  those  places  where  it  occurs  in  workable  quantities  be- 
neath.    In  this  case  it  would  appear  as  if  secondary  differences 
of   depth    were    combined   with   primary    ones,    a    circumstance 
which  may  frequently  occur  without  being  so  easily  recognised. 

,  6.  Lill  von  Lilienbach  states  of  these  same  Przibram  lodes, 
that  their  contents  encreased  in  richness  to  a  depth  of  200  fa- 
thoms, but  have  remained  constant  from  that  depth  to  one  of 
300  fathoms. 

7.  Von  Tschudi  states  ofOruro  in  Bolivia,  which  lies  12400 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  was  renowned  in  former  centuries  for 
its  great  silver  riches,  that  it  is  at  present  in  a  state  of  great 
decay.  The  observation  made  in  many  districts ;  that  argentife- 
rous lodes  are  very  rich  in  their  outcroppings,  and  becoming 
poorer  with  the  depth,  soon  pass  over  into  ores  containing  no 
silver ;  has  been  found  true  in  each  of  the  numerous  mines  of  Oruro. 

Other  examples  of  this  kind  will  be  given  in  the  second 
portion  of  the  book. 


42  THEORETICAL  EXAMINATION. 


THEORETICAL  EXAMINATION. 

§  27.  Were  it  generally  proved?  that  a  primary  difference 
in  the  contents  of  lodes  was  dependent  on  their  depth,  we  could, 
in  the  main,  easily  explain  them.  It  would  be  easily  conceiv- 
able, that  the  continuous  encrease  of  heat  and  pressure,  in  lissures 
extending  to  great  depths,  should  have  had  an  influence  in  depo- 
siting irregularly  on  the  walls  of  the  lissures  the  precipitate  from 
a  solution.  The  column  of  a  solution  in  a  fissure  1000  feet 
high,  its  hydrostatic  pressure,  and  the  necessary  encrease  of  20 
degrees  in  temperature,  might  easily  have  caused  differences  in 
the  nature  of  the  deposits  in  the  fissure,  corresponding  to  the 
depth.  The  dissimilar  zones,  in  the  contents  of  lodes,  correspon- 
ding to  the  depth,  can  be  more  easily  explained  in  this  way,  than 
proved.  It  is  indeed  easily  supposable,  that  many  dissimilar  so- 
called  vein  formations,  with  which  we  have  become  acquainted 
in  distinct  lodes,  are  in  the  main  but  formations,  of  unequal 
depth. 

If  we  imagine,  that  certain  mineral  solutions,  when  deposited 
in  fissures  extending  to  a  great  depth,  give  as  a  result  in  the 
upper  zone,  to  a  depth  of  5000  feet,  the  vein  formation  a,  in 
the  zone  of  the  next  5000  feet  the  vein  formation  b,  and  in  the 
third,  lower,  zone  the  vein  formation  c;  then  dissimilar  veins  a, 
5,  or  c,  would  be  accessible  to  miners,  according  as  the  original 
surface  has  remained,  or  has  been  destroyed  to  a  depth  of  5000 
to  10>000  feet. 

The  case  is  still  more  striking,  if  we  suppose,  that  certain 
fissures  A  were  filled  with  mineral  matter,  while  the  original 
surface  still  existed  ;  others  B,  after  the  upper  5000  feet  had  been 
eroded;  and  still  others  (7,  after  the  surface  had  been  washed 
away  to  a  depth  of  10,000  feet.  We  then  find  at  the  surface, 
and  within  reach  of  mining  operations,  the  three  vein  formations 
a,  b  and  c  together,  as  if  being  three  different  vein  formations 
of  unequal  age;  while  in  reality  the  upper  portions,  the  original 
outcrops,  of  the  veins  a  and  b  are  wanting;  the  differences 
existing  are  only  those  of  depth. 

This  is  entirely  an  ideal  supposition,  at  the  present  time 
without  practical  value;  but  it  appears  worth  mentioning,  since 
it  may  draw  attention  to  comparative  researches,  and  possibly 
lead  to  the  right  theory. 


LOCAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORES. 

A 


43 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  BREADTH  OF  FISSURES  ON  THE 
LOCAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORES. 

§  28.  The  general  or  the  local  breadth  of  fissures  has  evi- 
dently exerted  a  double  influence  on  the  special  development  of 
the  mass  filling  them.  In  the  first  place,  the  solution,  whatever 
might  be  its  nature,  could  circulate  more  freely,  the  minerals 
which  crystallized  out  had  more  room  for  expansion,  in  broader 
lodes  or  the  broader  parts  of  a  lode.  Then,  in  the  second  place, 
in  the  cases  of  successive  combed  deposits,  more  single  layers 
of  like  thickness  could  form  over  one  another  during  a  longer 
period  of  time  in  a  wide  fissure,  than  in  a  narrow  one;  so  long 
as  places  of  great  breadth  were  not,  by  narrowing,  enclosed  on 
all  sides  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  solution  was  not  able  to 
penetrate  farther.  In  this  case  geodes  were  formed. 

If  we  imagine  a  solution  of  any  kind  to  flow  through  a  fis- 
sure, which  is  here  and  there  broad  and  narrow,  the  motion  of 
the  fluid  must  necessarily  be  more  rapid  in  the  narrow  portions, 
than  in  the  broad  ones;  for  this  reason  deposits  would  take  place 
more  easily  in  the  broad  places,  than  in  the  narrow  ones. 

In  a  banded  structure  of  the  lodes  the  dissimilarity  may, 
as  mentioned,  be  caused  by  the  last  layers  finding  no  place  for 
development  in  the  narrower  portions.  When  the  more  recent 


44  LOCAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORES. 


layers  are  of  a  somewhat  different  nature  from  the  older,  outer 
ones;  the  relative  nature  of  the  whole  lode  would  necessarily  be 
altered.^? 

We   will  examine   this  Case  more^closely  by  means  of  very 
general  and  ideal  examples.     Let  us  imagine  four  dissimilar  but 
equally  broad  bands  successively  deposited  in  a  lode,  but  in  the 
narrower  portions  of  the  fissure  only  space  for  two  or  three  of  the 
same,  or  in  other  words  that  they  had  already  filled  the  fissure. 
It  would  then   depend  on  the    relative  metallic  value   of  the  se- 
parate bands,  in  which  places  the  lode  was  relatively,  or  absolu- 
tely, the  richest,  in  the  narrower  or  in  the  broader. 
Let  all  four  bands  be  equally  thick,  and  contain 
the  first  band  no  metal, 

the  second  band  1  per  cent  (of  perhaps  Silver)> 
the  third  band  2  per  cent, 
the  fourth  band  3  per  cent': 

then  the  lode   contains,    where    only   the  two   outer  layers  have 
been  deposited,    altogether    only   y2   per   cent;   where  the    third 
occurs  with  them,  1  per  cent  by  1/s  more  gang;  and  when  the 
fourth  is  also  developed,   ll/2  per  cent  by  twice  as  much  gang. 
When  however  the  case  is  Teversed,  and  they  contain 
the  first  layer       3  per  cent, 
the  second  layer  2  per  cent, 
the  third  layer      1  per  cent, 
the  fourth  layer    0  per  cent: 

it  gives  inversely  the  greatest  metallic  value  (=  2]/2  per  cent) 
in  that  portion  of  the  lode  containing  only  the  two  outer  layers, 
the  smallest  (=  lV-a  per  cent)  in  that  portion  which  is  twice  as 
broad  containing  all  four  layers.  The  absolute  value  is  naturally 
still  the  greatest  in  the  last  case,  since  the  lode  is  twice  as  broad. 
It  is  hoped  this  ideal  example  will  aid  in  estimating  the 
extraordinary  variety  of  the  possible  real  cases.  Still  this  exa- 
mination into  the  influence  of  the  unequal  breadth  of  a  vein  fissure 
cannot,  without  something  additional,  be  applied  to  two  different 
unequally  broad,  fissures;  since  the  conditions  of  the  influx  may 
have  been  very  dissimilar. 

The  union  of  branches  into  a  single  lode,  or  the  reverse,  the 
splitting  up  of  a  lode  into  several  smaller  ones,  has  frequently 
been  assigned  as  the  reason  of  the  richness  or  poverty  of  the 
same.  The  fact  is  indisputable.  But  the  reason,  strictly  speaking, 
is  not  the  union  or  splitting  up,  as  such,  but  only  the  changes 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  COUNTRY.     45 

in  the  breadth  of  the  lode  connected  with  it;  when  the  single 
branches  are  not  of  different  ages,  and  in  this  case  have  acted 
on  one-  another,  as  if  being  a  portion  of  the  country. 

I  now  come  to  the  influence  caused  by  the  nature  of  the 
enclosing  rocks. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

§  29.  Formerly  this  influence  on  the  distribution  of  the  mat- 
ter filling  the  lodes,  especially  the  useful  ores,  was  only  known 
in  the  most  prominent  cases,  as  for  example  in  the  junction  of 
veins,  in  which  an  older  vein  formed  for  a  short  distance  the 
wall  of  a  more  recent  one;  and  in  such  striking  cases,  as  those 
observed  in  Cumberland  and  Derbyshire,  where  the  lodes  are  very 
variable  between  argillaceous  shale,  sandstone,  limestone  and  trap. 

I  will  first  enumerate  a  few  of  the  most  striking  cases. 

1 .  Around  Freiberg, l  and  in  several  similar  ore-districts,  it 
has  been  long  known;  that  two  lodes  are,  as  a  rule,  richer  in 
ores  in  the  neighborhood  of  their  intersection,  than  in  their  re- 
maining extent.  This  is  especially  perceptible,  when  a  younger 
vein  intersects  an  older  one,  so  that  this  last  forms  for  a  certain 
distance  one  of  the  walls  of  the  former;  and  the  effect,  thus 
caused,  is  generally,  other  relations  being  equal,  so  much  the 
greater,  the  more  acute  the  angle  at  which  the  intersection  takes 
place.  Which  fact  is  easily  conceivable;  since  with  equal  breadth, 
the  plane  of  contact  of  the  lodes  is  greater,  the  more  acute  the 
angle  at  which  they  intersect.  This  holds  good,  when  two  veins 
of  unequal  age  meet  without  intersecting,  when  they  join  one 
another  so  as  to  form  a  double  lode ;  no  matter  whether  the 
fissure  for  the  more  recent  vein  has  been  formed  at  one  of  the 
selvages,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  older  one.  The  planes  of  con- 
tact are  naturally  the  greatest  in  the  last  case. 

But  since  in  all  these  cases,  in  addition  to  the  size  of  the 
planes  of  contact,  the  nature  also  of  the  older  vein,  and  the  quantity 
or  quality  of  the  solution  which  has  penetrated  into  the  new 
fissure  (on  which  the  amount  of  ore  is  dependent),  are  of  the 
greatest  influence;  it  is  easily  comprehensible,  that  an  equal  or 
even  considerable  enrichment  does  not  always  occur  when  two 
veins  meet.  In  fact,  it  has  been  exceptionally  observed,  that  an 


1  See:  Von  Cotta's  Gangstudien.    Vol.  I.  p. 


46  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  NATURE 

empoverishment  of  lodes  occurs  in  intersections;  which  may 
possibly  arise  from  the  older  .vein  being  shattered,  and  by  which 
a  subsequent  washing  out  of  the  ore  in  the  same  was  facilitated. 
What  is  still  more  striking  is  the  *fact,  that  occasionally  an 
enrichment  of  the  older,  intersected  vein,  has  taken  place  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  junction.  This  has  very  probably  been 
caused  by  the  solution  penetrating  fine  clefts  of  the  same,  and  in 
this  case  belongs  to  the  phenomena  of  impregnation. 

Several  examples  are  added  to  the  above,  which  are  so  far 
similar,  in  that  their  metalliferous  contents  have  been  caused  by 
the  favorable  influence  of  the  country. 

2.  At  Schweina1  and  Kamsdorf,  in  the  Thuringian  Forest, 
as  also  near  Riegelsdorf  in  Hesse  Cassel,  the  Zechstein,  Kupfer- 
schiefer,  Grauliegendes,  Rothliegendes,  granite,  gneiss  and  mica 
schist,  are  traversed  by  veins  in  which  heavy  spar  predominates. 
In  those  places  whe^e  the  veins  are  enclosed  in  Kupferschiefer, 
or  metalliferous    Grauliegendes ,    they   contain    productive  quan- 
tities of  cobalt-  nickel-  and  copper-ores;   while  those  portions  of 
the  veins  enclosed  in  the  other  rocks,   contain  hardly  any-tiring 

.  but  heavy  spar. 

3.  At  Kongsberg2  in  Norway  the  country  consists  chiefly 
of  mica  schist,  hornblende  schist,  talc  schist  and  chlorite   schist. 
Certain    belts   or  zones    of  these   crystalline  schists   show  them- 
selves for  an  extent  of  several  miles,  with  but  few  breaks,  more 
or  less  richly  impregnated  to  a  breadth  of  several  hundred  feet 
with   iron  pyrites,    copper  pyrites    and   blende.     These   last  are 
mostly  disseminated  through  the  rock  in  extremely  fine  and  hardly 
perceptible  particles,  so  that  they  are,  at  times,   first  discovered 
on  the  surface,  in  consequence  of  their  'decomposing  and  impart- 
ing a  brown  color  to  the  rock.     These   zones   are   called   'Fall- 
bands',  and  are  of  great  importance  to  the  mining  at  Kongsberg ; 
since  the  silver  lodes,  which  intersect  the  strata  diagonally,   are 
as  a  rule  only  .rich  within  the  Fallbands,   and   outside   of  them 
contain  but  little*  silver. 

4.  At  Braunsdorf  3  near  Freiberg  the  veinsN,  of  the  so-called 
Edle.  Quarzformation,    are   enclosed  in  mica  schist,  which   con- 

1  See:     Tantscher  in  Karsten's  Archiv.    1834,  Vol.  VII.  p.  606;  Hauser 
in  Leonhard's  Jahrbuch  f.  Mineralogie,  1819,  p.  311. 

2  See:  Hausmann,  Reise  durch  Scandinavien,  II.  p.  12;  Daubre'e,  Scan- 
dinavien's  Erzlagerstatten,  p.  -44;  Whitney,  Metallic  Wealth,  etc.    p.  42. 

3  See:  Von  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  Vol.  I.  p.  217. 


OF  THE  COUNTRY.    .  47 

tains  an  irregular  layer  of  black  graphitic  schist,  the  so-called 
schwarzen  Gebirge.  The  veins  have  been  only  found  productive 
in  the  black  schist:  in  the  common  mica  schist  they  are  very 
poor. 

5.  In   Cumberland 1    lodes   of  lead   occur   in    carboniferous 
limestone,  which  alternates  with  sandstone  and  argillaceous  shales. 
The  lodes  are  only  broad  and  productive,  when  enclosed  in  the 
limestone,    split  up    into    branches:    and   non-productive    in    the 
sandstone  and  shales. 

6.  In  Derbyshire  the  carboniferous  limestone,  with  subordi- 
nate layers  of  greenstone,  locally  called  toadstone,  encloses  lodes 
of  lead-ores;  which,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  are  broad  and  pro- 
ductive only  in  the  limestone,  split  up  into  branches  and  unpro- 
ductive in  the  greenstone. 

7.  Near  Marazion  and  Goldsithney 2  in  Cornwall  the  green- 
stones are  crossed  by  elvans\  and  both    are  traversed  by    lodes, 
which  in  the  greenstones  contain  copper  pyrites,  but  where  they 
come  in  contact  with  the  elvans,  they  also  yield  copper  glance. 

8.  Almost  the  whole  mineral  wealth   of  Cornwall3    appears 
to  occur  within  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles  on  each  side  of 
the  junction  of  the    slate  and  granite.     Yet  no  part  of  the  line 
itself  seems  to  have  been  more  productive,   than  any  other  spot 
of  equal  extent  within  the  distance  already  mentioned;  and  though 
the  lodes  not  uncommonly  run  for  several  fathoms  with  granite 
on    one    side  and   slate  on    the   other,   yet  the  portions   so   con- 
tained between  dissimilar   rocks    are    not    generally  the  richest. 

9.  Fox4  says  in  addition;   'Lodes  in  Cornwall  are  very  much 
influenced  by  the  nature  of  the  rock  which  they  traverse;  and  they 
often  change  in  this  respect  very  suddenly,  in  passing  from  one 
rock  to  another.    Thus  many  lodes  which  yield  an  abundance  of 
ore  in  granite,  are  unproductive  in  clay-slate,  or  killas,  and  vice 
versa.     The  same  observation  applies-  to  killas  and  the  granitic 
porphyry  called  elvan.    Sometimes  in  the  same  continuous  vein, 
the  granite  will  contain  copper,  and  the  killas,  tin,  or  vice  versa1. 
Fox    attempts  to  explain  this  phenomenon  by  means  of  electric 
currents. 


1  See:  Dufrenoy,  Elie  de  Beaumont,  Coste  and  Perdonnet,  Voyage  me- 
tallurgique  en  Angleterre. 

2  See:  Trans,  royal  geplog.  soc.  of  Cornwall,  Vol.  V.  p.  32. 

3  See:  the  same,  p.  219. 

4  See:  Fox  on  mineral  veins,  p.  10. 


48  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  NATURE 

10.  At  Andreasberg  l   in  the  Hartz    the  walls  of  the  lodes 
consist,    partly   of  Palaeozoic  strata  and  quartzite,    in  which  the 
lodes  are  broad  and  productive  in  silver;  partly  of  slate,  in  which 
they  are  narrower  and  poorer. 

11.  At    Kaafjord2    in    Finland    the    country    consists    of 
diorite  and  arenaceous  clay-slate:   in  the  first  the  lodes  are  very 
rich  in   copper  ores,  in  the  last   they  are  contracted  and  unpro- 
ductive. 

12.  In  the  Salzburg  Alps  3  the  rock  consists  principally  of 
gneiss,  with  subordinate  strata  of  mica  schist  and  granular  lime- 
stone.   The  lodes  in  the  gneiss  consist  of  quartz  containing  gold ; 
in  the  mica  schist  they  are  generally  much  po'orer  in  gold;  and 
in  limestone  contain  no  gold,    but  in    its  place  silver    ores  with 
carbonates. 

13.  At  Przibram4   in  Bohemia  the  walls  of  the   lodes   are 
generally  composed  of  greywacke,  argillaceous  shales,  and  green- 
stones.   In  the  grey  wacke  the  "lodes  are  broad  and  productive,  in 
the  shales  narrow,  and  in  the  greenstones  very  much  contracted. 

14.  Near  Moschellandsberg    in   Rhenish   Bavaria   the    coal 
formation  is  traversed  by  lodes  of  quicksilver  ores;  and  the  mi- 
ners, according  to  Gumbel,  distinguish  certain  layers  by  the  name 
of  good  rock,    between    which    the   lodes   show   themselves    far 
richer,  than  between  other  so-called  bad  rock;    what  is  the  dif- 
torence,  Giimbel  unfortunately  does  not  mention. 

15.  At  Lake  Superior3    lodes  of  copper  intersect  amygda- 
loid, compact  greenstone,  conglomerate,  and  sandstone.  According 
to  Koch  and  Rivot,  they  are  very  rich  in  the  amygdaloid,   and 
mostly  two  feet  broad ;  in  greenstone  much  narrower,  #nd  unpro- 
ductive ;  in  conglomerate,  and  sandstone,  also  thinner,  and  mostly 
contain  no  copper,  but  calcite  and  calamine  in  its  place.    Accord- 
ing to  Hague  this  is  not  altogether  true. 

16.  At    the  Pindad  mine  in  the  State  of  Michicacan ,   Me- 
xico, lodes  of  dialogite  and  ruby  silver  traverse  an  older  and  a 
younger^  darker  hornblende   porphyry.    According   to  the  obser- 

See:  Hausmann  im  Herzinischen  Archiv,  p.  677. 

See:  Daubree.  Scandinaviens  Erzlagerstatten,  p.  34. 

See:  Reissacher  in  Haidinger's  Abhandhmgen,  II.  p.  17;  Cotta,  Geolog. 


Briefe 


aus  d.  Alpen,  1850,  p.  144. 


See:  Von  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  Vol.  I.  p.  322. 

See:  Koch,   die  Mineralgegenden  der  Vereinigten  Staaten;    Rivot   in 
Comptes  rendus,  1855,  Vol.  40.  p.  136. 


OF  THE  COUNTRY.  49 

vation  of  E.  Schleidens  these   contain  much    less  ruby   silver   in 
the  younger  porphyry  than  in  the  older  and  lighter  colored  qne. 

17.  Lieber  '   in  speaking  of  South  Carolina  says;  every  one 
who  has  been  engaged  with   us   in  vein  mining   must    have    re- 
marked, that  where  a  lode  comes  in  contact  with  a  vein  of  rock, 
intersects  it,  or  is  broken  through  by  it ;  a  local  enrichment  has 
always  taken  place.    This  enrichment  is  at  times  so  considerable 
that  many  lodes  have  only  been  productive  in  such  places.    The 
lodes  of  Carolina  contain  principally  gold  and  copper   ores,    the 
country  is  generally,  itacoluimt,  talc  schist,  mica  schist,  and  gneiss; 
the  veins  of  rock,  or  dikes,  consist  chiefly  of  greenstones,  phono- 
lith,  etc. 

18.  Daub2  thought  he  observed  in  the  Black' Forest  a  differ- 
ence  of  the   percentage    of   silver  ores   in  veins    of  heavy  spar, 
according  as  they  intersect  older  or  more  recent  rocks  or  depo- 
sits.   According  to  him  they  are  generally  richer  in  granite  and 
gneiss,  while  their  percentage  of  silver  diminishes,  in  greywacke 
and  mica  schist,    carboniferous    limestone,    variegated  sandstone, 
Muschelkalk,  and  Jura;   in  such  a  manner  that   in  the  last  for- 
mation they    consist  almost  entirely  of  heavy  spar  without   any 
ore.     This  observation  was  made,  not  on  a  single  lode  intersect- 
ing  all  these  rocks,  but   on  a  number  of  lodes,    of  which   some 
were  found  in  this,  others  in  that  rock ;  and  in  so  far,  gives  no 
certain  result,  even  if  itself  entirely  correct. 

19.  G.  Leonhard, 3  on  the  contrary,  observed  in  the  silver 
lodes    of  the  Teufelsgrund  in  the  Kinzig  valley,  which  intersect 
gneiss    and  porphyry,    a    considerable    encrease    of  richness   in 
the  decomposed  gneiss,  a  marked  decrease  in  the  porphyry;  simi- 
larly also  in  the  Riickenbach  mine  in  the  Miinster  valley. 

A  portion  of  these  cases  has  long  been  known  as  isolated 
facts.  More  recently  the  knowledge  and  observations  of  the 
influence  which  the  country  has  on  the  richness  of  lodes,  have  been 
somewhat  generalised,  and  in  this  way  a  path  broken  towards 
a  theory  for  the  same,  as  well  as  a  general  practical  application 
of  the  knowledge.  This  progress  has  been  especially  incited 
by  the  examinations  made  in  the  neighborhood  of  Freiberg  by 
the  government  Commission  under  the  direction  of  Hermann 
Miiller. 

'  See:  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  Vol.  III.  p.  2. 

2  See:  Daub  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1851,  p.  1. 

3  See:  G.  Leonhard.  Geognost.  Skizze  d   Herzogthums  Baden,  1846. 

4 


50  RELATION  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS  TO  THE 

RELATION  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS  TO  THE  ENCLOSING 
ROOK  AROUND  FREIBERG. 

§  30.  The  country  a-round  Freiberg  in  which  the  silver 
lodes  are  situated,  consists  chiefly  of  gneiss.  Although  this  rock 
is  divided  into  many  different  varieties,  traversed  by  dikes  of 
porphyry  and  greenstone,  passes  into  mica  schist,  and  this  con- 
tains layers  of  limestone;  still  the  miners  attached  but  little  im- 
portance to  these  variations  and  distinctions.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  above-mentioned  case  at  Braunsdorf,  no  constant 
relations  were  observed  between  the  country  and  the  variable 
contents  of  the  lodes.  This  was  first  definitely  proved  by  the 
examinations  mentioned. 

From  these  examinations  it  has  been  found,  that,  as  a  rule, 
every  modification  of  the  rock  was  accompanied  by  a  certain, 
though  but  slight,  modification  in  the  matrix  of  the  -lode,  while 
the  difference  was  frequently  a  very  marked  one.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  known  ore  bunches  or  courses  in  the  Freiberg 
lodes  can  be  explained  by  the  variations  of  the  country  rock, 
to  which  the  junctions  with  older  veins  naturally  belong. 

Mr.  H.  Miiller  says  (Gangstudien  I.  p.  209):  'In  just  the 
same  manner  as  is  the  occurrence  and  formation  of  veins  in  this 
locality  in"  general,  do  we  find  the  deposits  of  ore  in  particular 
combined  jvith  the  occurrence  of  certain  rocks.  This  influence 
of  the  country  rock  makes  itself  perceptible,  not  only  by  differ- 
ent separate  veins  in  particular,  but,  also,  in  general  and  .on 
a  large  scale,  by  the  various  groups  or  'Ziige'  of  lodes  occur- 
ring in  our  district 

The  lodes  in  general,  without  distinction  in  regard  to  the 
character  of  the  formation,  have  attained  a  development  favor- 
able to  mining  only  within  compact  rocks,  in  which  feldspar  or 
quartz,  hornblende,  pyroxene,  as  also  carbon  (graphite,  anthra- 
cite) or  carbonate  of  lime,  form  an  essential  ingredient ;  while  on 
the  contrary  within  less  compact  or  fissured  micaceous  or  mag- 
nesian  rocks  they  have  been  very  unfavorably  developed.  The 
most  striking  proof  of  this  is  given,  by  an  exact  comparison  of 
the  extent  and  course  of  these  rocks,  with  that  of  the  produc- 
tive portion  of'the  lodes  traversing  them,  as  also  by  a  large 
number  of.  old  reports  on  the  lodes.  Although  to  be  sure,  the 
lodes  are  not  always  favorably  developed  in  rocks  conducive  to 
a  deposit  of  ores,  and  frequently  are  even  barren  of  ores  within 


ENCLOSING  ROCK  AROUND  FREIBERG.  51 

them,  still  when  they  do  contain  ores,  it  is  only  in  these  rocks ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand  they  are  always  barren  and  never 
contain  ores  in  the  unfavorable  rocks/ 

It  has  been  frequently  observed,  that  while  rocks  were 
themselves  unable  to  cause  any  sufficient  enrichment  of  the  lodes, 
still  their  more  favorable  influence  was  observed,  in  that  junc- 
tions of  lodes,  consequently  enrichments  by  means  of  a  lode  as 
wrall  rock,  are  only  productive  within  these  particular  zones  of 
country.  So  that  here  the  influence  of  two  favorable  walls  con- 
tribute to  one  result. 

The  examination  of  the  Freiberg  lodes  by  H.  Miiller  was 
partly  by  direct  observations,  partly  by  the  study  of  former 
mining  reports  and  charts.  From  the  form  of  former  workings 
it  is  sometimes  still  possible  to  see,  that  they  chiefly  follow  a 
particular  variety  of  the  enclosing  rock,  which  was  probably  the 
cause  of  a  particular  bunch  or  course  of  ore. 

From  this  point  I  intend  to  use  the  term  .ore  carrier  for 
those  rocks  exerting  a  favorable  influence  on  the  deposit  of  ores. 

According  to  the  observations  made  around  Freiberg  up 
to  the  present  time,  an  absolute  influence,  favorable  or  unfa- 
vorable, cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  various  rocks,  but  only  a 
relative  one.  While,  for  example,  the  lodes  of  Braunsdorf 
have  been  found  to  contain  ores,  and  even,  in  parts,  be  pro- 
ductive in  the  quartzose  or  gneissic  mica  schist  varieties, 
those  of  the  Kurprinz  Friedrich  August,  Alte  HofFnung  Gottes, 
Gesegnete  Bergmanns  Hoffnung,  Michaelis,  and  JEmanuel  mines, 
in  similar  or  apparently  the  same  rocks,  have  been  found  barren 
and  unproductive.  While  further,  the  granitic  gneiss  has  exerted 
in  other  portions  of  the  Freiberg  districts  a  very  unfavorable 
influence  on  the  deposit  of  ores  in  the  lodes  traversing  it;  still 
several  of  them,  as  the  Keinsberg  Gliick  lode,  have  proved  very 
rich  and  productive  in  the  same.  This  variable  comportment, 
or,  as  it  might  be  called,  this 'various  relative  carrying  of  ores 
in  the  same  or  closely  related  rocks,  appears  at  first  sight  a 
contradiction  to  the  fact,  that  the  condition  of  the  lodes  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  rocks ;  in  reality  however,  this  is  not  the 
case.  There  is  always  a  certain  law  in  connection  with  it ; 
thus  lodes,  like  those  of  Braunsdorf,  occurring  in  quartzose  or 
micaceous  gneiss  and  in  pure  mica  schist,  when  they  contain 
ore  at  all,  do  so  only  in  the  first  mentioned  rocks,  while  in 
the  last  they  are  always  barren  of  ore.  Lodes  occurring  both 

4* 


52     GNEISS,  RED  AND  GREY:  THEIR  INFLUENCE  ON  LODES. 

in  granulitic  gneiss  and  in  quartzose  or  micaceous  gneiss,  as 
those  of  the  Alte  Hoffnung  Gottes  and  Gesegnete  Bergmanns 
Hoffnung  mines,  contain  ore  principally  in  granulitic  gneiss, 
while  in  the  quartzose  or  micaceous  "'gneiss  they  either  contain 
less  or  are  entirely  barren.  Lodes  which  occur  both  in  green- 
stone and  granulitic  gneiss,  as  those  of  the  Alte  Hoffnung  Gottes 
mine,  have  proved  richer  in  the  first  named  rock  than  in  the  last. 
Hence  it  is  possible,  that  a  lode  containing  but  a  very  small 
amount  of  ore  may  under  circumstances  prove  barren  and  freve 
from  ore  in  a  rock,  which  is  found,  elsewhere,  to  contain  the 
chief  deposits  of  ore  concentrated  within  it. 

The  number  of  cases  up  to  the  present  time  is  indeed  small, 
in  which  it  is  possible  to  deduce  such  a  relative  connection  of 
the  rocks  with  the  ore  deposits;  since  a  conclusion  in  this  respect 
can  only  be  drawn,  when  with  the  various  relations  of  the  rocks 
the  other  conditions,  which  may  have  had  an  influence  on  the 
nature  of  the  lodes,  are  the  same. 

So,  for  example,  the  enrichment  of  the  Frisch  Gliick  lode 
caused  by  its  junction  with  the  Paul  Stehender  in  quartzose 
and  micaceous  gneiss,  at  the  Alte  Hoffnung  Gottes  mine,  cannot 
be  compared  with  its  poorer  and  unproductive  portion  in  gran- 
ulite  gneiss,  where  the  reason  for  such  an  enrichment  is  wanting. 

DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  RED  AND  GREY  GNEISS, 
AND  THEIR  INFLUENCE  ON  LODES. 

§  31.  In  addition  to  these  special  effects  of  dissimilar  vari- 
eties or  kinds  of  country,  H.  Muller  has  recognised  throughout 
the  Erzgebirge  a  general  law  in  regard  to  the  distribution 
and  extension  of  the  lodes,  as  well  as  in  their  local  contents. 
The  gneiss  of  the  Erzgebirge  may  be  divided  into  two  great 
varieties,  or  rather  groups  of  varieties ;  of  which  one  has  been 
called  red  gneiss  in  distinction  to  the  common  grey  gneiss, 
because  its  feldspar  is  very  commonly  of  a  red  color.  Both  the 
grey  and  red  gneiss  are  subdivided  into  many  varieties  both  of 
composition  and  texture.  It  is  very  difficult,  at  times,  to  deter- 
mine whether  in  particular  cases  such  a  modification  should  be 
assigned  to  grey  or  red  gneiss,  since  up  to  the  present  time 
sharp  and  positive  distinctions  have  not  been  proved  to  exist 
between  the  two  principal  varieties,  although  in  extreme  cases 
they  can  be  easily  determined,  and  then  differ  most  strikingly 


INFLUENCE  OF  COUNTRY  ROCK  ON  CONTENTS  OF  LODES.  53 

in  their  mode  of  occurrence.  Wherever  the  -red  gneiss  occurs 
characteristically,  it  shows  itself  to  be  an  igneous  rock,  which  is 
never  the  case  with  the  grey  or  normal  Freiberg  gneiss.  The 
red  gneiss  even  contains,  at  times,  distinct  fragments  of  the  grey, 
or  it  forms  dikes  in  the  same,  and  may  be  aptly  termed  a  gneissic 
(fissile)  granite. 

The  characteristic  distinctions  between  grey  and  red  gneiss 
are  concisely  given  in  the  following  table. 


Grey  Gneiss.  Red  Gneiss. 

Silica ;   64-67  per  cent. 
Ingredients;     orthoclase,     some- 
what of  oligoclase,  quartz,  and 


Silica;  74—76  per  cent. 
Ingredients;    orthoclase,  quartz, 
and  a  little  light  colored  mica. 


an  abundance  of  dark  colored 

mica. 

There  are,  however,  intermediate  grades  between  the  two, 
which  cannot  with  certainty  be  assigned  to  the  one  or  the  other. 
The  grey  gneiss  appears  in  the  Erzgebirge  to  exert  a  much  more 
favorable  effect  in  general  on  the  metalliferous  contents  of  the 
lodes  than  the  red,  which  contains  but  few  veins. 

INVESTIGATION  OF   THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  COUN- 
TRY ROCK  ON  THE  CONTENTS  OF  LODES. 

§  32.  From  what  has  preceded,  we  may  consider  it  as 
proved,  that  the  nature  of  the  country  has  exerted  a  certain  in- 
fluence on  the  contents  of  lodes,  and  especially  on  the  unequal 
amount  of  ore  they  contain;  although  the  observations  hitherto 
made  can  only  be  regarded  as  local,  the  results  of  which  are 
not  as  yet  adapted  to  application,  except  in  the  localities,  where  the 
observations  were  made.  That  is,  while  it  may  with  good  reason 
be  expected,  that  a  dissimilar  country  will  every  where  act 
dissimilarly  on  the  nature  of  the  lodes ;  still  the  conclusion  must 
not  be  drawn  from  this,  that  because  thia  or  that  rock,  this  or 
that  variety,  may  have  shown  itself  in  one  or  two  cases  as  enrich- 
ing certain  lodes,  as  a  good  ore-carrier,  therefore  the  same  rock 
or  variety  must  prove  so  in  all  other  cases.  Local  observations 
must  be  made  concerning  this  influence,  before  it  can  rightly 
be  adopted  as  a  foundation  for  mining  operations.  The  uncer- 
tain limits  of  that,  -  which  must  be  considered  as  belonging  to  a 
rock;  the  great  difference  in  the  varieties  of  rocks  amongst  each 


54  MATERIALS  FOR  A  THEORY. 

other,  of  such  a  nature  that  exactly  the  same  variety  but  seldom 
occurs  in  two  different  localities;  the  great  variety  in  the  manner 
in  which  different  rocks  occur  together;  and,  finally,  the  dissimi- 
lar nature  of  ftie  solutions  filling  the  fissures,  as  well  as  the  many 
subordinate  causes,  which  may  and  do  have  an  influence  on  the 
distribution  of  ores ;  have  exerted  a  modifying  influence.  For 
all  these  reasons  it  can  hardly  be  expected,  that  a  general  and 
valid  law  will  ever  be  discovered  for  the  influence  of  the  various 
rocks  forming  the  walls  on  the  lodes.  It  is  however  very  pos- 
sible, that  the  causes  of  this  particular  influence  may,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  be  discovered;  that  these  causes  may  be  traced  to 
particular  properties  of  the  rocks,  which  are  in  part  independent  of 
their  names;  and  that  from  this,  certain  general  rules  may  be  deduced 
for  the  influences  they  exert;  which  may,  with  some  caution,  be 
practically  applied  in  ore  districts  but  little  known,  and  particu- 
larly in  such  where  no  special  observations  on  this  subject 
exist.  On  this  account,  it  is  very  important  to  attempt  to  form 
a  theory  on  this  influence  as  nearly  correct  as  possible,  and  then 
confirm  or  correct  this  by  continued  observations. 

MATERIALS  FOR  A  THEORY. 

§  33.  If  we  examine  the  examples  given  more  closely,  we 
find- some  of  them,  in  which  the  influence  of  the  country  appears 
to  have  been  principally  of  a  mechanical  nature.  Certain  rocks 
are  more  adapted  to  form  regular  fissures  than  others :  in  many, 
instead  of  a  simple  fissure,  a  very  irregular  shattering  of  the  rock 
has  taken  place.  These  dissimilar  forms  of  fissure  appear  to 
have  exerted  an  influence  on  the  nature  of  the  deposits;  and 
even  if,  as  in  some  of  the  cases  (see  examples  5,  6,  10,  11,  13 
and  15,  §  29),  in  addition  to  the  form  of  the  fissure,  other  causes, 
founded  in  the  ..country,  appear  to  have  had  an  effect  on  the 
contents  of  the  lodes;  these  can  hardly  be  isolated  from  the  main 
cause.  In  any  case  we  must  recognise  the  form  of  the  fis- 
sure as  one  of  the  circumstances  which  affected  the  contents  of 
lodes. 

In  other  cases,  without  any  perceptible  dissimilarity  in  the 
formation  of  the  fissure,  very  distinct  and  specific  differences 
occur,  in  the  matter  filling  the  lodes,  between  dissimilar  enclosing 
rocks  of  the  same  lode;  sometimes  of  such  a  nature  (as  in 
examples  7,  12,  and  15),  that  not  only  the  quantity  of  the  ores 


ABILITY  OF  ROCKS  TO  CONDUCT  HEAT.  55 

and  gang  occurring  is  different,  but  the  ores  are  of  another 
kind.  From  this  we  must  infer  the  presence  of  some  property 
within  the  rocks  themselves,  which  affected  the  particular 
character  of  the  deposits,  which  had  a  particular  affinity  or 
repulsion  for  this  or  that  element,  which  caused  it  to  precipitate 
or  prevented  the  same.  In  what  may  this  property  or,  when 
several  are  combined,  in  what  may  these  properties  consist? 

The  analogy  of  similar  occurrences,  in  experiments  and  tech- 
nical processes,  refers  us  especially  to  the  following  properties, 
as  having  possibly  been  influential : 

1.  The  ability  to  conduct  heat, 

2.  The  density, 

3.  The  greater  or  less  porosity  of  the  rocks, 

4.  The  greater  or  less   smoothness   or  roughness   of  the    sur- 

face of  their  fissures, 

5.  The    chemical    reaction   of  one    or   all   the   ingredients   of 
the.  rock, 

6.  Electric  currents. 

We  will  consider  these  separately. 

THE  ABILITY  OF  ROCKS  TO  CONDUCT  HEAT. 

§34.  It  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  the  crystallization,  from 
solutions  on  the  walls  of  vessels,  is  variable,  according  as  these 
consist  of  wood,  stone,  burnt  clay,  or  metal.  Even  the  various 
kinds  of  wood,  stone,  or  metal,  appear  to  exert  an  influence  on 
this.  Most  probably,  this  difference  is  chiefly  caused  by  the 
difference  in  the  power  of  substances  to  conduct  heat,  and  pro- 
bably also  by  their  density,  and  the  smoothness  or  roughness  of 
their  surfaces,  which  in  turn  have  had  an  influence  on  the  ra- 
diation of  heat.  This  difference  exerts  itself,  not  only  on  liquid 
solutions,  but  just  as  decidedly  on  the  crystallization  from  a  gase- 
ous condition.  This  is  very  distinctly  shown  in  the  formation 
of  hoarfrost  and  the  beautiful  crystallizations  of  frost  on  windows. 

A  difference,  so  well  known  to  exist  in  such  a  number  of 
cases,  must  necessarily  have  made  itself  perceptible  in  the  crys- 
tallizations taking  place  on  the  sides  of  fissures  in  the  crust  of 
the  earth,  consisting  of  very  dissimilar  rocks.  Many  solutions 
are  only  possible  at  a  certain  temperature ;  and  if  a  cooling  pro- 
cess takes  place,  until  a  point  beneath  this  temperature  is  attained, 
a  partial  or  complete  precipitation  takes  place.  On  this 


56          DENSITY  AND  POROSITY  OF  ROCKS. 

account,  a  rock,  which  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  must  certainly 
have  had  a  far  greater  effect  on  the  precipitation  and  crystal- 
lization, than  one  which  is  a  poor  conductor. 

This  is  indeed  but  a  theoretical  ^contemplation  founded  on 
general  observations,  which  has  not  as  yet  been  confirmed  by 
special  examinations  of  lodes.  At  all  events  it  is  worth  keeping 
in  mind  in  all  examinations  on  the  important  subject  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  ores  in  lodes,  or  to  be  followed  up  by  experiments. 
The  differences  in  the  ability  of  rocks  to  conduct  heat  has  most 
certainly  not  been  without  an  influence  on  the  crystallizations 
taking  place  in  fissures. 

THE  DENSITY  OF  ROCKS. 

§  35.  The  specific  gravity  is  frequently  somewhat  related 
to  the  conducting  power  of  bodies;  the  denser  bodies,  including 
the  more  compact  rocks,  are  in  general  better  conductors  of 
heat,  than  the  less  dense  ones.  It  is  moreover  supposable,  that 
a  greater  attraction  will,  other  things  being  equal,  accelerate  the 
precipitation  from  solutions.  It  might  be  brought,  in  some  degree, 
into  relation  with  the  results  of  the  cases  recently  mentioned,  in 
which  the  metalliferous  and  compactor  rocks  appear  generally 
to  have  had  a  more  favorable  effect  on  the  ore  deposits,  than  the 
non-metalliferous  and  less  compact  ones.  This  action  of  the 
attraction  may  possibly  vary  from  that  of  the  difference  in  the 
conductibility  of  heat:  thus  the  cause  necessarily  becomes  more 
complicated,  and  the  recognition  of  the  causes  is  rendered  much 
more  difficult.  On  this  account  the  difference  in  the  density  of 
rocks  must  in  any  case  be  constantly  considered  in  researches 
on  the  question  before  us. 

THE  POROSITY  OF  ROCKS. 

§  36.  Porous  rocks  are  not  only  penetrated  by  the  water 
soaking  in  from  the  surface,  but  also  by  the  liquid  solutions  which 
circulate  in  the  fissures  traversing  them.  Both  can,  and  do, 
exert  an  influence  on  the  precipitate,  which  takes  place  on  the 
walls  of  the  fissures.  This  circumstance  is  not  only  of  influence 
in  itself,  but  from  the  fact,  that  the  ability  of  a  rock  to  conduct 
heat  is  much  changed,  and  its  specific  gravity  encreased,  by  the 
water  penetrating  it.  Consequently  complicated  effects  arise  here 


SMOOTHNESS  OR  ROUGHNESS  OF  SURFACES  OF  ROCKS.  57 

also,  the  causes  of  which  are  difficult  to  distinguish.  The  poro. 
sity  of  a  rock  has  an  especially  modifying  influence,  when  the 
same  contains  soluble  ingredients,  and  is  in  consequence  able  to 
essentially  encrease  the  influence  to  be  considered  in  §  37.  Hence 
it  will  be  certainly  so  much  the  more  difficult  to  determine  the 
relative  value  of  the  two  causes. 

THE  SMOOTHNESS  OR  ROUGHNESS  OF  THE  SURFACES 

OF  ROOKS. 

§  37.  The  smoothness  or  roughness  of  rocks  stands  fre- 
quently, although  not  always,  in  connection  with  the  greater 
or  less  porosity  of  the  rocks;  or,  to  be  more  explicit,  very 
porous  rocks  will  always  have  a  rough  surface;  but  the  converse 
cannot  be  asserted,  that  im porous  rocks  always  possess  a  smooth 
surface  ;  since  a  very  rough  surface  of  fracture  may  be  caused 
by  their  being  composed  of  very  dissimilar  minerals;  as  in  gra- 
nite. Experience  has  shown,  that  rough  and  smooth  surfaces  act 
very  dissimilarly  towards  the  precipitates  deposited  on  them: 
which  may  be  caused  in  part  by  their  encreased  or  decreased 
power  to  conduct  heat:  in  any  case  the  efficaceous  surface  of  the 
walls  of  fissures  is  much  encreased  by  their  roughness. 

THE  CHEMICAL  REACTIONS  OF  ROCKS. 

* 

§  38.  There  is  no  doubt,  that  the  water  circulating  in  fis- 
sures, (whether  it  be  tolerably  pure  or  already  impregnated  by 
solutions  of  other  substances,)  does  attack,  change,  or  partly  dis- 
solve certain  or  frequently  all  the  ingredients  of  the  neighboring 
rock.  The  real  proof  of  this  lies  frequently  before  us  in  the 
decomposed  or  in  general  altered  rocks  enclosing  lodes  or  even 
mere  clefts. 

Gustav  Bischof  has,  in  this  relation,  already  led  us  on 
the  right  path.  He  demonstrated,  in  von  Leonhard's  Jahrbuch 
for  1844,  pp.  257  and  341,  that  a  mutual  exchange  must  take 
place  through  the  reaction  between  the  ingredients  of  the  rocks 
of  veins.  In  the  same  manner  as  the  bicarbonates  of  lime, 
magnesia,  iron,  and  manganese,  are  precipitated  by  alkalies  in 
the  laboratory;  so  must  precipitation  take  place,  when  water 
containing  these  carbonates  comes  in  contact  with  rocks  or 
minerals  containing  alkalies  as  ingredients.  When  these  last 


58    CHEMICAL  REACTIONS,  AND  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS. 

are  combined  with  silicic  acid,  these  silicates  are  decomposed 
by  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  bicarbonates.  This  explains  both 
the  crystallizing  out  of-  the  carbonates  and  the  so  frequent  do- 
composition  of  rocks  containing  lodes,  especially  those  which 
are  feld spathic. 

What  however  has  been  as  good  as  proved  for  the  car- 
bonates, may  easily,  with  certain  modifications,  be  true  of  many 
other  minerals  in  lodes,  and  even  of  the  ores;  by  which  means 
certain  substances  may  be  principally  deposited  on  the  surfaces 
of  certain  rocks.  The  possible  encrease  of  this  influence  by  the 
porosity  of  rocks  has  been  already  mentioned  in  §  36.  Special 
investigations  on  this  subject  also  are  unfortunately  wanting. 
Scheerer  considers  the  presence  of  much  darkcolored,  ferrugi- 
nous mica  in  gneiss  to  be  a  favorable  agent. 

ELECTRIC  CURRENTS. 

§  39.  It  has  frequently  occurred,  that  an  essential  influence 
on  the  contents  of  lodes,  and  particularly  on  the  unequal  distri- 
bution of  ores  in  them,  has  been  ascribed  to  the  electric  cur- 
rents, which  may  possibly  arise  from  the  superposition,  or  con- 
tact in  any  way,  of  somewhat  dissimilarly  composed  rocks.  This 
hypothesis  was  founded  on  the  fact,  that  during  the  decompo- 
sition of  a  solution  by  a  voltaic  current  dissimilar  substances  are 
deposited  at  the  positive  and  negative  electrodes.  Fo^1  in  fact, 
by  means  of  artificially  obtained  electric  currents,  not  only  pro- 
duced fissures  in  clay,  but  also  filled  these  fissures  with  metallic 
substances.  In  consequence  of  this  he  is  of  the  opinion,  that 
electricity  has  exerted  a  great  influence  in  the  arrangement  of 
minerals  in  lodes ;  he  believes  in  particular,  that  the  greater  richness 
of  many  lodes,  on  passing  from  one  rock  into  another,  can  be 
explained  by  supposing  that  the  electro-negative  acting  rock 
must  have  caused  a  greater  deposit. 

The  fact  of  electric  currents  existing  in  the  earth's  crust  is 
however  somewhat  uncertain.  Prof.  Reich-,  indeed,  obtained 
deviations  of  the  needle,  when  he  connected  two  different  points 

1  See:    Philosophical  Magaz.    1*36.    IX.   p.  i;87,    1839.    XIV.  p.    145; 
Transact,  roy.  geolog.  soe.  of  Cornwall.    1840    V.  p.  445;   Leonhard's  Jahrb. 
1840.  p.  114. 

2  See:   Poggendorft's  Annaleu,    Vol.  48.  p.  287;   Berg-  u.  Huttenmaun. 
/eitung,  1844.  p.  342. 


CHIEF  RESULTS.  59 

of  a  lode  by  means  oi%  conducting  wires;  but  he  explains  this 
very  clearly  through  the  contact  of  the  various  ores  composing 
the  isolated  groups  of  ore,  which  are  separated  by  sterile  rock 
acting  as  a  moist  conductor.  According  to  this  the  electric  cur- 
rents were  first  caused  by  the  distribution  of  the  ores  in  the 
lodes ;  and  the  reverse  cannot  as  yet  be  deduced,  namely,  that  this 
distribution  has  been  caused  by  such  currents.  By  connecting 
points  free  of  ore,  Reich  was  unable  to  obtain  the  slightest 
deviation. 

The  possibility  of  the  effects  observed  by  Fox  cannot  be 
denied;  but  far  too  few  facts  are  at  present  known  to  deduce 
any  thing  farther  in  relation  to  the  distribution  of  ores. 

CHIEF  RESULTS. 

§  40.  The  circumstances  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs may  have  acted  singly,  or  several  of  them  together,  on  the 
unequal  distribution  of  the  minerals  and  ores  in  lodes.  The 
general  effect  of  several  may  have  been  one  of  their  mutually 
supporting  each  other,  or  one  in  which  they  partially  or  wholly 
neutralised  one  another.  As  the  final  result  of  our  observations, 
thus  much  remains  certain :  although  we  but  imperfectly  know 
the  causes,  the  variation  in  the  enclosing  rock  of  lodes  has,  by 
means,  of  its  physical  and  chemical  properties,  exerted  an  influ- 
ence on  the  dissimilarity  of  the  matter  filling  these  ;  and  this 
is  shown,  as  well  by  single  lodes  traversing  several  rocks,  as  by 
different  veins,  of  which  some  have  this,  others  that  rock  as 
country.  There  are  certain  rocks,  which  can,  locally  at  least, 
be  termed  ore- carriers,  while  others  are  almost  the  reverse  of 
this.  The  possible  indication  of  such  an  effect  depends  particu- 
larly on  the  absolute  amount  of  ore  in  the  lodes ;  which  is  a 
consequence  of  the  amount  of  metallic  substances  carried  into 
the  jissures  by  solutions.  From  this  absolute  amount  of  ore  we 
must  distinguish  a  relative  one,  which  is  locally  modified  by 
particular  causes,  by  concentration.  The  modifying  influences 
of  the  country  may  be  of  themselves  so  slight  that  they,  escape 
observation;  they  may  still,  however,  become  perceptible  through 
combination  with  other  causes.  For  example,  the  effect  of  junc- 
tion of  two  lodes  may  of  itself  remain  imperceptible,  and  even 
so  the  effect  caused  by  a  particular  enclosing  rock;  but  where 
they  both  meet,  that  is,  where  the  line  of  junction  of  the  former 


60  INFLUENCE  OF  STRIKE  AND  DIP 

traverses  the,  also  but  slightly  favorable,   zone    of  rock,    a  very 
perceptible  enrichment  takes  place. 

In  addition  to  the  influence  of  the  rocks;  which  showed 
itself  by  acting  on  the  solutions  coining  in  contact  with  them, 
a  much  more  direct  effect  may  have  occurred  in  separate  cases, 
in  that  the  enclosing  rock  itself  provided  certain  of  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  veins,  and  among  these  also  ores,  which  were  finely 
disseminated  in  it  from  the  commencement,  and  were  later  some- 
what more  concentrated  in  the  fissures.  I  will  return  to  this 
subject  when  speaking  of  the  origin  of  lodes. 

INFLUENCE  OF  STRIKE  AND  DIP  OF  LODES  ON  THEIR 

RICHNESS. 

§  41.  It  has  been  thought,  that  a  certain  relation  existed, 
as  to  the  amount  of  ores  they  contained,  between  lodes  and  their 
direction  of  strike  and  dip,  the  greater  or  less  angle  of  inclina- 
tion, which  they  make  with  the  horizon,  or  with  the  planes  of 
cleavage  or  stratification.  Fox  went  so  far  as  to  suppose,  that 
the  prevailing  direction  of  lodes  could  be  explained  by  the  in- 
fluence of  the  earth's  magnetism  in  the  form  of  electrical  currents. 
To  this  end,  it  was  his  opinion,  that  lodes  must  have  intersected 
the  magnetic  meridian  nearly  at  a  right  angle  at  the  period  of 
their  formation. 

All  the  facts,  which  have  been  adduced  in  favor  of  this  and 
similar  views,  appear  to  me  nevertheless  to  rest  on  imperfect 
observations,  or  a  false  interpretation  of  the  facts  observed. 

It  is  certainly  correct,  that  in  many  districts,  the  lodes 
striking  in  certain  directions  are  pre-eminently  rich  in  ores,  those 
in  other  directions  containing  less  or  none  at  all;  or  that  some 
may  contain  more  of  this,  others  more  of  that  ore.  But  such 
a  constant  parallelism  can  by  no  means  be  proved  concerning 
the  lodes  of  various  parts  of  the  earth,  or,  indeed,  all  lodes.  On 
the  contrary  we  find  lodes  generally  representing  most  dissimilar 
directions.  If  we  reflect,  that  one  and  the  same  process  forming 
the  fissures  in  the  same  district,  and  at  the  same  time,  will  have 
produced  veins  predominating  in  a  certain  direction;  in  other 
districts,  on  the  contrary,  such  veins  in  another  direction;  and 
when  we  reflect  that  the  filling  of  the  fissures,  as  a  rule,  fol- 
lowed closely  on  their  formation,  the  fact  explains  itself  very 
simply.  It  is  the  consequence  of  a  chronological  difference,  and 


OF  LODES  ON  THEIR  RICHNESS. 


61 


there  is  no  necessity  for  having  recourse  to  the  earth's  magne- 
tism. At  one  period  these,  at  another  those  solutions  circulated 
in  the  fissures,  at  a  third  period  perhaps  none  at  all ;  in  conse- 
quence, they  are  locally,  according  to  their  direction,  dissimi- 
larly or  incompletely  tilled  with  ore.  From  a  local  point  of  view, 
this  is  of  great  importance  to  the  practical  miner;  but  in  and 
for  itself,  it  has  only  to  do  with  the  manner  in  which  the  lodes 
were  tilled,  while  being  in  a  general  sense  entirely  independent 
of  the  direction  of  the  strike.  The  same  is  true  of  the  direc- 
tion of  the  dip  and  the  degree  of  inclination. 

Fox's  views  are  very  soon  seen  to  be  erroneous,  if  we  exa- 
mine a  large  number  of  ore  districts,  or  even  a  single  one,  in 
which  lodes  occur  with  dissimilar  directions  of  strike,  as  around 
Freiberg. 

The  varied,  now  greater,  now  less,  dip  of  the  same  lode 
may  at  times  in  so  far  have  exerted  a  great  influence  on  the 
local  breadth,  and  in  consequence  on  the  amount  of  ore ;  in  that 
sinkings  or  upheavals  of  the  hanging-  or  foot-  wall  took  place, 
by  which  the  fissure  was  locally  encreased  or  narrowed  in  width. 
An  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  this  in  an  ideal  manner  in 
the  two  following  figures. 

When  the  hanging 
wall  of  the  fissure  (A) 
sank,  or  the  footwall 
was  raised,  the  more 
horizontal  portion  (a  b) 
might  have  been  com- 
pressed to  an  impercep- 
tible cleft ;  when,  on  the 
contrary,  in  an  exactly 
similar  fissure  (B)  the 
hanging  wall  was  raised, 
or  the  footwall  sank,  the 
portion  (a  b)  would  be 
the  one  chiefly  widened. 
Similar  cases  to  these 
have,  in  fact,  often  been 
observed. 

Finally,  as  regards 
the  angle  at  which  a  lode 
intersects    the  texture  or  stratification  of  the  country;   this  may 


62        DETERMINATION  OF  THE  AGE  OF  LODES. 

also  have  been  oi  great  influence  on  the  nature  of  the  matrix. 
But  this  difference  belongs  entirely  to  those  which  are  caused 
by  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  country.  Smoothness  or  roughness 
of  the  surface,  porosity,  the  amount  tff  fracturing,  are  generally 
quite  different  on  the  cross  sections  of  schistose  or  slaty  rocks, 
from  what  they  are  on  those  parallel  to  the  cleavage. 

*  -    (  ,  •  •  '  .  £  .I..''  -     '  •-       ^E      7         .    ->: 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  AGE  OF  LODES. 

§  42.  Every  vein,  and  consequently  every  lode,  is  neces- 
sarily of  more  recent  formation  than  the  rock  it  traverses;  and 
when  by  chance  it,  intersects  other  lodes,  it  is  necessarily  younger 
than  these.  In  so  far  the  relative  age  of  lodes  can  be  easily 
determined.  But  seldom,  on' the  contrary,  can  their  real  age  be, 
in  some  degree  ascertained ;  only,  that  is,  exceptionally  can  the 
time  of  their  formation  be  referred  back  to  well  determined  se- 
dimentary formations.  It  is  only  possible  to  do  this,  when  some 
particular  circumstance  permits  us  to  determine  the  simultane- 
ousness  of  origin.  It  is  generally  even  difficult  to  determine, 
positively,  whether  lodes  are  older,  than  certain  rocks  or  forma- 
tions occurring  near  them,  but  which  they  do  not  intersect.  This 
is,  with  hardly  an  exception,  only  possible;  when  these  rocks 
lie  directly  over  them,  or  when  they  are  cut  off  in  their  course 
without  penetrating  at  any  point  into  the  rocks,  or  when  these 
contain  fragments  or  pebbles  which  evidently  came  from  the 
lodes.  But  the  question  still  remains  unanswered;  how  much 
older  the  lodes  are,  than  the  evidently  more  recent  rocks  or 
formations?  The  chronological  determination  of  the  same  only 
becomes  satisfactory,  when  the  formation  of  the  lodes  can  be 
referred  to  the  period,  that  elapsed  between  the  formation  of  two 
rocks  or  formations,  that  followed  one  another  in  quick  succession. 

The  age  of  lodes  can  at  times  be  determined  indirectly,  but  not 
beyond  all  doubt,  when  their  creation  by  certain  eruptive  rocks 
is  recognised.  It  appears,  as  Fournet  in  particular  has  shown, 
that  the  lodes  may  very  frequently  be  co-ordinated  with  neigh- 
boring igneous  rocks,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  compel  us  to  infer, 
that  their  formation  was  caused  by  the  upheaval  of  these  erup- 
tive rocks;  a  circumstance  which  I  have  already  mentioned  in 


AGK  OF  LODES.  63 

THE  AGE. OF  LODES. 

§  4o.  It  lias  been  sometimes  assumed,  that  the  lodes  in 
general,  or  at  least  certain  kinds  (formations)  of  the  same,  were 
formed  only  during  particular  geological  periods.  Let  us  ex- 
amine in  how  far  such  an  assumption  may  be  proven. 

There  is  certainly  no  doubt,  that  lodes  are  more  commonly 
found  between  old,  than  recent  rocks  or  formations,  and  but  very 
seldom  in  the  youngest  sedimentary  deposits  and  igneous  rocks ; 
while,  on  an  average,  they  are  most  common  in  the  oldest. 
Hence  it  may  well  be  said,  the  greater  the  age  of  rocks  and 
formations,  so  much  the  more  frequently  are  they  as  a  rule  tra- 
versed by  lodes.  It  might  be  deduced  from  this,  that  the  process 
of  the  formation  of  lodes  has  been  in  general  one  gradually 
decreasing  with  time,  and  that  certain  kinds  of  lodes  ceased  to 
be  formed  much  sooner  than  others.  We  shall  see,  however, 
that  the  distribution  of  ores  can  be  explained  in  an  entirely 
different  manner. 

If  we  collect  all  the  known  facts  and  conclusions,  which 
are  to  some  extent  reliable,  on  the  age  of  lodes  in  general,  or 
separate  classes  of  the  same;  we  find  that  there  is  no  limitation 
of  their  origin  to  particular  geological  periods.  At  the  most  it 
can  be  said  of  tin  lodes,  that  they  have  only  been  found  in 
rocks  of  the  same  age  or  older  than  the  carboniferous  period; 
no  other  lodes  can  be  limited  to  particular  periods  of  formation; 
since  even  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  copper  lodes  have  been  ex- 
ceptionally found  in  Tertiary  deposits,  although  as  a  rule  they 
only  occur  in  much  older  rocks. 

-As  examples  of  relatively  very  recent  lodes,  I  need  only 
mention  the  following.  In  the  Department  of  Aveyron  in  France 
plumbiferous  silver-lodes,  associated  with  copper  ores,  traverse 
the  lias;  in  Algiers  the  same  traverse  deposits  of  the  cretace- 
ous period;  the  auriferous  quartzveins  of  Vorospatak  in  Tran- 
sylvania traverse  Tertiary  Carpathian  sandstone.  If  from  these 
examples  the  same  age  should  be  ascribed  to  all  lodes  similarly 
composed;  it  would  follow,  that  all  auriferous  lodes  should  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  Tertiary,  or  a  still  more  recent 
period,  and  a  large  class  of  silver-lodes  as  being  younger  than 
some  deposits  of  the  cretaceous.  Such  a  supposition  cannot  be 
strictly  .refuted,  but  does  not  coincide  with  the  general  occurrence 
of  such  lodes. 


64  AGE  OF  LODES. 

It  appears  to  me  far  more  natural  to  assume,  that  the  for- 
mation of  the  various  kinds  of  lodes  has  been  taking  place,  at 
all  periods  since  a  firm  crust  of  the  earth  has  existed,  but  at 
various  depths.  Whether  generally  ^n  the  same,  or  in  a  de- 
creasing ratio,  must,  as  being  undecided,  remain  questionable.  And 
farther,  that  this  has  taken  place  now  in  this,  then  in  that  dis- 
trict, according  to  circumstances  conditioned  by  general  geological 
events ;  as  a  consequence  of  which  the  older  rocks  and  deposits 
more  commonly  contain  lodes,  than  the  recent  ones,  which  were 
not  so  long  subjected  to  the  possibility  of  lodes  being  formed 
in  them. 

Were  various  lodes  forming  during  all  periods  of  time,  but 
at  unequal  depths;  it  would  then,  as  just  remarked,  be  easily 
comprehensible,  that  the  oldest  rocks  and  formations  were  com- 
monly most  affected  by  this  continuous  event,  being  longest 
subjected  to  it.  It  is  just  as  comprehensible,  that  the  kinds  of 
lodes  belonging  to  the  greatest  depths,  can  only  become  acces- 
sible to  our  observation,  and  to  mining;  where  what  was  once 
deep  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  has  reached  the  surface  by 
the  upheaval  and  erosion  of  what  lay  above  it.  A  longer  period, 
as  a  rule,  was  necessary,  to  raise  such  deep  inner  regions  to  the 
niveau  of  the  present  surface  of  the  earth,  and  to  destroy  the 
mass  lying  above  them,  than  for  less  deep  formations.  It  is, 
consequently,  very  natural,  that  those  lodes  formed  at  the  greatest 
depths  should  appear  to  us  to  be  relatively  the  oldest,  precisely 
because  the  most  time  was  necessary  to  lay  them  free,  which 
could  but  seldom  be  replaced  by  greater  energy  of  upheaval 
and  erosion. 

Thus  it  is  supposable ;  that  the  formation  of  all  kinds  of 
lodes  is  still  taking  place,  but  the  majority  at  such  depths  that 
we  cannot  observe  them;  and  different  kinds  at  unequal  depths. 

It  is  certainly  supposable,  though  not  in  my  opinion  sustained 
by  facts,  that  dissimilar  lodes  belong  to  dissimilar  periods; 
or  that,  with  the  encreasing  thickness  of  the  earth's  crust,  the 
formation  of  lodes  has  generally  assumed  a  somewhat  different 
character.  Both  of  these  suppositions  might  to  some  extent  be 
combined  with  each  other. 

ORIGIN  OF  LODES.     FORMATION  OF  FISSURES. 

§'44.  Since,  according  to  our  definition,  all  true  lodes  are 
aggregates  of  mineral  matter  in  fissures ;  fissures  must  necessarily 


ORIGIN  OF  LODES.    FORMATION  OF  FISSURES.  65 

have  first  been  formed  and  then  tilled.  Both  operations  may  have 
been  independent  of  each  other,  and  even  when  this  is  probably 
not  the  case,  still  the  formation  of  the  fissures  was  an  entirely 
different  operation  from  that  of  their  being  filled  with  mineral 
matter.  On  this  account  I  will  speak  of  the  former  separately. 

Even  the  purely  mechanical  operation,  of  the  formation  of 
fissures,  has  been  explained  in  very  different  ways.  Werner1 
considered  fissures  to  be  consequences  of  compression  caused  by 
specific  gravity,  by  the  drawing  off  or  separation  of  the  rocks  in  the 
direction  of  an  exposed  side,  by  the  contraction  caused  by 
drying,  or  by  the  concussions  caused  by  earthquakes. 

Fox2  explained  them  as  being  consequences  of  electrical 
currents  in  particular  directions,  and  on  this  account  thought, 
they  were  originally  formed  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  magnetic  meridian. 

Others  have  considered  them  to  be  consequences  of  the 
gradual  cooling  of  the  globe. 

While  it  must  be  granted,  that  fissures  could  have  been 
formed  in  all  1  hese  ways,  and  perhaps  really  have  been  so  formed 
ever  since  the  earth  has  had  a  solid  crust:  while  it  may  far- 
ther be  granted,  that  a  fissure  formed  in  this  manner  has  some- 
times been  exceptionally  filled  with  minerals  and  ores:  it  is 
still  most  probable,  as  Von  Beust  in  his  criticism  of  Werner's 
theory  (1840)  has  clearly  shown,  that  the  majority  of  lode-fissures 
have  been  torn  asunder  by  concussions  caused  by  volcanic  or 
plutonic  activity;  or,  in  other  words,  by  volcanic  or  plutonic  earth- 
quakes. Even  at  the  present  time,  earthquakes  produce  entirely 
similar  fissures,  which  are  very  frequently  formed  in  groups  like 
those  of  lodes,  and,  in  so  far  as  they  are  caused  by  a  single 
concussion,  run  parallel  to  one  another.  Many  irregular  branches, 
on  the  contrary,  may  be  consequences  of  cooling  or  other  causes. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  thus  explaining  the  formation  of 
the  fissures  themselves.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  not  so  easy  to 
explain  the  circumstance,  that  the  fissures  of  lodes  are  so  fre- 
quently combined  with  very  considerable  dislocations  of  the 
halves  of  the  country,  the  so-called  faults. 


1  See:  Werner,  Theorie  v.  d.  Entstehung  d.  Gange,  1791. 

2  See:  Philosoph.  Magaz.  1830,  IX.  p.  387;  1839,  XIV.  p.  145. 

5 


66  POSSIBILITY  OF 


THE  POSSIBILITY  OF  DISLOCATIONS. 

§  45.  Leaving  the  as  yet  unknown  condition  of  matter  in 
the  interior  of  the  earth  entirely  out  of  account,  the  firm  crust 
is  certainly  over  70  miles  thick:  how  is  it,  under  these  circum- 
stances, possible,  that  fissures  of  such  proportionally  short  extent, 
as  those  which  most  lodes  are  known  to  possess  (they  are  known 
from  4  to  18  miles  in  length),  should  be  able  to  penetrate  through 
the  entire  hardened  crust?  when  they  do  not  penetrate  through 
the  entire  crust,  how  was  their  formation  possible  5  and  still  more, 
how  could  they  have  caused  such  considerable  faults?  These 
are  the  questions  before  us.  Their  possibility  is  shown,  not  only 
by  the  fissures  formed  by  earthquakes  at  the  present  time,  in 
which  also  faults  of  a  few  feet  in  extent  have  been  observed; 
but  the  same  can  be  shown  in  regard  to  many  other  solid  bodies, 
which  are  frequently  intersected  on  their  surfaces  by  cracks, 
although,  indeed,  without  dislocations.  The  fissures  of  glaciers 
are  especially  instructive.  Ice  obviously  belongs,  according  to 
the  general  acceptation,  to  the  solid  bodies;  and  yet  tolerably 
wide  fissures  are  commonly  formed,  and  even  small  faults,  which 
do  not  traverse  the  entire  mass  of  the  glacier.  Here  also,  greater 
faults  occur,  by  complete  intersection  of  the  mass  of  the 
glacier.  The  cause,  of  the  fissures  in  glaciers,  is  the  movement 
of  the  mass  over  an  irregular  surface  of  ground.  Small  dislo- 
cations in  the  earth's  crust  can  be  explained  in  this  manner,  that 
it  every  where  consists  of  various  rocks  which  possessed  some- 
what unequal  powers  of  resistance.  But  dislocations  (faults)  of 
more  than  20  or  30  feet  cannot  be  explained  by  fissures,  which 
do  not  completely  intersect  the  firm  crust  of  the  earth,  or  rather 
have  not  done  so  during  the  period  of  their  formation.  How 
then  could  the  often  considerable  faults,  and  friction-surfaces 
frequently  accompanying  them,  have  been  formed  in  such  a  thick 
crust?  The  difficulty  would  be  but  slightly  decreased  by  saying, 
the  earth's  crust  was  not  so  thick  at  the  time  the  faults  were 
formed  as  it  now  is;  since  some  of  them  are  of  such  recent 
geological  age,  that  the  difference  of  thickness  between  the  time 
when  they  were  formed  and  the  present  can  only  be  very  slight. 

The  formation  by  means  of  plutonic  activity,  seems  to  me 
a  solution  of  all  these  difficulties  and  doubts.  A  local  thinning 
of  the  earth's  crust,  caused  by  the  solid  upheaval  of  igneous  rocks 


DISLOCATIONS. 


67 


near   or  under   the  ore-district,  nearly  in   the  manner   shown  in 
the  following  woodcuts;  suffices  for  the  explanation. 


_  If  this  explanation  be  correct,  it  follows,  that  the  lodes  cannot, 
in  reality,  continue  to  a  perpetual  depth ;  but  the  lower  portion 
being  in  most  cases  unattainable,  it  may  as  regards  the  miner 
be  termed  perpetual.  I  must,  finally,  remark  that  many  vein- 
fissures  have  (probably)  been  repeatedly  torn  open,  or  have  been 
widened  during  the  process  of  filling.  The  last  appears  to  have 
sometimes  taken  place  as  a  consequence  of  the  process  of  crys- 
tallization in  the  lode-fissure,  to  which  Von  Weissenbach  in 
particular  has  called  attention  in  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  vol.  I.  p.  66. 
Fox  also  believes  a  gradual  widening  of  the  fissures  to  have  been 
caused  by  the  force  of  the  matter  filling  them,  even  in  true  veins,  while  Von 
Weissenbach  speaks  only  of  lodes  exhibiting  columnar  structure. !  (Philos. 


1  By  columnar  structure  is  here  meant  the  contents  of  the  lodes  crys- 
tallizing at  right  angles  to  the  selvages.    Trans 


68  FILLING  OF  FISSURES. 

Magaz.  1^36,  Y.;  IX.  p.  387.)  This  repeated  tearing  open,  of  the  already 
filled  fissure,  by  outer  force,  is  shown  very  distinctly  in  the  occurrence  of 
double  lodes,  and  of  such  as  contain  in  their  interior  fragments  of  the  mass 
first  formed  in  the  lode. 


THE  FILLING  OF  FISSURES. 

§  46.  Let  us  now  pass  from  the  formation  of  fissures  to 
the  manner  in  which  they  were  filled :  a  subject,  in  which 
hypothesis  still  has  free  play,  and  which  must  be  treated  as  far 
as  possible  in  a  manner  guided  by  the  limits  of  observation, 
as  well  as  by  the  application  of  known  natural  laws.  Notwith- 
standing the  uncertain  nature  of  the  ideas,  which  may  at  the 
present  time  be  conceived  concerning  lodes,  they  are  still  of 
some  use  to  the  practical  miner,  while  science,  as  such,  cannot 
dispense  with  them. 

It  must  first  be  remembered,  that  the  lodes  by  no  means 
form  a  clearly  distinct  homogeneous  and  natural  class  of  natural 
bodies.  Hence  it  cannot  be  expected,  that  they  should  be  all 
formed  precisely  in  the  same  manner. 

Then  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  several  methods  of  forma- 
tion are  possible,  and  have  in  part  already  been  proved,  of 
most  of  the  minerals  predominating  in  lodes.  We  can,  therefore, 
never  consider  an  accidentally  observed,  or  chemically  proved, 
manner  of  formation,  as  being  the  only  one  possible.  The  cir- 
cumstances, under  which  they  occur,  are  frequently  more  impor- 
tant, than  the  observations,  as  yet  made,  on  the  manner  in 
which  the  minerals  were  formed. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  many  lodes  are  now  composed 
of  minerals,  entirely  different  from  those  of  a  former  period; 
and  that  many  of  the  minerals  composing  the  same,  were  formed 
after  and  from  others,  partly  by  pseudomorphism. 

Finally,  the  majority  of  lodes  are  not  only  composed  dif- 
ferently, but  in  a  much  more  complicated  manner  than  any 
widely  diffused  igneous  or  sedimentary  rock. 

This  circumstance  must  cause  a  distrust  of  every  hypothesis, 
which  attempts  to  explain  the  formation  of  the  lodes  in  general, 
and  those  of  complex  composition  in  particular,  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  the  igneous  or  sedimentary  rocks.  That  they 
cannot  be  considered  as  mechanical  precipitates,  is  evident  from 
their  nearly  constant  crystalline  nature/ 


THEORIES  OF  THE  FORMATION  OF  VEINS :  —  69 

THEORIES  OF  THE  FORMATION  OF  VEINS 
UP  TO  THE  TIME  OF  WERNER. 

§  47.  In  his  'New  Theory  on  the  Origin  of  Veins'  (1791), 
Werner  has  given  a  concise  summary  of«  the  older  views  on  this 
subject.  He  commences  with  Diodorus  and  Pliny,  who  were  the 
first  to  mention  veins,  and  then  speaks  more  fully  of  Agricola, 
who  was  the  first  to  propound  a  theory  of  veins  in  his  work 
fde  ortu  et  causis  subterraneorum'  (1546).  In  this,  the  principal 
agents  were:  water,  which  dissolved  the  enclosing  rock,  heat,  and 
cold.  In  accordance  with  the  state  of  science  at  that  time,  he 
considered  the  metals  to  have  been  formed  from  other  substances. 

Werner  merely  mentions  Von  Elterlein,  Meyer,  Von 
Loehneis,  and  Barb  a.  r  i 

Balthasar  Roesler  (1700)  explained  the  veins,  as  being 
mineral  matter  filling  fissures. 

Becher  (1703)  ascribed  the  formation  of  ores  and  metals 
in  the  lodes  to  underground  gases;  which  penetrated  upwards 
from  the  centre  of  the  earth  into  the  lodes,  or  rather  into  the 
suitable  vein-stones  and  earths  existing  in  them. 

Stahl  (1700)  considered  the  lodes  to  have  been  formed  in 
the  enclosing  rock  at  the  time  the  world  was  created. 

Henkel  in  his  'Pyritologia'  (1725)  referred  the  presence  of 
ores  in  lodes  to  vapors;  which  he  considered  to  have  been 
caused  and  produced  by  fermentation  in  the  rocks.  The  vapors 
penetrated  earths  and  rocks  suitable  as  matrix.- 

Hofmann  (1738),  also,  considered  veins  to  be  the  matter 
filling  fissures. 

Zimmermann  (1746)  supposed  the  veins,  together  with  the 
ores,  to  have  been  formed  by  a  transformation  of  the  rocks. 

Von  Op  pel  (1749)  explains  the  veins  distinctly  as  filling 
fissures;  and  thus  separates  these  from  beds  and  strata. 

Lelfmann  (1753)  first  mentions  Hofmann's  hypothesis,  and 
then  adds,  that  the  lodes  are  branches  of  a  great  deposit,  which 
is  probably  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  earth.  He  compares  the 
lodes  to  the  branches  of  a  tree.  The  origin  of  the  metals  is  in 
the  centre  of  the  earth,  whence  they  found  their  way  into  the 
fissures  in  a  humid  and  gaseous  condition. 

Deli  us  (1770)  considered  the  vein-fissures  to  be  a  conse- 
quence of  the  contraction  caused  by  the  drying  up  of  the  earth. 


70  BEFOREHAND  SINCE,  WERNER'S  TIME. 

The  rain  water  penetrating  the  rocks  dissolved  the  elements  of 
the  rocks  and  metals,  and  conveyed  them  into  the  fissures;  where 
by  subsequent  evaporation  they  crystallized  out. 

Von  C  h  a  r  p  e  n  t  i  e  r  (1 778 )  agreed  essential ly  with  Zimmer- 
mann's  theory,  which  he  carried  still  farther. 

Baumer  (1779)  says:  'the  lodes  differ  in  form  and  matter 
from  the  rocks:  from  various  data  it  follows,  that  they  were 
formed  under  the  ancient  sea;  since  the  out-croppings  .of  the 
same  are  frequently  covered  with  several  layers  of  schist;  and 
petrifactions  of  sea- species  have  at  times  bee'n  found,  as  well  in 
the  geodes  they  contain,  as  also  in  the  vein-stone  itself 

Gerhard  (1781)  considered  the  lodes  to  be  the  matter  filling 
fissures.  The  vein-stone  and  ores  have  been  introduced  by  water, 
which  had  previously  dissolved  them  out  of  the  enclosing  rock. 

Von  T  re  bra  (1785),  like  many  others,  considered  the  lodes 
to  have  been  formed  by  a  metamorphosis,  in  consequence  of  a 
kind  of  fermentation  and  decomposition  caused  by  water  and 
heat.  He  terms  the  lodes,  regions  in  the  massive  rock ;  in  which 
interior  motion,  produced  by  flowing  water,  has  changed  the 
variety  of  rock,  together  with  the  foreign  bodies  of  the  animal 
and  vegetable  kingdom  often  occurring  in  them,  into  varieties 
of  ore  and  stone  which  are  no  longer  the  original  rock. 

Lasius  (1789)  thought,  the  fissures  were  caused  by  revolu- 
tions of  nature;  and  then  assumes;  that  these  fissures  have  been 
filled  with  water,  which  was  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid  and 
other  solvents,  thus  rendering  it  suitable  to  dissolve  the  particles 
of  earth,  metal,  Tand  other  substances  in  the  rocks,  which  it  has 
penetrated  from  the  fissures ;  and  that,  according  to  the  degree  of  solu- 
bility, first  these,  then  those  particles  have  been  dissolved,  and  then 
by  reason  of  various  precipitants  have  been  deposited  in  the  fissures. 

Werner  developed  his  own  theory  most  fully.  The  fissures 
may  have  been  caused,  according  to  him:  by  compression  in 
consequence  of  the  specific  gravity,  by  the  drawing  off  or  separa- 
tion x)f  the  rocks  towards  an  exposed  side  (as  for  example  the 
side  of  a  valley),  in  consequence  of  the  contraction  caused  by 
drying,  by  earthquakes,  or  by  various  other  causes.  The  fissures, 
as  well  as  the  matter  filling  them,  have  been  formed  at  very 
different  periods.  'The  vein-stuff  arose  from  a  wet  precipitate, 
which  filled  them  from  above;  that  is,  from  a  wet,  and  mostly 
chemical  solution,  which  covered  the  region  where  the  fissures 
existed,  and  at  the  same  time  filled  the  open  fissures.' 


CONTEMPORANEOUS :  DESCENSION.  71 

THEORIES  OF  THE  FORMATION  OF  VEINS 
SINCE  WERNER. 

§  48.  Baron  Von  Herder,  in  his  work  on  the  Meissen  adit 
(1838),  has  classified  the  various  theories  on  the  origin  of  veins 
up  to  the  commencement  of  this  century;  as  well  as  the  more 
recent  explanation,  that  they  were  formed,  similarly  to  the  igneous 
rocks,  by  means  of  an  igneous  fluid  injection;  as  follows: 

1.  Theory  of  contemporaneous  Formation:  the  lodes 
are  not  mineral  matter   filling  fissures,   but   were  formed   at  the 
same  time  as  the  enclosing  rock,  or  subsequently  by  a  metamor- 
phosis   in  the    altered  regions   of  the   same.     Stahl,   Zimmer- 
mann,    Von  Charpentier,  Von  Trebra. 

2.  Theory  of  Lateral-secretion:  the  lodes  are  mineral 
matter    filling    fissures,    the    material    of   which    came    from   the 
enclosing  rock.     Delius,  Gerhard,  Lasius. 

3.  Theory  of  Descension:  the  veins  are  the  filling  of  fis- 
sures, the  material  came  in  from  above.     Baumer,  Werner. 

4.  Theory  of  Ascension:    the  veins  are  the  filling  of  fis- 
sures, but  the  matter  was  introduced  from  below. 

This  last  may  be  divided  into  the  following  sub- classes: 

a.  Theory  of  Infiltration:   the  material  was  introduced 
in  a  state  of  aqueous  solution,  as  mineral  water.   Lasius  at  least 
approaches  this  view. 

b.  Theory  of  S  ub  1  i  m  a  t  i  o  11  a :   the  material  was  brought 
into  the  fissures  by  ascending  steam.     Lehmann,    and  perhaps 
B  e  c  h  e  r. 

c.  Theory  of  Sublimation   /?:  the  matter  was  introduced 
in  a  gaseous  condition,  by  sublimation.    Perhaps  Becher. 

d.  Theory  of  Injection:  the  material  has  been  introduced 
by   an    igneous-fluid    injection,    and   has    then   solidified    in    the 
fissures.     Four  net,  and  others. 

Since  Von  Herder  has  thus  given  a  sort  of  scheme  of  the 
different  theories;  it  will  be  sufficient,  to  speak  somewhat  concisely 
of  the  various  opinions  with  their  more  recent  modifications, 
opportunely  mentioning  the  chief  upholders  of  the  same. 

THEORIES  OF  CONTEMPORANEOUS  FORMATION, 
AND  OF  DESCENSION. 

§  49.  Neither  the  theory  of  contemporaneous  formation, 
nor  that  of  descension,  has  had  any  upholder  since  Werner; 


72  LATERAL-SECRETION. 

unless  Kiihn  in  his  'Handbuch  der  Geognosie'  be  considered  as 
such,  although  he  only  endeavored,  as  a  faithful  pupil  of  Wer- 
ner to  defend  his  teachings;  and  attempted  to  maintain  them 
by  numerous  interesting,  but  in  no  way  convincing,  examples. 
Freiesleben;  the  warm  reverer  of  Werner,  in  his  valuable  works 
on  the  Saxon  metalliferous  deposits,  has  avoided  giving  distinct 
views  on  their  origin.  All  the  other  pupils  of  Werner,  worthy 
of  notice,  have  become  unfaithful  to  his  teaching;  if  the  yielding, 
through  and  from  observation,  to  another  conviction  may  be 
so  termed. 

Baron  Beust,  in  his  'Critical  Examination  of  Werner's  Theory' 
(1840),  has  thoroughly  refuted  the  views  of  the  latter. 

It  is  self-evident,  that  in  the  nineteenth  century  there  are 
no  longer  any  upholders  of  the  theory  of  contemporaneous  for- 
mation. 

THEORY  OP  LATERAL-SECRETION. 

§  50.  Several  modifications  of  this  theory  can  be  distin- 
guished. Delius,  Gerhard,  and  La  si  us,  merely  assumed; 
that  the  water  percolating  through  the  rocks  has,  aided  by  car- 
bonic acid,  and  other  solvents,  dissolved  out  certain  ingredients 
of  the  same ;  and  that  afterwards,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
re-actions  causing  it,  a  precipitation  from  these  solutions  took 
place  in  the  fissures.  This  view  has  recently  been  carried  still 
farther,  especially  by  Bischof;  who  has  attempted,  in  his  geo- 
logy, to  found  it  on  as  scientific  grounds  as  possible. 

Where  it  can  be  assumed,  that  the  elements  of  the  mineral 
matter  filling  the  veins  exist,  or  have  existed,  in  the  enclosing 
rock;  no  objection  can  properly  be  made  against  it.  Especially 
is  this  the  case,  when  the  term  'lateral'  is  not  applied  literally, 
but  is  understood  in  the  sense,  that  the  solutions  after  their  im- 
pregnation, by  dissolving  out  particles  of  the  enclosing  rock, 
still  had  a  free  movement  in  the  fissures,  so  that  every  particle 
was  not  necessarily  deposited  exactly  at  the  point,  where  it  was 
dissolved  out  of  the  enclosing  rock.  By  this  widening  of  the 
meaning,  however,  the  theory  of  lateral-secretion  passes  directly 
into  the  theory  of  ascension  of  aqueous  solutions  (theory  of  in- 
filtration), which  assumes  the  matter  to  have  been  dissolved  out 
of  the  rocks  at  a  greater  depth,  than  that  at  which  it  was  depo- 
sited in  the  fissures.  The  encreased  temperature  then  takes  a 
very  necessary  part  in  encreasing  the  solving  power  of  the  so- 


INFILTRATION.  73 

lution;  and  it  is  not  necessary,  that  the  surrounding  rock,  acci- 
dentally known  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  earth's  surface,  should 
contain  all  the  elements  of  the  minerals  forming  the  lodes.-  By 
such  a  modification  there  is  no  longer  any  difficulty  in  explain- 
ing the  combed  texture,  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  term  lateral 
were  taken  literally.  It  is  clearly  the  most  simple  explanation, 
that  can  be  given,  for  many  lodes,  although  not  for  all.  The  real 
origin  of  the  elements  of  the  lodes  may  then  remain  partly  in 
doubt,  but  it  may  be  assumed  to  occur  rather  in  the  unknown 
interior,  than  on  the  known  surface. 

THEORY  OF  INFILTRATION. 

§  51.  This  theory;  which  of  course  does  not  exclude  con- 
temporaneous secretions  out  of  the  enclosing  rock,  and  indeed 
necessarily  presupposes  such  to  be  taking  place  at  greater  depth ; 
joins  closely  on  to  the  preceding;  and  forms,  at  the  same  time, 
the  first  sub-class  of  the  theory  of  ascension,  or  the  explanation 
by  means  of  volcanic  emanations. 

Eliede  Beaumont1  explains  the  lodes,  as  being  essentially  products 
of  volcanic  emanations:  these  he  subdivides  into  igneous-fluid  (injections), 
gaseous  (sublimations),  and  aqueous  (infiltrations  by  means  of  hot  mineral 
springs).  In  accordance  with  which,  he  explains  a  portion  of  the  lodes  by 
means  of  such  hot  aqueous  infiltrations. 

Durocher,2  like  Beaumont,  has  declared  himself  in  favor  of  infil- 
trations, sublimations,  and  igneous-fluid  injections,  and  therewith  refuted 
Fournet  in  several  points. 

Von  Dec  hen3  entirely  excludes  the  igneous-fluid  injection,  as  being 
the  origin  of  true  veins  of  the  most  various  kind ;  and  limits  these  essentially 
to  infiltrations  from  below. 

These  views  have  been  shared  by  many  geologists  of  the 
present  time ;  and  numerous  investigators  have  busied  themselves  in 
researches  on  the  artificial  formation  of  minerals,  both  in  the 
wet  and  dry  way;  especially,  G.  Bischof,  Senarmont, 
Kjerulf,  Daubree,  Deville,  Malaguti,  Ibbetson,  etc. 
1  also  have  repeatedly  attempted  to  show  that  the  Freiberg  lodes, 
and  all  analogous  to  these,  can  be  most  simply  and  easily 
explained,  both  as  regards  their  occurrence  and  their  texture,  by 
infiltration  from  below :  especially  seeing  the  frequent  combed 


1  See:  Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  geolog.  d.  France,  2nd  Series,  Vol.  IV.  p.  124 

2  See:  Compte  rendu,  vol.  XXV 111.  p.  607;  vol.  XIII.  p.  850. 

3  See:   Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1851,  p.  210. 


74  SUBLIMATION. 

texture  of  these  lodes  very  strongly  points  to  such  a  mode  of 
origin,  and  their  mineralogical  composition  is,  in  no  manner, 
opposed  to  it;  since  Bischof  has  shown  that  the -minerals,  in 
question,  may  have  been  formed  frorar  aqueous  solutions. 

THEORY  OF  SUBLIMATION. 

§  52.  In  the  views  held  by  Beaumont,  Durocher,  and 
Von  Dec  hen,  mentioned  in  the  §  preceding,  the  participation  of 
sublimation  in  the  formation  of  lodes  has  been  already  spoken  of. 
Durocher1  considers  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  minerals 
and  ores  in  lodes,  as  a  special  proof  of  the  formation  by  subli- 
mation. He  believes,  that  these  can  only  have  been  so  formed, 
in  that  dissimilar  currents,  of  gas  or  vapor,  have  passed  through 
the  fissures;  and  in  accordance  with  this,  distinguishes  'emana- 
tions matrices'  (metallic  vapors),  and  'Jixatrices'  (principally  sul- 
phur vapors).  These  have  passed  through  the  fissures  at  different 
places,  in  different  directions  and  at  different  periods,  here  and 
there  uniting  their  forces. 

It  can  hardly  be  doubted,  that  such  an  unequal  distribution 
is  also  possible  by  an  infiltratory  formation;  and  we  have 
learned,  that  the  principal  cause  is  the  difference. in  the  character 
of  the  enclosing  rock. 

The  possibility  of  the  formation  by  sublimation  of  many  of 
the  ores  and  minerals  occurring  in  lodes,  especially  by  the 
agency  of  chlorine,  fluorine,  and  boron,  has  been  proved  beyond 
a  doubt :  first  of  all  in  the  specular  iron,  which  frequently  occurs 
as  a  product  of  sublimation  in  the  volcanic  fissures :  -I  add  a  few 
other  examples.. 

Plattner*  proved  the  formation  of  magnetite  by  sublimation  in  the 
Freiberg  reverberatory  furnaces.  Minerals  are  very  frequently  formed  in 
metallurgical  operations;  thus,  Orthoclase,  Galena,  and  most  probably  Copper 
Pyrites  and  Blende.  Very  instructive,  in  this  connection,  is  the  formation  of  a 
lode  in  the  floor  of  a  reverberatory  furnace  at  Freiberg;  where  the  cracks 
in  the  masonry  were  partly,  filled  with  a  combed  structure  consisting  of  Galena, 
a  galena-like  combination,  and  Copper  Pyrites:  which  Plattner  considered  to 
be  the  product  of  a  long  continuous  sublimation.  Still  melting  may  have 
played  an  active  part  in  this  case.  On  the  formation  of  minerals  in  general 
by  metallurgical  operations,  see  v.  Leonhard's  Hiittenerzeugnisse  (1858),  Berg- 
u.  Hiittenmann.  Zeitung,  1852,  p.  278;  and  1855,  pp.  128  and  143. 


1  See:  Compte  rendu,  1849,  vol.  XXVIII.  p.  6l>7. 

2  See    Cotta's  Gangstudien,  vol.  II.  p.  1. 


INJECTION.  75 

Daubree1  succeeded  by  means  of  sublimation,  in  part  with  the  aid  of 
Fluorine  and  Chlorine,  in  forming  Tin  ore,  Oxide  of  Titanium,  and  Quartz. 

Durocher2  passed  gases  and  metallic  vapors  (chiefly  protochlorides, 
although  other  combinations  also)  into  heated  glass- tubes,  and  obtained  crys- 
tals of  many  of  the  minerals  occurring  in  metalliferous  deposits,  especially 
Blende,  Iron  Pyrites,  Galena,  Sulphite  of  Silver,  Sulphite  of  Antimony,  Sul- 
phite of  Bismuth. 

Ebelmen3  also  obtained  many  minerals,  partly  by  melting,  partly  by 
sublimation  with  the  aid  of  boron  and  phosphorus;  among  them  several,  which 
are  characteristic  for  lodes. 

Bun  sen,4  finally,  in  speaking  of  volcanic  exhalations  has  shown,  that 
the  same  are  well  adapted  to  explain  satisfactorily  many  of  the  mineral  for- 
mations in  lodes. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  impossible,  that  many 
lodes  have  been  formed  by  sublimation  only,  whether  with  the 
aid  of  steam,  or  without  it.  In  others,  perhaps,  only  some  of 
the  ingredients  were  sooner  or  later  introduced  by  sublimation. 

THEORY  OF  INJECTION. 

§  53.  When  the  igneous  origin  of  many  rooks,  which  occur 
as  dikes,  had  once  been  recognised,  many  persons  were  inclined, 
during  the  first  half  of  the  present  century,  to  consider  all  lodes 
as  igneous  fluid  injections.  Petzhold,  in  his  geology  (1840), 
even  attempted  to  maintain,  that  as  being  the  most  recent  and 
consequently  deepest  ramifications  from  the  interior  of  the  earth, 
they  must  necessarily  be  the  richest  in  metals,  and  have  the 
greatest  specific  gravity;  a  hypothesis,  which  in  any  case  betrayed 
a  great  ignorance  of  the  true  nature  of  lodes.  More  recently 
the  injective  nature  of  lodes  in  general,  is  defended  almost  alone 
by  Four  net,  while  de  Beaumont  and  Durocher  consider 
only  certain  classes  of  them  to  be  injective,  the  majority,  on 
the  contrary,  as  having  been  formed  by  sublimation  or  infiltra- 
tion ;  all  however,  as  the  consequences  of  local  volcanic  activity. 

It  may  be,  that  certain  metalliferous,  and  on  this  account 
coming  under  the  category  of  metallic  deposits,  igneous-rock 
dikes,  especially  green-stones  and  serpentines,  are  to  be  desig- 
nated as  originally  of  igneous  origin,  which  have  been  afterwards 

1  See:  Compte  rendu,  vol.  XXIX.  p.  227. 

a  See:  Compte  rendu,  vol.  32,  p.  823;  vol.  42,  p.  850. 

3  See:  Annales  de  Chimie  et  Phys.    3  Series,  vol.  22,  p.  213;   vol.  30, 
p.  129;  vol.  32,  p.  129;  vol.  33,  p.  34;    Compte  rendu,  vol.  22,  p.  710;  vol. 
33,  p.  525. 

4  See:  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1852,  p.  501. 

5 


76  CONCLUDING 

to  some  extent  altered.  But  for  the  characteristic  lodes  of  every 
kind  it  is  altogether  improbable,  that  matter  forming  them  has 
exactly  the  same  origin  as  the  Greenstones,  Porphyries,  Basalts 
or  Lavas.  Their  composition,  their  texture,  and  the  manner  of 
their  occurrence,  are  opposed  to  it. 

Their  composition  is  opposed  to  it,  in  that  many  minerals 
have  often  crystallized  in  them  contemporaneously,  an  impossible 
occurrence,  when  the  combination  proceeds  from  a  common 
igneous-fluid  condition. 

Their  texture  is  opposed  to  it,  when  the  minerals,  forming 
them,  are  arranged  in  a  symmetric  combed  texture. 

Their  occurrence  is  opposed  to  it,  in  so  far  as  they  frequently 
fill  narrow,  widely  ramifying  systems  of  fissures,  which  it  is 
impossible  should  have  been  filled  so  completely  by  igneous-fluid 
matter. 

Finally,  the  very  unequal  distribution  of  the  minerals,  the 
ores  in  particular,  which  shows  itself  dependent  on  slight  modi- 
fications of  the  wall-rock,  is  opposed  to  the  theory  of  solidifi- 
cation, as  this  must  have  had  a  consequent  more  equal  distribu- 
tion of 'all  the  minerals. 

In  all  the  cases,  therefore,  in  which  lodes  show  appearances, 
like  the  above  mentioned— and  they  form  by  far  the  greater 
number— their  origin  by  igneous-fluid  injection  is,  according 
to  the  present  standpoint  of  science,  inconceivable.  In  addition, 
such  a  supposition  is  entirely  superfluous,  so  long  as  the  theories 
previously  mentioned  suffice  for  their  explanation. 

CONCLUDING  OBSERVATIONS. 

.  §  54.  These  numerous,  and  in  part  contradictory  attempts 
show,  how  difficult  it  is,  to  find  a  general  explanation  for  the 
formation  of  lodes.  I,  for  my  part,  am  of  the  opinion,  that  such 
is  impossible ;  and  that  various  kinds  of  lodes  have  been  formed 
in  very  different  ways.  Already,  from  the  extremely  vague 
definition  of  ore,  metallic  deposit,  and  consequently  of  lode,  it 
follows,  that  the  lodes  do  not  form  an  accurately  determined, 
closely  confined  and,  in  themselves,  consonant  group  of  geolo- 
gical phenomena;  but  are,  according  to  their  nature,  the  very 
variedly  composed  fillings  of  the  fissures  in  the  earth's  crust. 
These  fillings  may  and  must  have  been  formed  in  very  different 
ways.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  find  a  single  explanation  for 


OBSERVATIONS.  77 

all;  but  rather  imperatively  necessary,  to  seek  a  special  expla- 
nation, or  at  least  a  modification  of  the  same,  for  every  parti- 
cular occurrence ;  to  which,  indeed,  a  great  number  of  analogous 
ones  can  be  generally  annexed.  On  this  account  I  here  confine 
myself  to  a  few  general  remarks,  and  spare  special  explanations 
for  the  separate  cases  in  the  second  part. 

Without  a  doubt  many  lodes,  especially  such  as  show  a 
symmetric  combed  texture,  and  contain  Quartz,  Carbonates, 
Heavy  Spar,  Fluor  Spar,  and  metallic  Sulphurets,  have  been 
formed  by  a  gradual  precipitation  from  aqueous  solutions.  Their 
texture,  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  minerals  composing  them, 
point  to  this;  neither  is  otherwise  explainable,  than  in  this 
manner;  and  we  have  especially  to  thank  the  researches  of 
Bischof  for  many  explanations  on  the  possibility  of  solution  in, 
and  precipitation  from,  aqueous  solutions,  which  formerly  ap- 
peared very  difficult.  The  event  appears  to  have  mostly  taken 
place  at  great  depths,  and  to  have  required  very  long  periods 
of  time.  It  is  a  very  marked  distinction,  that  fillings  of  fissures 
by  secretion,  infiltration,  and  also  those  by  sublimation,  presup-" 
pose  incalculably  long  periods  of  time,  and  a  successive  forma- 
tion of  the  separate  mineral  portions,  while  the  filling  by  igneous- 
fluid,  injection  necessarily  gives  a  result,  which  was  accom- 
plished in  a  short  time,  and  formed  contemporaneously  in  all  its 
parts. 

But  whence  came  the  substances,  that  were  dissolved  in 
water?  Certainly  not  from  without,  and  above,  but  from  within; 
either  partially,  or  entirely,  from  the  immediate  wall-rock ;  or, 
it  would  appear,  more  commonly  from  a  greater  depth,  than  that 
at  which  they  were  deposited;  but  always  from  the  wall-rock  of  the 
continuation  of  the  fissure.  It  is,  also,  not  impossible,  that  sub- 
limations may  have  taken  place  in  the  interstices  of  such  infil- 
trations, or  after  their  conclusion  mr  this  however  can  only  be 
ascertained  for  the  particular  case.  It  is  further  very  certain; 
that  numerous  transformations  have  taken  place  in  many  lodes 
after  their  first  formation,  whereby  minerals  originally  existing 
in  them  have  been  altered,  and  their  elements  frequently  been 
transposed;  and  that  substances  have  penetrated  from  above, 
which  belonged  to  the  atmosphere  and  organic  life:  oxygen, 
water,  phosphoric  acid,  etc.  Such  transformations  are  often  very 
important,  as  regards  the  observation  of  the  existing  condition 
of  lodes. 


78  CONCLUDING  OBSERVATIONS. 

It  is  further  beyond  a  doubt,  that,  at  times,  clefts  in  vol- 
canoes are  filled  with  sublimed  ores,  especially  specular  Iron, 
which  was  reduced  from  vapors  of  protochloride  of  Iron.  Lodes 
of  specular  or  micaceous  Iron,  and  similarly  many  other  lodes, 
may  have  been  formed  in  the  same  manner  at  earlier  periods 
in  the  history  of  the  earth.  We  must  also  here  know  the 
special  case,  before  we  are  able  to  form  an  opinion. 

It  is,  also,  by  no  means  impossible,  that  certain  ores,  coming 
in  an  igneous-fluid  condition,  not  from  the  central  hearth  of 
the  igneous  rocks,  but  from  the  re-melting  of  already  existing 
metallic  deposits,  should  have  penetrated  fissures  and  solidified 
in  them;  although  no  cases  of  .this  kind  are  known,  as  being 
formed  at  the  present  time,  or  hear  the  earth's  surface.  We  are 
as  yet  too  little  acquainted  in  this  relation  with  the  results  ot 
high  pressure. 

Finally,  fissures  which  were  originally  filled  with  igneous- 
fluid  injections,  may  have  afterwards  undergone  important  trans- 
formations; and,  in  particular,  new  substances  may  have  pene- 
trated in  the  way  of  infiltration  or  sublimation. 

The  most  of  these  events  probably  occurred  at  great  depths; 
and  the  lodes  now  known  are  but  the  plutonic  portions,  formed 
at  great  depths,  of  the  results  of  geological  events;  the  upper, 
volcanic  portions  of  which  have  been  destroyed,  but  which  were, 
most  probably,  analogous  to  the  volcanic  phenomena  observed 
at  the  present  time.  Similar  occurrences  may  even  now  be  taking- 
place  in  the  interior  of  the  earth. 

Thus  the  formation  of  lodes  shows  itself  to  be  not  only 
possibly,  but  also  probably,  very  manifold ;  and  appears  to  have 
always  stood  in  some  connection  with  neighboring,  and  often 
shortly  before  occurring  eruptions  of  igneous  rocks.  The  local 
re-action  of  the  igneous-fluid  interior  of  the  earth  created  fissures, 
forced  igneous-fluid  masses  into  many  of  the  same,  caused 
gaseous  emanations  and  sublimations  in  others ;  and  in  addition, 
during  long  periods  of  time,  impelled  the  circulation  of  heated 
water,  which  acted,  dissolving  at  one  point  and  again  depositing 
the  dissolved  substances  at  another,  dissolving  new  ones  in  their 
stead.  The  whole  process  is  thus  not  confined  to  any  particu- 
lar geological  period,  or  any  particular  locality;  but  recurs  at 
all  times,  either  in  the  same  or  new  regions,  at  the  point  where 
a  re-action  of  the  interior  of  the  earth  has  taken  place. 


SEARCH  FOR  LODES.  79 

So  much  on  the  general  process  of  the  formation  of  lodes: 
in  detail  it  can  only  be  proved  for  the  particular  case. 

SEARCH  FOR  LODES. 

§  55.  If  the  preceding  delineations  and  views  can  be  con- 
sidered as  being  substantially  correct,  what  rules  can  be  deduced 
from  them  for  the  search  after,  and  following  up  of  lodes? 

For  the  search  after  lodes,  substantially  the  following: 

1.  Lodes  may  be  more  commonly  expected  in  older,  than 
in  more  recent  rocks,  as  well  sedimentary  as  igneous;    because 
there  is  more  probability,  that  the  older  ones  have  been  covered 
for  a  longer  time   by  more   recent  ones,  and  were  consequently 
subjected  for  a  longer  period  to  the  possibility  of  lodes  forming 
in  them.     This  has  been  confirmed  by  experience. 

2.  They  will    be    more    commonly  found    in  the   neighbor- 
hood of  igneous  rocks,   than  far  removed   from   all  such  similar 
eruptions ;  therefore  more  frequently  in  mountainous  regions,  than 
in  plains:  also  confirmed  by  experience. 

3.  They   will   be   found   more   commonly  in  the   neighbor- 
hood   of  so-called   plutonic   rocks,    i.  e.   such   as   have   solidified 
beneath  the  surface,   than  in   that  of  volcanic   rocks,   since  the 
majority  of  them  could    only  have  been   formed  at  some   depth 
under  a   solid   covering:    also   confirmed;    and    on   this   account' 
most  lodes  appear  pretty  old,    while  perfectly  similar  ones  inay 
e\7e.n  now  be'  forming  in  the  interior  of  the  earth. 

2.  and  3.  do  not  exclude  the  possibility  of  veins  often 
attaining  a  higher  level  than  the  igneous  rocks  causing  them;  in 
which  case  they  may  occur  in  regions,  in  which  the  latter  have 
not  been  observed  at  the  surface. 

4.  Lodes  occur  most  frequently,  not  only  in  the  neighbor- 
hood  of  igneous   rocks,   but   also   in   direct    contact   with   them, 
or  even  at  the  line  of   contact  of  two  rocks,    which  have  been 
brought  in  conjunction  by  dislocations. 

The  preceding  rules  are  particularly  worthy  of  notice  in 
searching  for  lodes  in  districts,  the  geological  character  of  which 
is  -entirely  unknown,  if  once  however  single  lodes  are  discovered 
at  any  point, -the  following  may  be  also  used. 

5.  It  is  then    very   probable,   that   several    or  many   lodes 
exist  in  the  some  vicinity;    since  their   probable  manner  of  for- 
mation infers,  that  many  are  formed  together.     Hence  many  very 


80  FOLLOWING  UP  OF  LODES. 

often  follow  nearly  the  same  direction;  since  by  every  forcible 
convulsion  parallel  fissures  are  formed  in  the  earth's  crust,  when 
it  is  not  at  the  same  time  fissured  in  all  possible  directions  by 
very  local  causes.  On  this  account  either  broad  parallel  lodes, 
or  a  network  of  narrower  ones,  may  be  expected. 

6.  Most  lodes  have  proportionally  such  a  slight  breadth, 
and  are  in  addition,  from  their  composition,  so  subject  to  erosion; 
that  it  cannot  be  expected,  that  their  out-croppings  on  the  sur- 
face will  be  easily  found.  They  are  in  fact  very  frequently 
covered  by  a  layer,  formed  of  the  products  of  erosion,  which 
hides  them  from  view.  Hence,  as  a  rule,  a  surface  examination 
does  not  suffice.  To  find  them,  it  is  mostly  necessary  to  search 
beneath  the  soil  covering  them.  This  is  possible: 

a.  by  discerning  the  products  of  the  decomposition  of  lodes 
at  the  surface;    for  example,   a  peculiarly   colored  zone;    or  by 
the  presence  of  efflorescences  of  a  special  kind; 

b.  by    following   fragments   or   pebbles   from   the    lodes    in 
watercourses  to  the  point  where  they  cease;  in  the  neighborhood 
of  which  the  deposits,  from  which  they  were  torn,  probably  exist. 
The  indications  a  and  b  must,  however,  always  be  further  con- 
firmed ; 

c.  by  uncovering  the  surface ;  which  may,  according  to  local 
circumstances,   consist  in   ditches,    adits,    pits,    shafts,   borings  or 

'even  artificial  washings  away  of  the  surface;  and  which  may  of 
course  also  be  employed,  when  other  causes,  besides  those 
mentioned  under  a  and  b,  lead  to  the  supposition  of  the  existence 
of  a  lode. 

I  approach  too  nearly  here,  however,  to  purely  mining  opera- 
tions, and  for  further  information  must  refer  to  works  on  that 
subject, 

FOLLOWING  UP  OF  LODE& 

§  66.  When  a  lode  has  once  been  found,  it  is  self-evident, 
that  in  order  to  become  better  acquainted  with  it,  or  to  prepare 
it  for  regular  mining  operations,  it  must  be  followed  up,  both 
in  its  strike  and  dip.  In  doing  this,  difficulties  at  times  occur, 
especially  local  wedgings-out  of  the  lode,  or  faults.  In  such 
cases  the  re-finding  of  the  lode  is  by  no  means  entirely  depen- 
dent on  chance,  but  to  a  great  extent  on  the  right  use  of 
geological  principles. 


SEGREGATIONS:  WHAT?  81 

The  so-called  wedging-out  of  the  lodes  does  not  seem  to  be 
united  with  a  complete  cessation  of  the  fissures,  in  which  they 
were  formed;  on  the  contrary,  these  nearly  always  appear  to 
continue  farther,  either  as  one  or  several  clefts.  These  must  be 
followed,  in  order  probably  to  find  a  widening  and  filling  of  the 
same  with  ore.  Should  there  be  several  clefts  not  continuing 
quite  parallel  to  one  another;  or  should  the,  at  its  commence- 
ment, single  cleft  branch  into  several;  then  such  as  keep  the 
direction  of  the  principal  strike  and  dip,  should  be  chiefly  observed. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  a  fault  or  dislocation  occurs;  then  those 
observations  and  principles  must  be  followed,  which  have  been 
already  given  in  §  19. 

If  merely  new  ore  is  being  searched  for  in  a  lode,  which 
only  contains  it  locally;  then  the  circumstances  must  be  consi- 
dered, which  have  been  already  mentioned  in  §§  23  to  41. 


SEGREGATIONS. 

WHAT  ARE  SEGREGATIONS? 

§  57.  •  Under  segregations  are  classified  all  those  aggre- 
gations of  ores  having  irregular  form  and  definite  limits.  They 
differ  from  'beds  and  lodes,  by  the  irregularity  of  their  form ; 
from  impregnations,  by  their  definite  limits. 

The  irregularity  and  dissimilarity  of  form,  combined  with 
definite  limits,  form  the  characteristics  of  this  class  of  metallic 
deposits. 

Within  the  wide  bounds  of  this  definition  may  be  made 
a  great  number  of  subdivisions,  which  are  not  more  definitely 
separated  from  one  another,  than  the  segregations  are  from  bed's, 
lodes,  and  impregnations.  There  is  a  large  number  of  charac- 
teristic occurrences,  which  can  be  easily  classified,  while  others 
form  transition  stages. 

RECUMBENT,  AND  VERTICAL,  SEGREGATIONS. 

§  58.     The  segregations  are  divided  into 

1.  bed-masses,  or  recumbent  segregations; 
and,  2^  vein -masses,  or  vertical  segregations. 

6 


82 


RECUMBENT,  AND  VERTICAL, 


The  recumbent  segregations  nearly  resemble  the  beds  in 
their  form  and  position;  they  have  an  irregular  lenticular  form; 
the  greatest  dimensions  of  which  are  parallel  to  the  stratification, 
or  cleavage,  of  the  rock  containing; them';  as  for  example,  the 
light  portion  of  the  following  wood-cut. 


This  figure  shows  the  vertical  section  of  a  recumbent  segre- 
gation, which,  when  several  similar  ones  succeeded  each  other 
in  the  same  stratum,  might  certainly  be  considered  as  forming 
part  of  a  bed. 

Recumbent  segregations  may  however  send  off  shoots  of  all 
kinds  into  the  surrounding  rocks,  as  is  shown  in  the  dark  portion 
of  the  annexed  wood-cut. 


Vertical  segregations  are  such  aggregations  of  ore,  or  irreg- 
ular metallic  deposits,  of  which  the  greatest  extension  is  entirely 
independent  of  the  texture  or  bedding  of  the  rocks  surrounding 
them;  but  which  are  generally  more  extended  in  the  vertical, 
than  the  horizontal  direction.  At  times  they  are  like  very 
irregular  lodes,  local  widenings  of  fissures;  and  in  fact  form 
transitions  to  these.  At  times  they  have  branches  in  a  very 
similar  manner  to  veins.  The  following  three  wood-cuts  give 
ideal  examples  of  vertical  segregations ;  the  middle  one  shows 
a  segregation,  surrounded  by  gang,  while  the  lower  one  shows 
two  fillings,  within  widenings,  of  fissures. 


SEGREGATIONS. 


83 


A  distinction  between  the  recumbent  and  vertical  segregations  has  also 
been  made;  that  the  former  are  more  extended  in  a  horizontal,  the  latter 

6* 


84  PARTICULAR  KINDS,  AND 

in  a  vertical  direction.  Such  a  distinction  appears  to  me  to  be  yet  more 
variable,  as  well  as  more  arbitrary,  and  less  real  and  appropriate,  than  the 
one  adopted;  although  it  may  indeed  occur,  that  a  nearly  vertical  mass,  or 
segregation,  may  have  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  horizontal  ones. 
It  is  then  probable,  that  it  is  no  longer  in  the  position  it  originally  occupied, 
but  has  been  raised  on  end  together  with  the  surrounding  rocks.  According 
to  my  definition,  the  expression  'recumbent  segregation'  can  no  longer  be 
applied  to  such  as  occur  in  unstratified  rocks,  and  such  as  show  no  cleavage ; 
because  with  these  a  parallelism  can  no  longer  be  proved.  We  must  however 
consider,  that  in  all  doubtful  cases  such  fine  distinctions  of  form  have  no 
great  value.  In  any  case,  the  approximate  parallelism,  or  the  entire  want  of 
the  same,  appears  to  me  to  be  of  more  essential  value,  where  either  can  be 
proved,  than  the  greater  or  less  inclination  of  the  longest  dimensions  of  an 
irregular  body,  the  present  position  of  which  is  frequently  no  longer  the 
original  one. 


PARTICULAR  KINDS  OF  SEGREGATIONS. 

§  59.  The  division  into  recumbent  and  vertical  segrega- 
tions must  properly  be  called  a  general  one;  since  every  kind 
of  segregation  can  be  classified  under  the  one  or  the  other. 
Both  the  form  and  the  manner  of  occurrence  may  however 
cause  further  distinctions  and  special  definitions.  Without  laying 
any  great  value  on  these,  I  give  the  following,  as  being  the  most 
common: 

1.  Floors  (Stockwerke)  are  districts  of  rocks,  which  are 
traversed   by  a  great   number  of  irregular  or  vein-like  metallic 
deposits,  so  that,  as  a  rule,  the  whole  mass  has  to  be  extracted 
in   mining.     If  the    separate    deposits    are   lodes,    or   fillings   of 
fissures,    they   form,  strictly  taken,  a  network  of  lodes;   though 
it  is  more  usual  to  classify  them  under  the  segregated  masses. 

2.  Contact-masses    are    irregular    aggregations   of   ore, 
which   are    chiefly  found    on   the   limits    between   two    different 
rocks ;  as  for  example,  the  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  cobalt  masses 
of  Tunaberg  in  Sweden,  or  the  irregular  metallic  deposits  of  the 
Banat,   which  are   worked   on  the   limits  of   igneous   rocks  and 
limestone. 

3.  Fillings  of  cavities.     Many  aggregations  of  ores  are 
decidedly  nothing  more  than  fillings  of  cavities,  which  had  been 
previously  washed  out  in  Dolomite  or  Limestone ;  so  for  example, 
many  deposits  of  Pea  Iron-ore  in  the  Swiss  Jura  and  the  Suabian 
Alps.   The  following  represents  the  idea  of  such  an  occurrence. 


OCCURRENCES,  OF  SEGREGATIONS. 


85 


Although  there  are  many  other  terms  in  use,  they  are  so 
local,  and  have  such  different  significations  in  different  places, 
that  it  seems  needless  here  to  mention  them. 


OCCURRENCES  OF  SEGREGATIONS. 

§  60.  Irregular  collections  of  ores  most  commonly  occur 
at  the  line  of  contact  of  various  kinds  of  rocks,  or  near  such 
lines  of  contact.  Many  of  these  are  actually  contact  formations 
or  contact  segregations;  although  indeed  others  occur  in  the 
middle  of  a  crystalline  or  sedimentary  rock,  without  it  being 
possible  to  find  any  relation  between  them  and  the  neigh- 
boring rock. 

These  segregations  occur  most  frequently  in  the  crystalline 
schists,  commonly  accompanied  by  granular  limestone,  or  igneous 
rocks  which  traverse  them ;  for  example,  in  Norway  and  Sweden . 
Others  form  a  part  of  igneous  rocks,  especially  of  amphibolic 
or  pyroxenic  green-stones  or  serpentines.  Some  are  known  in 
the  Palaeozoic  rocks;  for  example,  the  pyritic  segregation  of 
Goslar  in  the  Hartz,  and  the  spathic  iron  masses  in  the  eastern 
Alps;  which  last,  however,  according  to  Von  Schouppe  are  rather 
irregular  beds,  than  proper  segregations.  Irregularly  formed 
collections  of  ores  also  occur  in  the  Subcarboniferous  and  Triassic 
periods ;  and  certain  lime-stones  in  the  Alps  contain  aggregations 
of  ore,  which,  from  their  form,  can  be  best  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  segregations. 

In  many  lime-stones  and  dolomites,  moreover,  cavities  exist; 
which  are  partially  filled  with  iron  ores,  especially  oolithic  iron- 


86  ORE-DISTRIBUTION,  TRACING  AND  FOLLOWING-UP, 

ore ;  and  which  may  also  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
segregated  masses,  even  though  the  manner  of  their  formation 
greatly  varies  from  that,  in  which  most  of  the  other  segregations 
have  been  formed;  which  indeed  -is,  otherwise,  by  no  means  homo- 
geneous. True  segregations  have  rarely  been  found  entirely 
enclosed  by  igneous  rocks. 

"•;--*.,  l|s -';* 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ORES  IN  THE  SEGREGATIONS. 

§  61.  We  have  seen,  that  in  the  lodes  the  ores  and  gangs 
are  distributed  irregularly.  Something  similar  occurs  in  the 
segregations,  since  richer  and  poorer  regions  can  be  distinguished, 
only  not  to  the  same  extent,  and  with  the  same  precision,  as 
in  the  lodes.  In  addition  the  causes  or  relations  of  these  dif- 
ferences are  less  distinctly  understood  in  the  segregations  than 
in  the  lodes.  The  difference  of  those  portions  situated  nearest 
the  surface  -is  frequently  brought  about  by  decompositions,  which 
have  been  caused  by  the  effect  of  air  and  water.  The  appear- 
ance of  Gossan,  Iron-Hat,  Pacos,  and  Colorados,  repeats  itself 
here  also. 

The  influence  of  the  unequal  breadth  may  have  caused  the 
ramifications  of  the  masses  to  be  somewhat  differently  composed 
from  the  main  body. 

The  influence  of  dissimilar  wall-rock  is  hardly  perceptible: 
partly  because  segregations  but  seldom  traverse  different  kinds 
of  rocks;  partly  because-  the  manner  of  their  formation  was 
mostly  different,  and  accompanied  by  different  circumstances, 
from  those  of  the  lodes;  and  moreover,  such  an  influence  could 
hardly  be  extended  to  the  interior  of  such  wide  masses.  The 
wall-rock  appears  to  have  exerted  only  a  general,  and  not  any 
special  influence;  i.  e.  certain  kinds  of  segregations  appear 
principally  in  certain  kinds  of  rocks,  or,  as  contact-masses,  at 
the  lines  of  contact  of  different  rocks.  Thus,  for  example,  Zink 
ore  masses  are  chiefly  found  combined  with  Dolomite  or  dolo- 
mitic  Lime-stone;  similarly  the  segregations  of  manganese  ores, 
and  also  the  oolithic  Iron-ore  segregations,  are  chiefly  confined  to 
cavities  in  such  rocks  as  have  been  eroded  by  water. 

The  origin  of  the  segregations  is  evidently,  like  their  form 
and  manner  of  occurrence,  a  still  more  irregular  one,  than  that 
of  the  lodes.  Not  only  their  masses,  but  also  the  space  which 
they  occupy,  would  seem  to  have  been  formed  in  most  dissimilar 


OF  SEGREGATIONS. -IMPREGNATIONS:  WHAT'?  87 

ways.     It  therefore   becomes  imperatively   necessary,  to  explain 
each  separate  occurrence. 

SEARCH  FOR  AND  FOLLO WING-UP  OF  SEGREGATIONS, 

§  62.  Through  the  great  irregularity  of  this  kind  of  deposits; 
in  regard  to  their  form,  inner  nature,  and  manner  of  origin, 
as  well  as  their  occurrence-,  no  rules  can  be  given  for  the  search 
for  and  following  up  of  the  segregations.  At  the  most,  this 
could  be  done  only  for  certain  classes  of  them;  and  even  then 
but  with  difficulty.  The  rules  would  have  to  be  so  variable 
and  indefinite,  they  would  be  of  no  use  to  the  miner.  The 
principle  holds  good,  that  local  experiences  must  be  used  locally. 
The  experience  gained  in  one  district,  can  only  be  used  with 
the  greatest  caution,  and  constant  consideration  of  the  altered 
circumstances,  in  another.  But  within  certain  districts,  indeed, 
the  general  character  of  these,  otherwise  irregular  deposits, 
remains  tolerably  constant.  Fortunately  this  uncertainty  is 
counterbalanced,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  the  large  masses  in 
which  the  segregations  occur. 


IMPREGNATIONS. 

WHAT  IS  UNDERSTOOD  BY,  OR  COMPRISED  IN 
IMPREGNATIONS? 

§  63.  The  impregnations  (disseminations)  differ  from  all 
other  metallic  deposits  in  having  undetermined  and  in  no  way 
sharply  defined  limits;  which  is,  in  all  probability,  frequently 
caused  by  the  ores  having  penetrated  certain  portions  or  zones 
of  a  rock  subsequent  to  its  formation ;  still  there  may  be  cer- 
tain deposits  corresponding  to  them,  in  which  particles  of  ore 
were  originally  thus  disseminated.  The  rock  forming  the  matrix 
continues,  therefore,  between  the  separate  particles  of  ore ;  which 
is  not  the  case  with  the  other  classes  of  deposits.  Their  form, 
although  undefined,  is  in  part  like  that  of  beds,  in  part  of  veins, 
in  part  of  segregations;  and  they  can,  in  accordance  with  this, 
be  divided  into  bedded,  vein-like,  and  segregated  impregnations; 
of  which  the  former  two  may  also  be  termed  impregnation-zones. 


88       OCCURRENCE  OF,— MODES   OF   ORE-OCCURRENCE  IN,- 

They  occur,  either  alone  and  independently,  or  dependently, 
in  combination  with  other  metallic  deposits  of  defined  limits, 
which  then  form  their  nucleus.  In  the  last  case  their  formation 
may  have  generally  proceeded  from^the  defined  deposits,  in  so 
far  that  they  are  only  consequences  and  companions  of  the  same; 
still  the  reverse  is  possible:  namely,  a  local  concentration  pro- 
ceeding from  a  disseminated  distribution. 

OCCURRENCE  OF  IMPREGNATIONS. 

§  64.  Impregnations  of  ores  are  found  in  all  the  principal 
classes  of  rocks,  in  crystalline  schists,  in  distinctly  sedimentary 
formations,  and  in  igneous  rocks.  In  the  last,  the  older  the 
rocks,  the  more  frequently  do  they  occur. 

The  ore  impregnations,  which  occur  in  combination  with 
other  metallic  deposits,  form  the  local  wall-rocks  of  lodes,  the 
hanging-  and  foot- walls  of  beds,  or  their  undefined  continua- 
tion in  the  direction  of  strike  and  dip,  or  finally  the  outer 
borders  of  segregations,  forming  essentially  a  portion  of  the 
wall-rock. 

Those,  on  the  contrary,  which  occur  independently,  and 
without  apparent  connection  with  other  kinds  of  metallic  depo- 
sits, form  zones,  which  are  undefinedly  bounded,  and  at  times 
even  bedlike ;  or  regions  in  rocks  extending  in  many  directions, 
in  such  a  manner  that  these  rocks,  essentially,  continue  through 
them,  and  are  only  within  their  extent  in  some  degree  more  or 
less  impregnated  with  ores.  Perhaps  these  apparently  independent 
impregnations  are,  in  part,  in  connection  with  metallic  deposits 
of  another  kind  lying  deeper,  but  on  that  account  not  observ- 
able or  at  least  not  yet  discovered.  In  any  case  their  general 
occurrence  corresponds  with  that  most  common  to  all  other 
metallic  deposits. 

MODES  OF  OCCURRENCE  OF  ORES  IN  IMPREGNATIONS. 

§  65.  The  ores  are  distributed  in  various  modes  in  the  rocks 
in  which  they  form  impregnations. 

1.  They  form  crystals,  or  grains,  which  are  porphyritically 
disseminated  in  the  rock.  The  size  of  these  crystals,  or  grains, 
may  be  very  variable;  and  at  times  they  become  imperceptible, 
so  that  the  impregnation  cannot  be  recognised  by  the  naked 


DISTRIBUTION  OF,— IMPREGNATIONS.  89 

eye,  while  the  apparently  homogeneous  mass  still  contains,  per- 
haps, many  particles  of  ore  or  metal:  for  instance,  much  of 
the  auriferous  quartz  in  the  West,  and  the  Fallbands  in  Scan- 
dinavia. 

The  ores  form  small  globules,  lenticular  masses,  or  bunches, 
lying  distributed  through  the  rock;  each  of  which  consists  of 
a  collection  of  individual  particles  of  ore,  sometimes  even  of 
very  heterogeneous  matter:  for  example,  the  lead-ores  in  the  sand- 
stone of  Commern  near  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

3.  The  ores  fill  extremely  fine  clefts,  which    either   corre- 
spond to  the  cleavage,  or  even  traverse  it:  as,  at  times,  in  the 
wall-rock  of  the  lodes  around  Freiberg,  etc. 

4.  The   rock  is   only  impregnated,   and  hence  colored,   by 
a  metallic  oxide;  which  indeed  would  but  seldom  give  occasion 
to  a  profitable  working,  but  may  on  the  other  hand  be  frequently 
regarded   as  a  leader   to    deposits    of   greater  value.     This  fre- 
quently occurs  in  the  neighborhood  of  iron-  or  copper-ore  deposits. 

There  is  no  reason,  why  all  kinds  of  ores  may  not  occur  as 
impregnations;  and,  in  fact,  impregnations  of  the  most  various 
kinds  are  already  known.  It  appears  to  me  superfluous  to 
recount  here  the  various  kinds  of  impregnations,  as  we  shall 
become  acquainted  with  the  greatest  variety  of  the  same  in  the 
second  portion  of  this  work. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  IMPREGNATIONS. 

§  66.  The  impregnations  do  not  follow  any  general  law  in 
regard  to  their  distribution,  but  are  chiefly  found  in  certain 
kinds  of  rocks.  Thus  the  tin-ore  impregnations  in  crystalline 
Schists,  and  granitic  rocks,  the  impregnations  of  Zink-ores  in 
Dolomites  and  dolomitic  Lime-stones,  gold-impregnations  in 
quartzose  rocks,  chlorite-schist,  talc-schist  or  micaceous  iron-schist. 

The  impregnations,  which  occur  with  lodes,  take  a  still 
greater  choice  of  wall-rock.  Chiefly  those  rocks;  which  were 
much  cleft,  were  previously  subjected  to  great  decomposition, 
or  contained  much  coal  or  bitumen;  are  richly  penetrated  by 
impregnations:  a  circumstance,  which  can  be  easily  explained, 
partly  by  the  mere  mechanical  resistance  which  the  others  offered 
to  a  penetrati6n  of  the  solutions,  partly  from  the  want  of  a 
re-acting  exchange  of  ingredients. 


90  ORIGIN,  AND  AGE, 

It  frequently  occurs ,  in  lode-fissures,  that  only  a  portion  of 
the  ingredients  forming  the  lode  have  penetrated  the  wall-rock 
as  impregnations. 

"'  - 

ORIGIN  AND  AGE  OF  IMPREGNATIONS. 

§  67.  The  impregnations  occur,  as  we  have  seen,  partly 
in  company  with  other  kinds  of  metallic  deposits,  partly  quite 
independently  of  any.  The  first,  generally,  contain  the  same, 
or  a  portion  of  the  same  ores,  as  the  deposits  *vhich  they  accom- 
pany ;  and  are,  as  a  rule,  consequences  of  the  formation  or  the 
transformation  of  these. 

When  lodes  are  accompanied  by  ore-impregnations,  it  is 
to  be  assumed,  that,  generally,  the  solutions  from  which  the 
materials  of  the  lodes  were  precipitated — they  may  have  been 
aqueous,  igneous-fluid,  or  gaseous— also  penetrated  the  wall- 
rock,  and  there  caused  certain  deposits  in  fine  clefts  or  in  the 
rock  itself.  In  the  last  case,  crystals  have  made  room  for  them- 
selves by  their  power  of  crystallization ;  or  an  ore  took  the  place 
of  a  mineral  dissolved;  for  example,  tin-ore  that  of  feldspar. 

It  is  not  necessary,  that  the  impregnations  should  have  taken 
place  contemporaneously  with  the  principal  filling  of  the  fissure; 
a  case  is  known,  by  the  side  of  a  lode,  in  the  Morgenstern-mine 
near  Freiberg,  in  which  Mispickel  has  penetrated  the  Gneiss, 
probably  long  after  the  formation  of  the  lode,  from  a  partial  de- 
composition and  re-depositing  of  the  same.  This  may  occur  in 
many  cases  of  impregnation;  but  especially  in  such,  as  are  pro- 
duced by  the  decomposition  of  the  ores  in  the  adjoining  deposits. 

It  is,  however,  possible,  that  many  impregnations  are  really 
the  cause  of  the  lodes  accompanying  them.  The  impregnations 
existed  first,  and  the  filling  of  the  fissure  followed  by  a  process 
of  concentration. 

That  the  formation  of  ore-impregnations  is  not  confined  ex- 
clusively to  the  action  of  water,  is  very  conclusively  shown  by 
the  impregnations  of  the  bricks  and  blocks  of  Gneiss,  in  the 
floor  of  a  reverberatory  furnace,  combined  with  lodes  of  metallic 
sulphurets,  which  are  described  in  von  Cotta's  Gangstudien, 
vol.  II.  p.  1. 

Impregnations  which  accompany  segregations,  may,  like 
those  accompanying  lodes,  have  been  formed  contemporaneously 
with  these;  i.  e.  have  penetrated  from  the  principal  mass  into 


OF  IMPREGNATIONS.  91 

the  surrounding  rock;  or  they  may  have  been  formed  by  a 
subsequent  partial  decomposition  of  the  segregations  The  segre- 
gations of  Zink-ore,  which  are  accompanied  by  impregnations, 
appear  to  have  been  formed  contemporaneously  and,  perhaps, 
even  homogeneously  with  these.  The  products  of  decomposition, 
on  the  other  hand,  of  segregations  of  copper-ore,  consisting 
chiefly  of  Pyrites,  appear  to  have  penetrated  all  the  clefts  of 
the  surrounding  rock.  Owing  to  their  large  bulk,  it  is  very 
improbable,  that  the  segregations  have  ever  been  formed  by 
subsequent  concentration  from  impregnations. 

Impregnations,  accompanying  ore-beds,  may  also  have  been 
formed  contemporaneously  and  homogeneously  with  these,  or  from 
a  subsequent  lixiviation  of  the  same.  In  the  first  case,  they  are 
evidently  only  a  modification  of  the  beds,  having  been  a  result 
of  contemporanQOus  deposit  with  the  adjoining  rocks.  The  nor- 
mal rock-deposit  was  not  instantaneously,  or"  every  where  com-, 
pletely  interrupted;  but  more  or --less  ore-particles  were  mixed 
with  it.  Where  this  mingling  was  locally  very  great,  a  true  ore- 
bed  was  formed  with  determined  limits  towards  the  hanging- 
and  foot-wall,  while  in  other  places  its  continuation  was  only 
intimated  by  scattered  particles  of  ore.  Such  transitions  may 
have  also  taken  place  in  the  direction  of e the  hanging-  and 
foot-wall.  The  bed  of  copper  and  iron  Pyrites-  at  Poschorita 
in  the  Bukowina  shows  similar  phenomena.  The  copper-slates 
( Kup fers chief  er}  of  Thuringia  may,  in  this  sense,  be  also  classi- 
fied under  the  bed-like  impregnations. 

It  is  self-evident,  tfiat  a  formal  distinction  between  beds 
and  impregnations  is  rendered  much  more  difficult  by  such  cir- 
cumstances. It  would  be  theoretically  more  correct,  although 
practically  more  difficult  to  determine,  were  only  those  ore-de- 
posits called  impregnations,  which  have  penetrated  an  already 
existing  rock  or  clefts  in  the  same. 

That  beds  or  impregnations  of  Magnetic-iron  or  Specular- 
iron  were  not  originally  deposited  by  water  as  such,  is  self-evi- 
dent ;  but  they  are  always  and  only  found  irj.  metamorphic  rocks 
as  chlorite-schist,  mica-schist,  etc.,  and  were  consequently  sub- 
jected to  the  same  catogene1  influences,  as  the  matter  from 
which  the  rocks  sprang.  The  peroxide  of  iron,  and  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  the  protoxide,  might  be  formed  from  the  hy- 

1  See  foot-note  to  §  171. 


92    SEARCH,  AND  FOLLOWING-UP,  OF  IMPREGNATIONS. 

drated  peroxide  of  iron.  Similar  events  might  have  taken  place 
in  other  metallic  beds,- -and  the  accompanying  or  independently 
occurring  ore-impregnations,  which  are  found  in  crystalline  schists. 
This  circumstance  may  explain  many*,  otherwise  unintelligible, 
phenomena. 


SEARCH  FOR  AND  FOLLOWING  UP  OF 
IMPREGNATIONS. 

§  68.  Impregnations,  which  are  combined  with  other  ore- 
deposits,  can  only  be  expected  in  combination  with  these;  and, 
if  they  have  been  discovered ,  must  be  followed  on  the  sides, 
either  in  an  upward  or  downward  direction,  wherein  the  special 
character  of  the  rock  at  times  furnishes  a  limit. 

The  impregnations,  which  penetrated  already  existing  rocks, 
very  frequently  followed,  witli  a  certain  preference  or  choice, 
certain  kinds  of  rocks  or  modifications  of  the  same,  which  either 
were  more#»«eagily  penetrated  than  the  others,  or  exerted  a 
certain  chemical  re-action,  and  by  this  means  induced  the 
precipitation  of  metallic  particles  from  widely  extended  solutions. 

As  regards  this  case  also  ,  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived  to 
lay  down  general  rules:  local  observations  are  the  only  ones 
that  can  be  given. 

For  independently  occurring  segregated  and  bedded  im- 
pregnations no  other  general  rules  can  be  given,  with  respect 
to  their  search  and  following  up,  than  those  which  have  been 
given  for  beds  and  segregations.  In  the  use  of  such  regard 
must  be  had  to  the  more  undetermined  character  of  the  impreg- 
nations in  comparison  with  the  clearly  defined  beds  and  se- 
gregations. 


ORE-DISTRICTS. 

§  69.     By  ore-districts   are  understood   combinations  of 
several  ore-deposits  into  one  common  whole. 


ORE-DISTRICTS.  Q3 

We  have  now  learnt  the  most  important  circumstances  and 
differences  of  form  in  the  occurrence  of  the  separate  metallic 
deposits;  and  have  distinguished: 

A.  Regular  metallic  deposits; 

1.  Beds, 

2.  Lodes. 

B.  Irregular  metallic  deposits; 

1.  Segregations, 

2.  Impregnations. 

Very  frequently  two  or  more  metallic  deposits  are  united 
into  one  common  whole,  that  is.  a  district  (region,  or  depot) ;  and 
not  only  deposits  of  the  same  form  and  kind  are  thus  combined, 
but  such  also  as  are  differently  formed  and  differently  composed, 

Beds  of  the  same  ore  frequently  alternate  with  beds  of 
rocks,  forming  in  this  manner  a  common  ore-stratum;  as,  for 
example,  -the  beds  of  iron-ore  in  the  brown  Jura  of  the  Sua- 
bian  Alps,  or  the  spherosiderite  bed  in  the  Carpathian  sandstone 
between  Teschen  and  Kimpolung  in  the  Bukowina. 

Many  segregated  masses  of  analogous  composition  occur  at 
times  in  one  rock-district;  as  the  masses  of  Magnetite  near 
Arendal,  the  Silver,  Lead,  Copper,  and  Cobalt  masses  of  Tuna- 
berg;  or  several  independent  zones  of  impregnations  occur  ^together, 
as  the  Fallbands  of  Kongsberg  and  of  Tuna  in  Dalecarlia. 

Such  combinations  of  homogeneous  metallic  deposits  have 
clearly  a  common  origin,  and  are  the  consequences  of  the  same 
geological  event. 

But  deposits,  which  are  dissimilar  in  form  or  composition, 
are  also  frequently  found  so  -  combined  with  one  another ,  that 
they  must  be  considered  as  formations  belonging  together  or 
dependent  on  each  other,  or  can  at  least  be  united  to  one  geo- 
graphical group.  We  have  already  become  acquainted  with  this 
combination  of  dissimilar  deposits  in  the  case  of  the  dependently 
occurring  impregnations;  several  such  combinations^are  frequently 
again  united  in  groups,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Zinc-deposits  of 
Upper  Silesia.  Lodes  and  segregations,  or  beds  and  segrega- 
tions, or  even  beds  and  lodes,  are  frequently  found  combined; 
examples  of  these  are  the  Zinc-deposits  of  Upper  Silesia  and 
the  district  of  the  Ruhr  in  Westphalia,  or  the  bedded  veins  and 
segregations  of  spathic  iron  in  the  eastern  Alps. 

But,  as  already  stated,  even  entirely  dissimilar  and  perhaps 
independently  formed  deposits  are  considered  as  forming  one 


94  ORE-DISTRICTS. 

district,  when  they  are  to  some  degree  geographically  combined. 
The  boundaries  of  such  divisions,  or  groups 7  are  of  course  al- 
ways more  indefinite  and  to  a  certain  degree  arbitrary,  the 
greater  the  extent  they  comprise. 

It  would  appear  judicious  to  unite  into  one  Group  only 
those  deposits  which  have  some  geological  connection;  and  to 
lay  no  stress  on  the  geographical  combination;  but  such  differences 
are  often  difficult  to  determine. 


SPECIAL  PART, 


A  COLLECTION  OF  EXAMPLES. 


SUMMARY. 

§  70.  I  confine  myself  to  a  description  of  the  most  im- 
portant ore-districts  of  Europe,  without  particular  reference  to 
their  geographical  distribution.  The  general  order  described 
will ; be  as  follows: 

1.  Germany,  commencing  with  the  Erzgebirge. 

2.  The    Carpathian    countries;    Gallicia,  Transylvania, 

Hungary,  JBanat,  and  Servia. 

3.  The  Alps  in  their  entire  extent. 

4.  Italy. 

5.  France. 

6.  Spain. 

,7.  Great  Britain. 

8.  Scandinavia. 

9.  European  Russia. 


96  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION,   AND    OEE-DEPOSITS 


GERMANJ, 

[.  THE  ERZGEBIRGE. 

THE  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  71.  The  Erzgebirge  forms  a  broad,  nearly  quadrilateral, 
elevated  plateau  with  a  precipitous  southeasterly  descent  towards 
Bohemia,  and  a  gentle  northwesterly  slope  towards  Saxony. 
This  plateau  is  traversed  by  winding  valleys,  but  is  not  over- 
topped by  high  peaks.  Its  crest  rises  on  an  average  2000  to 
2500  feet  above  the  sea,  being  at  its  highest  point  about  3800 
feet.  The  mass  of  the  Erzgebirge  consists  predominantly  of 
gneiss  and  mica-schist,  which  last  gradually  passes,  towards  the 
northwest,  into  a  fossil-free  clay  slate.  These  crystalline  schists 
have  been  penetrated  by  granite  in  several  large  and  many  small 
masses  and  dikes;  by  granitic  gneiss  (distinguished  by  the  name 
of  red  gneiss);  by  masses  and  dikes  of  quartz,  granitic  and 
syenitic  porphyry;  by  various  greenstones  and  wackes,  which 
however  never  cover  large  extended  districts;  and  finally  by 
basalt,  which  rises  here  and  there  in  the  form  of  small  conical 
hills.  Somewhat  of  greywacke  is  found  on  the  northwestern 
declivity,  mostly  covered  by  the  carboniferous  formation  and 
Rothliegendes-,  the  last  mentioned  formations  occur  also  scattered 
here  and  there  on  the  eastern  portion  of  the  high  ridge,  and 
form,  in  addition,  a  coherent  basin  at  the  northeastern  edge  of 
the  mountains  by  Potschappel.  Quadersandstein  reaches  but  a 
short  distance  on  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the  mountains;  and 
entirely  isolated  tertiary  deposits  are  found  at  the  foot  of  a  few 
basaltic  elevations.  All  these  sedimentary  deposits  have  no 
recognisable  connection  with  the  ore-deposits  of  the  mountains: 
these  last  have  been  found  only  in  the  crystalline  schists  and 
igneous  rocks  of  the  Erzgebirge. 

OEE-DEPOSITS  OF  THE  ERZGEBIRGE  IN  GENERAL. 

§  72.  The  ore-deposits  of  the  Erzgebirge  are  of  very  great 
diversity;  and  although,  as  a  rule,  not  very  rich,  are  still  fre- 
quent, and  are  known  to  exist  in  great  numbers.  Of  useful 


OF  THE  ERZGEBIRGE.  97 

metals  they  contain;  silver,  lead,  copper,  cobalt,  nickel,  bismuth, 
arsenic,  antimony,  tin,  zinc,  iron,  and  manganese,  as  well  as 
traces  of  gold  and  mercury.  Hence  all  the  ore-deposits  of  the 
Erzgebirge  may  be  classified  as: 

1.  Tin  ore  deposits:  these  are  the  oldest  of  this  region ; 
and  lie  in. groups,  divided  into    zones  of  10  to  20  miles  broad, 
which    extend   along    the   crest   of   the   mountains.      They    form 
lodes,    impregnations,    and    surface- deposits.      The    chief  points, 
where  groups  occur,  are:  Altenberg,  SeifFen,  Marienberg,  Ehren- 
friedersdorf,  Eibenstock,  Flatten,  and  Johanngeorgenstadt. 

2.  Lodes    of   silver   and    lead    ores:     often    combined 
with   copper,   lie    chiefly,    although   not   all,    in  a    single    zone; 
which  extends  in  a   direction   from  NE.   to   SW.    obliquely    over 
the  broad  crest  of  the  mountains,  from  Meissen,   through  Frei- 
berg, Langenau,  Oederan,  Wolkenstein,  Marienberg,  and  Anna- 
berg,  to  Joachimsthal.    They  form  groups  of  lodes,  and  scattered 
veins,  extending  in  various  directions. 

3.  Veins  of  cobalt  and  nickel  ores:  frequently  contain- 
ing bismuth,    and   also   silver,  lead,   and  copper  ores;  are 
chiefly  found  in   the   neighborhood    of  Schneeberg.     Cobalt  and 
nickel  ores  are  also  found  at  times  in   the  silver  lodes  of  Frei- 
berg, Marienberg,  Joachimsthal,  etc. 

4.  Lodes  of  limonite  and  hematite:  frequently  contain- 
ing ores  of  manganese;  lie  chiefly,  like  the  lodes  of  tin  ore,  in 
a  zone   corresponding  to  the    crest  of  the  mountains;    but  often 
have  a  strike  at  right  angles  to  their  greatest  extent. 

5.  Deposits  of  magnetite:  beds,  bedded  veins,  and  cross 
veins,  frequently  combined  with  other  ores,  and  with  greenstones, 
are  found  distributed  in  groups  all  through  the  mountains. 

6.  Deposits    of   quicksilver    ores:    or    rather    traces    of 
nssures,    bedded   veins,   or   impregnations,  containing  cinnobar; 
in  the  clay  slate  near  Hartenstein. 

7.  Ores  of  antimony,  arsenic,  and  zinc,   are  found  in 
most  of  the  above-mentioned  deposits ;   manganese   ores,  chiefly 
with  those  of  some  iron  ores.     Gold,    of  which  traces  are  found 
here  and  there,  is  no  longer  the  object  of  exploitation. 

The  deposits  of  the  Erzgebirge  may  be  divided,  according 
to  their  geographical  distribution,  and  grouping,  and  named 
from  the  following  places  near  which  they  occur: 

1.  Freiberg  (Siebenlehn,  Brand,  Frauenstein). 

2.  Altenberg — Zinnwald — Graupen  (Pobel). 


98  ERZGEBIRGE  ORE-DEPOSITS  CLASSIFIED. 

3.  Berggiesshiibel  (Liebstadt,  Lauenstein). 

4.  Self  fen — Katharinenberg  (Sayda). 

5.  Marienberg. 

6.  Ehrenfriedersdorf — Geyer. 

7.  A 11  nab  erg. 

8.  Kupferberg  (Presnitz). 

9.  Joachimsthal  (Gottesgabe,  Flatten). 

10.  Schwarzenberg. 

11.  Johanngeorgenstadt — Eibenst oc k. 

12.  Schneeberg. 
13    Bleistadt. 

To  which  the  following  less  important  districts ,  lying  out- 
side of  the  Erzgebirge  proper,  may  be  added: 

14.  Langenstriegis — Miihlbach. 

15.  Mittweida — Hohnstein. 

16.  Scharfenberg — Munzig. 

ORE-DISTRICT  OF  FREIBERG.  l 

§  73.  This  comprises  the  district  between  Nossen,  Oederan, 
Erbisdorf,  and  the  stream  Bobritzsch;  but  a  few  of  the  deposits 
extend  beyond  these  limits.  The  whole  district  consists  predo- 
minantly of  gneiss;  which  forms  many  varieties,  and  is  toward 
the  west  overlaid  by  mica-schist  and  clay-slate.  These  schistose 
rocks  are  intersected  by  dikes  of  quartz-porphyry,  and  by 
gabbro,  which  is  somewhat  altered  into  serpentine. 

Both  grey  and  red  gneiss  occur,  in  the  Freiberg  district, 
in  a  number  of  different  varieties ;  which  generally  alternate  with 
one  another  in  parallel  layers.  The  foliation,  and  stratification, 
of  both  lies  here  nearly  horizontal,  and  gradually  dips  only  in 
two  directions,  so  as  to  form  a  gently  sloping  saddle.  The  red 


TSee:  Von  Herder,  der  Meissner  Erbstolln,  1838;  VonBeust,  Porphyr- 
gebilde  bei  Freiberg,  1835,— Gangcharte  des  Freib.  ^Revier,  1842,— die  Erz- 
gangztige  im  sachs  Erzgebirge,  1856,— Ueber  ein  Gesetz  der  Erzvertheilung 
auf  den  Freiberger  Gangen,  1855  und  1858, — Ueber  die  Erzfiibrung  der  Frei- 
berger  Gange,  1859,— Die  Erzzonen  im  sachsichen Erzgebirge,  1859:  Freies- 
leben,  die  sachs  Erzgange,  1843—1846;  Miiller,  Zinn  in  der  Blende  bei  Frei- 
berg, Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeitung,  1851,  p.  :-J53,— -Die  Erzgange  nordwestl.  von 
Freiberg,  Gangstudien,  I.  p.  101;  Vogelgesang,  die  Erzlagerstatten  siidostl. 
von  Freiberg,  Gangstudien,  II.  p.  10;  Gatzschmann.  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte 
des  Freib.  Zinnbergbaues,  Berg-  und  hiittenm.  Zeitung,  1844;  New  chart  of 
the  lodes  in  the  Freiberg  district,  issued  by  the  chief  mining  office. 


ORE-DISTRICT  OF  FREIBERG.  99 

gneiss  generally  contains  but  few  lodes.  The  grey  consists,  in 
its  most  extended  and  most  characteristic  variety,  of  the  so- 
called  Freiberg  Normal-Gneiss ;  a  distinct  compound  of  ortho- 
clase,  quartz,  and  dark  colored  mica,  with  regular  granular, 
foliated  texture,  separated  into  distinctly  parallel  tables  or  lay- 
ers. Both,  the  red  as  well  as  the  grey,  are  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  subordinate  varieties,  and  contain  besides  layers, 
which  can  hardly  any  longer  be  called  gneiss. 

The  deposits  of  this  district;  containing  silver,  lead,  copper, 
arsenic,  and  zinc  ores;  are  collectively  lodes.  According  to  Von 
Herder's  enumeration,  more  than  900  such  are  known  in  the 
Freiberg  district.  Their  breadth  is  but  seldom  more  than  1—2 
feet.  They  have  been  divided,  according  to  the  matrix  filling 
them,  into  four  different  formations,  which  have  been  named  as 
follows: 

1 .  Noble  quartz  f  o  r  m  a  t  i  o  n ,  or  Braunsdorfer  formation . 

2.  Pyritous  lead  formation. 

3.  Noble   lead    formation,    brown-spar    formation,    or 

Brand  formation. 

4.  Bar y tic  lead  formation,  or  Halsbrucke  formation. 
This  is,  at  the  same  time,  about  the  order  of  their  relative 

age:  the  first-named  formations  are  the  oldest,  although  the 
difference  in  age  between  1,  2,  and  3,  appears  to  be  very  slight, 
and  almost  variable,  while  4  is  decidedly  younger  than  the  others. 

In  addition  to  these-  comes,  5.  the  so-called  Copper  for- 
mation, which  can  however  be  only  regarded  as  a  local  mo- 
dification of  the  pyritous  lead  formation  in  which  copper  ores 
predominate. 

1.  The  lodes  of  the  noble  quartz  formation  consist 
predominantly  of  white  quartz,  or  hornstone  varieties  of  the  same, 
containing  numerous-  fragments  of  the  country  rock;  gneiss, 
mica-schist,  or  black-schist.  The  fragments  lie  free  in  the  quartz, 
which  frequently  radiates  from  them  as  a  centre.  These  lodes 
contain  ores,  chiefly  in  the  geodes  only,  more  seldom  dissemi- 
nated. The  ores  are  very  rich  silver  ores;  but  they  only  occur 
in  small  quantities,  and  very  unequally  distributed  in  nests;  es- 
pecially ruby  silver,  silver  glance,  native  silver,  argentiferous 
mispickel,  silver  tetrahedrite,  tetrahedrite,  myargyrite,  stephanite, 
and  polybasite ;  pyrites,  galena,  and  blende,  occur  only  to  a  very 
subordinate  degree ;  the  same  is  true  of  some  other  minerals,  as 
calc.  spar,  brown  spar,  fluor  spar,  heavy  spar,  etc.,  which  occur 

7* 


100  PYRITOUS  LEAD  LODES. 

almost  only  crystallized  in  dispersed  drusy  cavities.  In  addition 
to  the  above  the  following  minerals  are  found  in  the  lodes  of 
this  formation,  in  part  only  as  varieties;  gypsum,  strontianite, 
pearl  spar,  spathic  iron,  dialo'gite,  cerusite,  metaxite,  hypochlo- 
rite,  antimonic  ochre,  valentinite,  limonite,  specular  iron,  geo- 
cronite,  galena,  boulangerite,  zinkenite,  stibnite,  heteromorphite, 
berthierite,  bournonite,  copper  pyrites,  pyrites,  millerite,  blende, 
kermesite,  fireblende,  manganblende.  The  quartz  forming  the  chief 
portion  of  the  -gang,  is  always  firmly  united  to  the  country  rock. 
Some  of  these  lodes  attain  a  breadth  of  7  feet.  Near  Brauns- 
dorf,  where  they  occur  most  characteristically,  they  have  only 
been  found  worth  exploiting  in  a  black  bituminous  schist,  the  so- 
called  schwarzen  Gebirge-,  while  they  are  nearly  barren  in  the 
common  mica-schist.  Near  Hockendorf  they  have  been  found 
at  times  locally  very  rich  in  the  common  gneiss. 

Over  150  lodes,  belonging  to  this  formation,  are  known  to 
exist  in  the  Freiberg  district.  The  following  are  very  charac- 
teristic of  this  formation;  Verlorene-Hoffnung  and  Segen-Gottes 
lodes  of  the  Neue-Hoffnung-Gottes  mine  near  Braunsdorf,  the 
Peter  and  Frisch-Gliick  of  the  Alte-Hoffnung,-Gottes  mine  at 
Gross  Voigtsberg,  the  Wolfgang  lode  of  the  Segen-Gottes  mine 
near  Gersdorf,  the  harder  branch  of  the  Reinsberg  Gltick  at 
Emanuel  mine  (the  softer  branch  of  this  double  lode  belongs  to 
the  barytic  lead  formation)  and  the  Helmrich  vein  of  the  Romanus 
mine  near  Siebenlehn,  finally  the  Gottlieb  lode  of  the  Gesegnete 
Bergmannshoffnung  mine  at  Obergruna. 

2.  The  pyritous  lead  lodes  consist  chiefly  of  sulphurets 
with  quartz.  The  first  consist  of  galena  containing  15  to  100 
grammes  of  silver,  blende,  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  and  mispickel. 
At  times  the  copper  pyrites,  together  with  other  copper  ores, 
predominate;  and  then  occurs  the  modification  called  the  copper 
formation. 

Rich  silver  ores,  heavy  spar,  carbonates,  fluor  spar,  etc, 
occur  only  to  a  very  subordinate  degree,  for  the  most  part  only 
in  drusy  cavities,  in  which  they  may  be  regarded  as  being  a 
more  recent  formation.  In  addition  to  these,  the  following  min- 
erals have  been  found,  in  part  only  as  varieties,  in  these  lodes; 
hornstone,  opal,  gypsum,  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  malachite,  azu- 
rite,  tyrolite  (copper  froth),  pharmacosiderite,  scorodite,  pharma- 
colith,  erythrine,  pittizite,  copperas,  nacrite,  allophane,  chlorite, 
chrysocolla,  scheelite,  atacamite,  stilpnosiderite,  kupfermangarierz, 


NOBLE  LEAD  LODES.  101 

melaconite,  limonite,  red  copper,  specular  iron,  cassiterite  (traces 
in  blende),  native  silver,  native  copper,  copper  glance,  stromeyerite, 
bournonite,  polybasite,  silver  glance,  freieslebenite,  silver  tetrahed- 
rite,  tetrahedrite,  tennantite,  zinc  tetrahedrite,  erubescite,  pyrar- 
gyrite,  and  iceisskupfererz.  The  outcroppings  of  these  lodes  are 
frequently  very  much  decomposed,  of  the  sulphurets  only  the 
peroxide  and  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  have  remained  (gossan). 

This  formation  occurs  chiefly  in  the  lodes  south-east  of  Frei- 
berg; the  Himmelfahrt  mine  exploits  many  of  the  same.  Von 
Herder  has  enumerated  over  300  lodes  as  belonging  to  this  for- 
mation. The  following  misty  be  mentioned  as  being  very  charac- 
teristic of  this  formation;  the  Frisch-Gluck,  Gottlob,  Abraham 
and  Jung-David  lodes  of  the  Himmelfahrt  mine,  the  Laura  and 
Abendstern  lodes  of  the  Neuer  Morgenstern  mine  near  Freiberg, 
the  Jung-Andreas  of  the  Kroner  mine,  the  Leander  of  the  Alt 
Mordgrube,  and  the  Hochbirkner  mines  of  the  Junge  hohe  Birke. 

I  have  already  mentioned  the  so-called  copper  ore/*  lodes, 
as  being  a  modification  of  the  pyritous  lead  formation:  they 
contain,  in  combination  with  quartz,  chiefly  the  following 
minerals;  copper  pyrites,  erubescite,  copper  glance,  tetrahedrite; 
and,  as  products  of  the  decomposition  of  these,  azurite,  malachite, 
chrysocolla,  and  red  copper.  The  Gottlob,  Franzer,  and  Hein- 
rich  lodes  of  the  Morgenstern  mines  are  characteristic  of  this 
modification.  Their  texture,  like  that  of  the  pyritous  lead  lodes, 
is  .irregular  granular. 

3.  Noble  lead  lodes.  The  predominant  gang -consists 
of  carbonates,  especially  brown  spar  and  dialogitc,  with  quartz. 
The  chief  ore  is  galena,  .  somewhat  richer  in  silver  than  in  the 
preceding  formation;  this  occurs  combined  with  blende  and 
pyrites,  and  frequently  forms  the  middle  layer  of  the  very 
commonly  symmetrically  formed  lodes.  These  are  accompanied, 
more  frequently  than  in  the  pyritpus  lead  formation,  by  rich 
silver  ores ;  such  as  silver  tetrahedrite,  ruby  silver,  silver  glance, 
and  native  silver.  In  addition  to  which  the  following  minerals, 
some  of  them  but  varieties,  occur  in  the  lodes;  hornstone,  opal, 
fluor- spar,  gypsum,  heavy  spar,  calc.  spar,  pearl  spar,  spathic 
iron,  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  .  pittizite,  nacrite,  stilpnosiderite, 
kerargyrite,  limonite,  white  arsenic,  specular  iron,  rutile,  pitch 
blende,  arsenic,  polybasite,  stephanite,  acanthite,  freieslebenite, 
tetrahedrite,  copper  pyrites,  mispickel,  xanthocone,  and  realgar. 
These  lodes  are  chiefly  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Brand  and 


102  BARYTIC  LEAD  LODES. 

JErbisdorf.  Von  Herder  has  enumerated  about  340  veins  as 
belonging  to  this  formation. 

The  following  are  especially  characteristic  for  the  dialogite 
variety  of  these  lodes;  the  Traugott,  Carl,  Ludwig,  Hiilfe  Gottes 
and  Gottholder  lodes  of  the  Beschert  Gliick  mine,  the  Felix  and 
David  lodes  of  the  Himmelsfiirst  mines.  On  the  other  hand  the 
following  lodes  have  as  gang  much  more  quartz  or  opal,  and 
proportionally  but  little  brown  spar;  Segen-Gottes,  Benjamin 
and  Gesellschafts-Freude  of  the  Einigkeit  mine,  as  well  as  the 
Beschert  Gliick  of  the  Himmelsfiirst  mine. 

4.  Barytic  lead  lodes.  Heavy  spar  forms  the  pre- 
dominant and  most  characteristic  gang:  this  forms  numerous 
parallel  and  symmetrically  arranged  layers,  between  which  occur 
thin  bands  of  galena,  blende,  pyrites,  fluor  spar,  or  also  quartz. 
The  centre  of  the  lode  consists  at  times  of  large  drusy  cavities ; 
in  which  occur  the  above  mentioned  minerals,  or  also  rich  sil- 
ver ores  and  carbonates,  beautifully  crystallized.  In  addition 
to  the  above  characteristic  minerals  the  following  also  occur; 
agate,  opal,  gypsum,  pseudo-apatite,  calc.  spar,  brown  spar, 
pearl  spar,  spathic  iron,  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  erytbrine,  nacrite, 
beryl,  fettbol,  singuite,  stilpnosiderite,  kerargyrite,  limonite, 
specular  iron,  pitch  blende,  native  silver,  native  copper,  arsenic, 
bismuth,  clausthalite,  bournonite,  stephanite,  polybasite,  silver 
glanze,  tetrahedrite,  copper  pyrites,  cobaltine,  smaltine,  chior- 
anthite,  copper  nickel,  millerite,  fireblende,  pyrargyrite,  realgar. 
Portions  of  these  lodes  are  at  times  found  reduced  to  breccia, 
from  the  repeated  bursting  open  of  the  fissure,  especially  in  such 
a  manner,  that  fragments  of  the  lodes  having  a  banded  texture 
are  cemented  together  by  more  recent  cry>tallizations  of  the 
same  minerals  with  irregularly  distributed  drusy  cavities.  Curved 
and  concentric  banded  texture,  forming  cockade  ores,  also  occurs 
in  these  lodes.  Some  of  them  attain  a  breadth  of  over  seven 
feet;  Von  Herder  enumerates  about  130,  the  finest  example  of 
which  is  the  broad  Halsbriickner  lode. 

These  so-called  formations  do  not  always  occur  charac- 
teristically, in  some  cases  the  classification  is  extremely  difficult; 
it  frequently  appears  as  if  more  recent  minerals  had  been  formed 
in  the  same  fissure  with  older  ones,  which  may  be  explained  by 
previous  incomplete  filling  or  repeated  bursting  open  of  the 
fissures. 

They  form  in  part  parallel  zones,  of  which  a  map  was  first 


DIRECTIONS  OF  STRIKE,  AND  GROUPS  OF  LODES.  103 

given  by  Baron  Von  Beust  in  his  chart  of  the  Freiberg  mining 
district,  1842;  in  which,  however,  the  western  group  of  the 
noble  quartz  formation  is  wanting.  Von  Beust  distinguishes  the 
following  chief  directions  of  strike,  and  groups  of  lodes. 

1.  A  group  of  lodes,   whose   principal    strike  is   from  NE. 
to  SW.     Towards   the  South    they  bend    somewhat   more    in   a 
southerly,  towards  the  North  in  a  more  easterly  direction,    con- 
sequently describing  a  gentle   curve.     The  matrix   they  contain 
belongs  partly  to  the  noble  lead,  partly  to  the  pyritous  lead  for- 
mation, and  to  the  copper  formation.    To  the  extreme  Northwest 
some  lodes  of  the  noble  quartz  formation  have  also  this  direction 
of  strike.     The  breadth  of  the  entire  group  is  about  21,000  feet,  the 
known    length   nearly    twice  as   great.     If  the   whole   group    be 
regarded,  as  a  system  of  fissures  formed  contemporaneously ;  then 
the  length  appears  far  too  small,  and  permits  the  hope  that  still 
unknown  continuations  exist.     The  dip  of  most  of  the  lodes  of 
this  system  being   nearly   perpendicular,    they  consequently    cut 
through  the  but  slightly  inclined  layers  of  gneiss  nearly  at  right 
angles. 

2.  A  second  chief  direction  of  strike  is  from  nearly  S.  to  N. 
with  a  much   more   gradual  dip.     These   lodes  form  two  nearly 
parallel   groups;   the  one   southerly   from  Freiberg   between   the 
Striegis  and  the  Three  Crosses,  the  other  between  Freiberg  and 
the  Mulde.     In  the  former  and  more  southerly  group  the  matrix, 
filling   the    fissures,    belongs   principally   to   the   noble   lead   for- 
mation; in  the  latter,  on  the  contrary,  to  the  pyritous  lead  for- 
mation.    Both   of  these   intersect  group  1  at  acute  angles;    and 
form,   in  consequence,   many  junctions,    which  are   distinguished 
by  a  special  richness  in  ares.    From  this  circumstance  two  prin- 
cipal  regions  of  junctions  have    been   formed,    which  were   and 
still  are  important  in  a  mining  view:    between  these   lies  a  less 
productive  district. 

3.  A    third   principal   direction    of  strike    is   from  NW.  to 
SE.      The   lodes    of   this   direction    are   scattered    over   a   great 
extent  of  country  between  Langenau  and  Freiberg,    and  nearly 
all  belong  to  the  barytic  lead  formation.     Southwest  of  Freiberg 
they   mostly   dip  towards  SW. ;    northeast   of   Freiberg,    on   the 
contrary,    they   dip   almost   perpendicularly   towards  NE. .   They 
form  no    such   closed  group,    as  the   lodes  of-  the  other  groups; 
while    on  the    other   hand   some    of  them,    as   the  Halsbriickner 
lode,    are   known  to  be  of  great  length,    and,   in  part,    of  great 


104      QUANTITY  OF  ORE,  AND  AGES  OF  THE  LODES. 

breadth.  'They  also  form  junctions  with  the  lodes  of  groups 
land  2;  in  which,  as  being  the  younger,  they  always  intersect, 
and  frequently  throw  these;  the  junctions  formed  are  frequently 
distinguished  by  a  richness  in  ores,  r* 

4.  A  fourth  group,  about  5  miles  broad  and  15  miles  long, 
striking  from  NE.  and  SW.  is  formed  by  the  lodes  of  the  noble 
quartz  formation  in  the  district  between  Nossen  and  Oederan  to 
the  Northwest  of  Freiberg ;  and,  on  this  account,  stands  in  little 
known  relation  with  the  other  lodes.  Most  of  these  lodes  dip 
towards  the  Northwest.  Their  chief  direction  of  strike  nearly 
corresponds  to  that  of  the  first  group ;  but  they  are  widely 
separated  from  this,  have  a  different  matrix,  and  are  less  con- 
stant in  their  special  direction  of  strike.  They  are  enumerated 
here,  as  forming  a  special  group:  which  might  with  the  same 
right  be  done  with  the  two  divisions  of  group  2. 

Besides  these  principal  directions  of  strike,  many  lodes, 
having  intermediate  directions  of  strike,  occur  in  the  Freiberg  ore 
district;  so  that  each  separate  known  one,  cannot,  with  certainty, 
be  classified  under  the  preceding  groups.  Single  lodes  frequently 
occur  towards  the  limits  of  this  great  network  of  fissures,  especially 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Frauenstein,  Ammelsdorf,  Hockendorf,  and 
Dippoldiswalde ;  they  mostly  belong  to  the  noble  quartz  forma- 
tion, which  thus  encloses  on  two  sides  the  other  somewhat  more 
recent  lode-formations.  In  the  interior  of  these  districts  the  chief 
junctions  are,  naturally,  the  points  which  have  been  mostly  ex- 
ploited, ,thus  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Himmelfahrt  mine  and 
town  of  Brand. 

That  the  quantity  of  ore  in  all  the  Freiberg  lodes  is  a  very 
unequal  one,  not  only  in  the  separate  lodes,  but  in  different 
portions  of  the  same  lode,  has  been  already  shown  in  the  general 
part,  where  an  attempt  was  made  to  trace  back  this  inequality 
in  the  distribution  of  ores  to  determined  causes,  especially  the 
modifications  of  the  country  rock. 

All  these  lodes,  with,  perhaps,  the  exception  of  those  be- 
longing to  the  barytic  formation,  appear  to  stand  in  some  causal 
connection  with  the  dikes  of  quartz-porphyry  which  traverse 
the  gneiss  of  the  same  region ;  but  these  last  are  nearly  always 
intersected  by  the  lodes,  where  they  come  in  contact  with  them. 
The  only  known  exception  is  that  of  the  Reinsberg  Grliick  lode, 
belonging  to  the  oldest  or  noble  quartz  formation,  which  is 


ORE-DISTRICT  OF  ALTENBERG.  105 

faulted  by  a  dike  of  porphyry,  and  is  consequently  older  than 
this  last. 1 

It  would  appear,  that  the  ages  of  the  three  first  mentioned 
formations  of  the  Freiberg  lodes  vary  but  slightly.  Since  the 
eruptions  of  porphyry  of  this  district  did  not  necessarily  all  take 
place  at  the  same  period ;  it  may  be  concluded,  from  the  excep- 
tional case  mentioned,  in  connection  with  other  circumstances, 
that  the  formation  of  the  Freiberg  lodes  took  place  at  about 
the  time  at  which  the  irruption  of  porphyry  ceased;  and  that 
they  are  to  be  regarded  as  being,  in  a  certain  degree,  conse- 
quences, or  secondary  effects  of  the  same.  Now,  since  boulders 
of  this  porphyry  have  been  found  in  neighboring  upper  Roth- 
liegenden,  while  tiiffa  formations  are  found  in  the  lower  Roth- 
liegenden  between  Freiberg  and  Chemnitz,  which  appear  to  have 
had  some  connection  with  the  quartz-porphyry  irruptions ;  it  may 
be  concluded,  although  not  with  certainty,  that  the  Freiberg  lodes, 
in  general,  according  to  their  formation,  belong  to  about  the 
same  period  as  the  upper  Rothliegenden. 

Their  matrix  appears  to  me,  without  a  doubt,  to  have  been 
formed,  by  infiltration;  all  the  facts  favor  this  view,  none  speak 
against  it:  what  has  been  previously  said,  about  the  manner  of 
formation  by  infiltration,  will  equally  apply  to  the  Freiberg  lodes. 
All  their  ingredients  are  consonant  with  it,  their  texture,  especi- 
ally the  banded  texture,  the  order  of  the  mineral' succession,  the 
wide  branching  in  narrow  fissures,  the  frequent  impregnation 
of  the  neighboring  rock,  the  great  influence  of  the  country  rock 
on  the  local  composition  of  the  lodes;  all  these  circumstances 
agree  in  proving  this  manner  of  formation. 

ORE-DISTRICT  OF  ALTENBERG. 

§.  74.  I  consider  the  tracts  around  Zinnwald,  Graupen, 
and  Pobel,  as  belonging  to  this  district. 

The  gneiss  of  the  Erzgebirge  is  here  much  intruded  into 
and  broken  through  by  granite,  chloride  granite  porphyry,  por- 
phyritic  granite,  quartz  porphyry,  greisen,  and  basalt.  The  last 
is  more  recent  than  all  the  other  rocks,  and  is,  probably,  younger 
than  the  ore  deposits  of  this  region.  The  chloritic  granite  por- 
phyry appears  to  be  more  recent  than  the  remaining  igneous 


Gangstudien,  I.  p.  168. 


106  ALTENBERG 

rocks:  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  relative  ages  of  the  rest. 
The  gneiss  passes  locally  over  into  mica-schist,  which  contains 
intermediate  parallel  beds  of  granular  lime-stone  or  cipolline. 
Isolated  fragments  of  the  coal  formation,  containing  beds  of 
anthracite  two  to  three  feet  broad,  occur  in  a  few  localities; 
they  are  partly  overlaid  by  quartz  porphyry,  which  is  probably 
more  recent.  These  coal  formations  have  no  assignable  connec- 
tion with  the  ore  deposits.  The  last  are  partly  tin,  partly  iron 
ore  deposits,  partly  also  cupriferous.  The  cassiterite  occurs  both 
as  impregnations  in  greisen  or  granitic  rocks,  as  also  in  lodes. 

ALTENBERG  TIN  STOCKWERK.1 

§  75.  This  tin  ore  deposit  consists  of  a  broad  mass  of 
rock  of  irregular  form,  apparently  of  igneous  origin,  and  yet 
without  any  sharp  line  of  contact  with  a  portion  of  the  rocks 
surrounding  it ;  the  latter  are  granite,  chloride  granite  porphyry, 
and  quartz  porphyry.  This  rock-mass  contains  tin  ore  throughout ; 
but  this  is  so  finely  disseminated  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible, 
and  in  such  small  quantities  that  only  f/3  to  */*  P^r  cent  °f  ^n 
can  be  produced  from  it.  The  rock  has  a  dark,  often  almost 
black,  color:  and  consists  of  quartz,  and  a  silicate  of  alumina, 
with  fine  coloring  admixtures  of  mica,  chlorite,  specular  iron, 
tin  ore,  and,  probably,  also  wolfram.  Pyrites  is  disseminated 
through  the  rock  in  fine  particles,  but  the  quartz  alone  can  be 
distinctly  recognised,  it  often  occurs  as  grains,  without  crystalline 
structure,  in  the  fine  granular  rock.  Numerous  quartz-veins  tra- 
verse this  fine  granular  mass  of  rock  in  all  directions ;  and 
molybdenite,  bismuthine,  copper  pyrites,  pyrites,  fluor  spar,  topaz, 
pycnite,  and  nacrite,  also  occur.  The  rock  might  perhaps  be 
termed  a  fine  granular  variety  of  greisen;  but  it  differs  from 
this  in  texture,  color,  and  in  that  it  contains  chlorite  and  specu- 
lar iron.  The  miners  call  it  fZwf&tr*  or  'Stockwerksporphyr '  ; 
the  first  name  may  be  very  appropriately  retained,  the  last  is 
inappropriate,  since  it  neither  possesses  a  compact  felsitic  mass, 
nor  contains  regular  crystals. 


1  See:  Noggerath  in  Leonhardts  Taschenbuch,  1825,  p.  562,  and  1830, 
p.  256;  Daubree  in  Annales  des  mines,  J841,  p.  61,  72,  and  83;  Cotta  in 
Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1860,  p.  1 ;  and  Freiberg  Bergakademische  Festschrift, 
i860,  I.  p.  157;  Miiller  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeitung,  1865,  p.  178. 


TIN  STOCKWERK.  107 

On  the  walls  of  rock  of  the  great  Altenberg  Pinge,  which 
is  a  large  crater-shaped  hollow,  formed  by  the  breaking  together 
of  extensive  underground  workings,  a  fine  granular  granite 
occurs  by  the  side  of  this  dark  stanniferous  rock,  or  Z witter, 
which  passes,  in  a  peculiar  manner,  into  the  zwitter.  This 
tolerably  feldspathic  granite  is  traversed  at  this  point,  like  the 
zwitter  itself,  by  a  number  of  small  and  irregular  quartz- veins, 
in  which  the  same  minerals  are  now  and  then  observed  as  in 
the  veins  of  zwitter.  Each  of  these  quartz  veins  is  enclosed  on 
both  sides  by,  more  or  less  broad,  dark  stripes,  in  which  feld- 
spar is  no  longer  to  be  recognised,  and  which  has  entirely  the 
appearance  of  the  zwitter;  it  probably  also  contains  somewhat 
of  tin  ore.  These  dark  stripes  abruptly  merge,  without  any 
distinct  line  of  junction,  into  the  reddish  yellow,  fine  granular 
granite,  with  considerable  and  very  distinct  feldspar.  Hence 
the  whole  appears,  as  if  the  dark  stripes  proceeded  from  a 
transforming  impregnation  of  the  quartz  veins,  or  the  cracks 
which  preceded  them;  such  is  its  probable  origin.  If  the  addi- 
tional circumstance  is  considered ;  that  the  zwitter  proper,  worth 
exploiting,  is  traversed  by  quartz  veins  precisely  similar  to  those 
in  the  adjoining  granite ;  and  that  scattered  lighter,  fine-grained 
spots,  containing  feldspar,  occur  at  times  between  these  veins ; 
which  therefore  must  consist  of  a  fine  granular  granite;  the 
thought  necessarily  arises,  that  the  whole  mass  of  zwitter  may 
originally  have  been  a  fine  granular  granite,  similar  to  that  now 
adjoining  it;  but  into  which  local  solutions,  containing  oxide  of  tin 
in  combination  with  other  substances,  have,  aided  by  numerous 
fissures,  penetrated.  The  metals  have  combined  with  the  quartz 
and  mica  already  existing  in  the  granite,  at  the  expense  of  the 
feldspar,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  same  solutions.  Accord- 
ing as  the  metamorphosis  was  complete,  or  only  partial;  there 
was  formed  either  real  zwitter,  or  only  a  granite  traversed  by 
veins  of  quartz  or  zwitter.  If  the  facts  are  correctly  .stated, 
then  the  segregated  tin  deposit  only  forms  the  extreme  result 
of  this  metamorphosis,  the  continuation  of  which  is  found-  in 
traces,  as  quartz  veins  having  a  dark  border  in  granite  or  por- 
phyry, on  the  footpath  between  Altenberg  and  Zinnwald.  It 
appears  to  me,  that  traces  of  such  a  metamorphosis  occur  in  the 
chloritic  granite  porphyry  adjoining  the  zwitter  in  the  direction 
of  Geising.  These  consist  in  the  fact,  that  the  matrix  of  this 
porphyry  is  frequently  darker,  poorer  in  feldspar,  and  richer 


108 


ANALYSIS  OF  COMPOSITION. 


in  chlorite,  than  is  otherwise  common.  This  rock  has  not  yet 
been  examined,  to  see  whether  it  contains  any  tin  ore.  The 
preceding  results  of  a-  geological  examination,  have  been  com- 
pletely confirmed  by  the  chemical  analyses  of  Dr.  Rube  in  Frei- 
berg. They  gave  the  following  composition;  A  denoting  the 
unaltered  granite,  B  the  dark  colored  stripes  alongside  of  the 
quartz  veins,  and  0  the  zwitter. 


A. 

B. 

C. 

; 

B:T" 

Diiferenc 
^C^A^ 

B. 

-B7c 

Silicic  acid  .      .  .     W^ 

7468 

71,57 

71,84 

—  3,11 

—  2,84 

—  0,27 

Titanic  acid    
Alumina 

0,71 
12  73 

0,52 
12  40 

0,90 
1440 

—  0,19 
—  033 

-4-  0,19 
+  1,67 

—  0,38 
—  2  00 

Protoxide  of  iron    .  .  . 
Lime 

3,00 
0,09 

7,22 
1  55 

7,00 
063 

+  4,22 
+  1,46 

4-  4,00 
4-0:54 

4-0,22 
4-0,92 

Magnesia 

0,35 

0,05 

0,79 

—  0,30 

4-0,44 

—  0,74 

Potash   .  .           ... 

4,64 

2,80 

2,30 

—  1,84 

—  2,34 

+  0,50 

Soda    .  .  .  •  

1,54 

1,60 

0,67 

4-  0,06 

—  0,87 

+  0,93 

Water 

1  17 

1  30 

1  11 

4-  0  13 

006 

+  0  19 

Oxide  of  copper  .... 
Peroxide  of  tin    .... 

0,50 
0,09 

0,27 
0,69 

trace 
0,65 

—  0,23 
4-  0,60 

—     X 

4-  0,54 

+    x 
4-0,04 

99,50 

99,97 

100,29 

From  the  above  analyses  we  find,  that  the  composition  of 
the  stripes  and  zwitter  may  be  regarded  as  identical,  while  that 
of  the  granite  varies  but  slightly  from  them.  This  last  has  lost 
somewhat  of  silicic  acid  and  potash  by  the  metamorphosis,  and 
received  oxides  of  tin  and  iron  in  their  stead;  the  silicic  acid 
lost  may  have  been  deposited  in  the  cracks  as  quartz. 

The  stockwerk  at  Geyer  is  a  somewhat  analogous  case. 
Should  it  be  questioned,  whether  the  present  condition  of  the 
Zinnwald  greisen  may  be  explained  by  a  similar  metamorphosis, 
I  cannot  attempt  a  direct  answer.  In  its  favor  may  be  men- 
tioned the  enclosed  granite  masses,  and  the  impregnations  pro- 
ceeding from  vertical  fissures.  Against  it,  I  would  cite  the  very 
distinct,  and  often  coarse  granular  texture  of  this  mixture  of 
•quartz-  and  lithion-mica ;  it  being  incomprehensible,  how  pre- 
viously existing  feldspar  could  have  been  replaced  in  such 
a  form. 

As  regards  the  Altenberg  stockwerk,  the  theoretical  possi- 
bility of  such  a  metamorphosis  appears  to  me  both  possible,  and 
unobjectionable;  provided  it  may  be  assumed,  that  a  gradual 


TIN  DEPOSITS  OF  ZINNWALD.  109 

and  consequently  protracted  action  took  place  at  a  great  depth 
below  the  surface. 

It  is  known,  that  tin  ore  occurs  pseudomorphous  after  feld- 
spar in  the  granite  of  Cornwall;  consequently  it  fills  the  place 
formerly  occupied  by  the  destroyed  feldspar.  Kjerulf  has  pro- 
duced tin  ore  from  aqueous  solutions,  Daubree  by  sublimation. 
That  silicic  acid  may  displace  and  replace  feldspar,  is  a  frequently 
observed  fact ;  as  also  the  formation  of  chlorite  by  the  metamor- 
phosis of  rocks  ,(for  example,  in  the  formation  of  serpentine)  is 
by  no  means  a  new  occurrence.  The  presence  of  specular  iron, 
and  metallic  sulphurets,  which  were  not  necessarily  all  formed 
contemporaneously,  can  be  explained;  even  though  the  circum- 
stances and  actions  cannot  be  specially  marked,  during  which 
the  assumed  metamorphosis  may  or  must  have  taken  place. 
The  totality  of  the  phenomena  is  in  favor  of  a  gradual  meta- 
morphosis in  the  wet  way,  rather  than  by  a  process  of  sub- 
limation. 

TIN  DEPOSITS  OF  ZINNWALD.  * 

§  76.  The  greisen  of  Zinnwald  consists  of  a  distinct,  often 
coarse  granular  mixture  of  quartz  and  white  lithion  mica,  without 
feldspar;  and  forms,  so  to  speak,  an  underground  mountain-top: 
wolfram,  somewhat  of  tin  ore,  and  at  times  a  little  feldspar, 
occur  as  accessory  ingredients;  the  last  of  which,  where  it 
encreases  in  quantity,  causes  natural  transitions  into  granite; 
while,  from  the  miners'  statements,  horses  of  granite  occur  scat- 
tered here  and  there  in  the  granite  proper.  The  greisen  mass 
is  much  intersected  by  two  different  kinds  of  tin  deposits,  which 
both  belong  to  the  class  of  lodes.  The  broadest,  being  over  a 
foot  wide,  lie  tolerably  flat  under  one  another,  and  are  nearly 
parallel  with  the  dome-shaped  outline  of  the  greisen.  The  others, 
far  less  broad,  are  nearly  perpendicular;  and  when  they  inter- 
sect, frequently  fault  the  other,  older  concentric  ones.  The  first 
class,  nearly  horizontal  and  broader  lodes,  are  formed  chiefly 
of  the  same  minerals  as  the  greisen;  viz.  quartz  and  lithion 
mica,  which  have  crystallized  symmetrically  from  the  selvages, 


1  See:  Manes  in  Ann.  d.  min.  1823,  VIII.  p.  513;  and  1824,  XI.  p.  463; 
Daubree  in  same,  1841,  XIX.  p.  61.  72,  and  83;  Jokely  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol. 
geog.  Reichsanstalt,  1858,  p.  566. 


110  ZINNWALD.   I  GRAUPEN  AND  POEBEL. 

and  are  intimately  combined  with  wolfram  and  tin  ore.  They 
contain,  at  times,  in  the  middle  of  the  lode :  galena,  tin  pyrites, 
copper  glance,  copper  pyrites,  tetrahedrite,  blende,  fluor  spar, 
scheelite,  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  ufanite,  spathic  iron,  heavy 
spar,  feldspar,  apatite,  tourmaline,  topaz,  and  pycnite.  Sixteen 
such  lodes,  from  four  inches  to  three  feet  wide,  are  known  to 
exist  one  over  another.  The  miners  generally  call  them  beds, 
from  their  nearly  horizontal  position,  while  the  symmetrical 
arrangement  of  the  minerals  from  the  selvages  towards  the 
middle  are  the  clearest  proof  of  their  formation  in  fissures.  Still 
their  nature  remains  very  remarkable,  and  problematical ;  since, 
as  already  mentioned,  their  outer  portion  forms  only  a  more 
distinctly  crystallized  continuation  of  the  greisen.  The  quartz 
occurs  at  times  in  very  large  crystalls;  and  some  of  them  con- 
sist of  so-called  H  a  ub  en  quartz;  i.  e.  they  are  composed  of 
opposed  plates  parallel  to  their  crystal  faces,  the  result  of  having 
been  deposited  in  successive  layers.  The  other  minerals  and 
ores  occur  distributed,  in  the  middle  portions  of  the  lodes,  between 
the  two  outer  bands ;  which  are  composed  of  quartz  and  mica 
with  somewhat  of  wolfram.  Hence  they  are  lodes  which  only 
vary  mineralogically,  in  part,  from  the  greisen;  and  occur  mostly 
in  a  horizontal  position,  which  is  a  very  unnatural  one  for  broad 
fissures.  The  perpendicular  and  narrower  lodes,  which  inter- 
sect and  frequently  fault  the  preceding,  consist  on  the  other 
hand  often  merely  of  cracks  or  small  quartz  veins,  similar  to 
the  irregular  quartz  vejns  in  the  Altenberg  zwitter,  but  differing 
from  these  in  having  a  constant  strike  and  dip.  They  but  sel- 
dom contain  ores,  while  the  country  rock  is  commonly  very 
much  impregnated  by  the  side  of  these  with  tin  ore  and  wolf- 
ram. As  being  the  more  recent,  they  may  have  formed  the 
passage-way  for  the  mineral  solutions;  but  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive, that  they  were  also  the  cause  of  the  destruction  of  the 
feldspar;  i.  e.  the  formation  of  the  greisen  from  granite,  although 
indeed  masses  of  true  granite  are  found  in  the  greisen.  Since 
the  Zinnwald  greisen  is  formed  from  a  coarse  granular  mixture 
of  quartz  and  mica,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive,  what  has  become 
of  the  feldspar. 


ALTENBERG  HEMATITE  DEPOSITS.  HI 

TIN-DEPOSITS  OF  GRAUPEN,  AND  POEBEL. l 

§  77.  Both  localities  have  been  but  slightly  examined;  and 
on  this  account  I  describe  them  together,  although  situated  at 
the  opposite  extremities  of  the  Altenberg  district.  Between 
Graupen  and  the  Muckenthiirmchen,  on  the  crest  of  the  Erzgebirge, 
are  found  in  great  quantities  remains  of  former  mining;  which 
come  from  former  tin-mining  in  grey  gneiss  and  porphyry. 
According  to  Jokely,  the  1 — 10  inch  broad  lodes  in  the  gneiss 
consist  of  fissile  or  micaceous,  talcose,  and  somewhat  feldspathic, 
greisen;  in  which  the  tin  ore  forms  threads,  layers,  or  pockets; 
while  in  addition  talc,  steatite,  and  fluor  spar,  occasionally  occur. 
They  mostly  have  a  gentle  dip  of  only  10°  to  20°.  The  lodes 
in  the  porphyry  are  on  an  average  poorer.  At  Seegrunde  their 
matrix  is  chiefly  clay,  quartz,  and  hornstone;  easterly  of  this 
again,  of  a  flintlike  mass  resembling  greisen,  with  somewhat  of 
tin  ore,  wolfram,  galena,  mispickel,  copper  pyrites,  millerite, 
malachite,  talc,  and  feldspar.  Irregular  pockets  of,  often,  crys- 
tallized tin-ore  may  be  seen  in  a  kind  of  friction-breccia,  be- 
tween porphyry  arid  gneiss,  near  the  Miickenthurmchen. 

At  Pobel  the  gneiss  is  frequently  intersected  by  tin  lodes, 
and  impregnated  with  tin  ore.  Mining  there  has  been  recently 
abandoned. 

HEMATITE  DEPOSITS  OF  THE  ALTENBERG  DISTRICT. 

§  78.  Hematite  lodes,  containing  many  fragments  of  the 
country  rock,  traverse  the  granite  and  quartz  po/phyry  in  the 
region  between  Barenburg,  Schellerhau,  and  Schmiedefeld.  The 
mineral  matter  filling  these  fissures  consists  partly  of  a  breccia, 
principally  formed  from  fragments  of  the  quartz  porphyry,  the 
binding  medium  consisting  of  compact  earthy  and  fibrous 
hematite.  Besides  the  hematite,  these  lodes  often  contain  con- 
siderable quartz;  and  it  appears,  that  certain  breccia-like  quartz 
veins,  with  ferruginous  quartz  as  cementing  medium,  that  occur 
in  the  same  district,  are  contemporaneous  formations  with  these. 

The  iron  ore  lodes  of  the  Erzgebirge  lie  in  a  zone  nearly 
parallel  to  the  crest  of  the  mountains;  while  the  individual 


1  See:  Freiberg  Jahrbuch,  1844,  p.  35;  Jokely  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol. 
Reichsanst.  1858,  p.  562;  Miiller  in  Beitragen  zur  geol.  Kenutniss  des  Erz- 
gebirges,  II.  1867. 


112  BERGGIESSHUEBEL  ORE-DISTRICT. 

members  mostly  strike  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  general  ex 
tension  of  the  whole  zone.  From  this  fact  they  form  a  group 
of  but  slight  length,  but  far  greater  width ;  whose  individual 
members  occur  much  scattered/  and*  in  addition  appear  to  be 
generally  combined  with  the  occurrence  of  igneous  rocks,  such 
as  porphyry  and  granite.  We  shall  hereafter  become  acquainted 
with  cases,  of  this  iron  ore  zone  of  the  Erzgebirge,  in  the 
Schneeberg  and  Eibenstock  districts.  Those  of  the  Altenberg 
district  are  some  of  them  exploited,  but  have  never  been  care- 
fully examined. 

ORE-DISTRICT  OF  BERGGIESiSHUtfBEL. l   . 

§  79.  The  district  is  confined  to  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  this  small  town.  The  ore-deposits  occur  in  a  dark  grey 
or  black  clay-slate;  which  encloses  more  or  less  broad  layers 
of  hornblende  schist,  diorite  slate,  and  black  chert ;  and  is  tra- 
versed by  'dikes  of  claylike  quartz  porphyry:  they  are  partly 
overlaid  by  quader  sand  stein.  This  last  has  no  connection  what- 
ever with  the  ore-deposits,  but  from  its  overlying  prevents  in 
part  a  farther  tracing  of  the  others. 

The  composition  of  the  ore-deposits  appears,  according  to 
Vogelgesang,  to  vary  with  the  depth.  In  the  upper  workings  of 
the  flat  veins,  limonite  and  hematite,  with  heavy  spar,  predomi- 
nate. Deeper  are  found  magnetic  iron,  garnet,  sahlite,  pistac- 
ite,  allochroite,  colophonite,  quartz,  feldspar,  etc.  At  a  still 
greater  depth,  magnetic  iron  predominates;  and  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  It  are  erubescite,  copper  pyrites,  copper  glance, 
tetrahedrite,  red  copper,  azurite,  malachite,  chrysocolla,  native 
copper,  pyrites,  blende,  galena,  and  (very  rarely)  native  silver; 
while  chlorite,  mica,  tremolith,  calc.  spar,  brown  spar,  and  fluor 
spar  also,  accompany  the  same.  Among  these  are  some  min- 
erals evidently  of  secondary  origin,  and  first  formed  by  pseudo- 
morphous  action.  Not  only  are  the  outcroppings  of  the  deposits 
formed  of  gossan,  but  decompositions  have  also  taken  place  at 
a  greater  depth.  Several  of  these  deposits,  from  a  few  inches 
to  20  feet  broad,  follow  parallel  to  each  other,  as  if  they  were 
beds ;  in  addition,  a  ribbonlike  striped  limestone,  with  copper 


1  See:    Von  C  harp  en  tier,   mineral.    Geograph.    d.   Chursachs.  Lande, 
1778,  p    145;  Vogelgesang,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1852,  p.  635. 


KATHARINENBERG,  AND   SAIDA.  ORE-DISTRICTS.          1,13 

pyrites,  blende,  and  galena,  also  occurs.  These  beds,  which 
might,  from  their  multiferous  composition,  be  considered  as 
being  contact  veins,  are  intersected  by  lodes  which  appear  to 
have  been  formed  at  different  epochs.  The  older  consist  chiefly 
of  quartz  with  copper  pyrites,  the  more  recent  of  calc.  spar 
with  copper  glance  and  tetrahedrite ;  their  breadth  never  ex- 
ceeds a  few  inches. 

The  occurrence  of  these  lodes,  connected  with  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  dikes  of  porphyry  intersecting  the  clay-slate 
also  follow  the  slates  in  their  principal  direction  of  strike,  ap- 
pears to  afford  the  best  evidence  for  the  determination  of  the 
nature  of  those  beds.  If  the  iron  ores  are  considered  as  form- 
ing the  original  beds,  there  can  hardly  be  any  doubt,  that  the 
other  ores  are  of  much  more  recent  origin,  and  have  first  pene- 
trated into  the  beds  through  the  fissures  in  which  the  lodes 
occur,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  minerals  have  penetrated  at 
separate  successive  epochs;  since  the  copper  glance  and  tetra- 
hedrite are  here  always  combined  with  the  hornstone  and  quartz. 
These  may  have  penetrated  by  a  sort  of  infiltration. 

ORE-DISTRICTS  OF  KATHARINENBERG  AND  SAIDA.1 

§  80.  The  region  between  Katharinenberg  and  Saida  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  gneiss,  the  red  (igneous)  gneiss  frequently 
alternating  with  the  gray;  in  some  places  near  Griinthal  the 
red  gneiss  can  be  distinctly  seen  to  have  cut  through  the  gray. 
Although  small  masses  occur  of  granite,  serpentine,  and  Roih- 
liegendeSj  they  have  no  connection  with  the  lodes ;  which  are 
only  found  in  the  red  and  gray  gneiss. 

The  Katharina-Frisch-Gluck  and  Nicolai  mines,  at  Katha- 
rinenberg, are  now  worked  on  six  lodes,  which  occur  inured 
gneiss;  while  this  last,  in  the  Erzgebirge,  is  generally  destitute 
of  lodes.  Besides  the  lodes  now  exploited,  several  others  are 
known.  The  Nicolai  and  Katharina  lodes  appear  to  be  the 
most  important:  they  consist  of  decomposed  gneiss  and  clay, 
quartz,  and  hornstone,  with  copper  pyrites,  copper  glance,  eru- 
bescite,  galena,  blende,  silver  glance,  ruby  silver,  and  tetrahed- 
rite; more  rarely,  they  contain  also  calc.  spar,  fluor  spar,  and 

'See:  Joke'ly  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.   Reichsanstalt,  1857,  p.  578,  and  1858, 
p.  556;  Freiesleben  in  Berg-  u   huttenm.  Zeit.  1846,  p.  145. 

8 


1 14  MARIENBERG. 

pyrites.  The  gneiss  immediately  adjoining  the  lodes  is  at  times 
impregnated  with  ruby  silver.  Similar  lodes  occur  on  the  Bo- 
hemian slope  of  the  Erzgebirge.  At  Klostergrab  about  40  are 
known,  whose  matrix  consists  of  clay  and  quartz,  with  galena, 
blende,  pyrites,  ruby  silver,  and  stephanite  •,  while  those  in  the 
red  gneiss  at  Tellnitz  contain  somewhat  of  feldspar. 

Some  copper  ore  deposits  occur  in  the  gneiss  near  Saida; 
according  to  Freiesleben's  description,  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
that  they  are  bedded  veins.  The  most  important  of  the  lodes 
is  the  Eschig,  which  has  been  traced  for  a  length  of  2800  feet, 
its  breadth  varying  between  3  and  40  inches.  The  matrix  con- 
sists principally  of  qu'artz,  in  which  hematite,  malachite,  chryso- 
colla,  erubescite,  copper  pyrites,  black  copper,  red  copper,  azur- 
ite,  zinc  tetrahedrite,  tetrahedrite,  chalcophyllite,  aphanesite, 
and  pharmacosiderite,  occur  in  pockets ;  and  more  rarely  galena, 
blende,  fluor  spar,  heavy  spar,  lithomarge,  and  red  jasper. 

MAR1ENBERG.1 

§  81.  The  ore-district  of  Marienberg,  which  was  discovered 
in  1520,  consists  of  a  gneiss  plateau  between  the  Rothen 
Bockau,  the  Schletten  and  the  Zschopau  rivulets.  .The  gneiss 
dips  40 — 60°  towards  NE.  and  NW.  and  is  traversed  by  so- 
called  wacke,  silver,  and  tin,  ore-veins.  About  140  silver 
lodes  are  known,  varying  from  2  to  30  inches  in  breadth ;  which 
cross  one  another  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  a  network; 
and  whose  gang,  consisting  of  decomposed  gneiss,  clay,  quartz, 
fluor  spar  and  heavy  spar,  contains  copper  pyrites,  hepatic  py- 
rites, arsenic,  ruby  silver,  silver  glance,  native  silver,  and  here 
and  there  pockets  of  galena,  blende,  and  cobalt  and  nickel  ores. 
We  shall  hereafter  become  acquainted  with  a  very  similar  for- 
mation in  the  mica-schist  of  Joachimsthal  on  the  Bohemian  side 
of  the  Erzgebirge. 

The  tin  ore  lodes,  which  were  formerly  chiefly  exploited 
in  the  Marter  and  Wilde  mountains,  consist  essentially  of  quartz 
and  clay  in  which  tin  ore  is  disseminated,  in  addition  to  which 
the  tin  ore  was  generally  found  as  an  impregnation  for  a  dis- 


1  See:  Von  Trebra,  Erklar.  d.  Marienb.  Bergwerkskarte,  1770;  Von  Char- 
pentier,  mineral,  geogr.  Chursachs.  1778,  p.  1 80 ;  Bergwerksfreund,  vol.  2-2,  p. 
40;  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  18CO,  p.  141  ;-M  tiller,  in  Gangstud.  III.  p.  290. 


EHRENFRIEDERSDORF,  AND   GEYER.  115 

tance  of  2  to  3  feet  in  the  country  rock.  Quite  remarkable,  accord- 
ing to  Von  Charpentier's  description,  must  have  been  the  loder 
on  which  the  Einhorn  mine  was  worked  in  Mount  Marter, 
whose  1  to  2  feet  broad  matrix  consisted  of  heavy  spar  and 
fluor  spar  with  silver  ores  and  bismuth,  while  the  country  rock 
between  this  and  several  parallel  branches  was  impregnated 
with  tin  ore.  It  almost  appears  as  if  the  tin  ore  had  first 
penetrated  into  the  rock  through  extremely  narrow  cracks; 
which  had  afterwards  been  widened,  and  had  then  been  filled 
by  the  younger  argentiferous  lode  formation. 

In  addition  to  these  silver  and  tin  ore  lodes,  the  same  dis- 
trict, as  mentioned,  is  traversed  by  numerous  so-called  wacke 
or  'lime  dikes'.  These  appear  to  consist  of  decomposed  porphy- 
ries and  greenstones,  and  are  not  of  sufficient  breadth  to  form 
distinct  out-croppings  at  the  surface.  Not  improbably  these  stand 
in  a  certain  genetic  relation  to  the  lodes,  like  that  of  the  por- 
phyry dikes  to  the  Freiberg  lodes. 

EHRENFRIEDERSDORF  AND  GEYER. 

§  82.  This  ore-district  lies  in  the  narrow  portion  of  the 
Erzgebirge  mica-schist  district,  and  appears  to  stand  in  some 
connection  with  three  eruptive  masses  of  granite,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  forms  the  beautiful  rock  of  Greifenstein.  That 
the  granite,  as  being  the  more  recent,  has  burst  through  the 
crystalline  schistose  rock,  is  most  clearly  proven  from  the  nu- 
merous fragments  of  this  which  it  contains.  This  outbursting 
appears  to  stand  in  connection  with  the  tin  ore  formation  of 
this  district,  and  perhaps  also  caused  the  fissures  filled  by  the 
silver  lodes.  The  most  important  deposits  are  the  tin  and  silver 
ore  lodes  of  the  Sauberg  near  Ehrenfriedersdorf,  and  the  tin 
stockwerk  at  Geyer. 

In  the  Sauberg1  the  crystalline  schists  are  traversed  by  so- 
called  'Wackengange'  (dikes  of  wacke),  and  also  by  silver  and 
tin  lodes.  The  tin  lodes  strike  from  E. — W.  and  dip  at  a  con- 
siderable angle  towards  S.  The  breadth  varies  from  1 — 10  in- 
ches: they  consist  mainly  of  compact  white  quajtz,  which  is 
firmly  united  to  the  country  rock.  The  following  minerals  occur 

1See:  Von  Charpentier,  mineral,  geogr.  v.  Chursachs.,  p.  192;  Nau- 
mann,  Erlauterungen  z.  geogn.  Karte  v.  Sachsen,  1838,  pt.  II.  p.  250. 


116  EHRENFRIEDERSDORF, 

with  the  quartz;  lithomarge,  steatite,  fluor  spar,  tin  ore,  mis- 
pickel;  copper  pyrites,  and  pyrites:  of  more  rare  occurrence 
are;  wolfram,  molybdenite,  blende,  topaz,  herderite,  gilbertite, 
beryl,  apatite,  scorodite,  oligonspar  (a  variety  of  spathic  iron 
rich  in  manganese),  plinian  and  pharmacosiderite,  the  last  formed 
by  the  decomposition  of  mispickel.  The  ores,  especially  the 
tin  ore,  have  often  penetrated  the  country  rock,  or  the  imper- 
ceptible 'clefts  in  the  same,  as  impregnations.  Where  the  quartz 
predominates  in  the  lodes,  at  times  only  a  thin  layer  of  tin  ore 
and  mispickel  occurs  in  the  middle,  at  times  the  middle  of  the 
principal  portion  of  the  lode  consists  almost  entirely  of  mispickel, 
enclosed  at  the  selvages  by  thin  bands  of  tin  ore  and  quartz. 
These  lodes  often  lie  close  to  and  parallel  with  one  another  as 
branches,  so  that  they,  with  the  rock  enclosed  between  them, 
can  be  exploited  and  removed  at  the  same  time. 

The  silver  lodes  strike  N.— S.,  have  different  dips,  attain 
over  a  foot  in  breadth,  and  always  fault  the  tin  lodes  when 
they  meet.  Their  matrix  consists  of.  quartz,  heavy  spar,  and 
fluor  spar,  with  silver  glance,  ruby  silver,  and  copper  ores.  At 
the  junctions  both  these  classes  of  lodes  are  said  to  enrich  one 
another,  and  their  contents  are  mixed  together ;  so  that  tin,  silver 
and  copper  ores,  are  found  together  with  mispickel.  Von  Char- 
pentier  has,  unfortunately,  not  given  a  more  special  account  of 
this;  nor  does  he  mention,  whether  the  dikes  of  wacke  have  had 
any  influence;  but  only  mentions,  that  they  are  intersected  by 
the  lodes. 

The  Geyer  stockwerk1  consists  of  a  small  granite  mass, 
which  has  broken  through  the  mica-schist.  It  has  an  irregu- 
lar cone  shape,  truncated  above,  and  encreasing  in  thickness 
with  the  depth ;  it  is  surrounded  by  the  so-called  stockscheider. 
which,  1  — 10  feet  thick,  consists  ,  partly  of  coarse  granular  gra- 
nite, partly  of  an  intimate  mixture  of  quartz  and  feldspar  with 
numerous  angular  fragments  of  gneiss.  The  form  of  this  gra- 
nite mass  has  been  well  laid  open  by  mining  operations,  and 
the  breaking  together  of  old  workings.  The  rock  varies  from 
middle  and  granular  to  compact,  in  addition  to  the  but  sparingly 

1  See:  Von  Charpentier,  mineral,  geogr.  v.  Chursachs.  p.  203;  Ha  wkins, 
in  Trans,  of  the  roy.  soc.  of  Cornwall,  II.  p.  43;  Mohs,  in  Molls  Annal.  1805. 
p.  353;  Bonn  a  refill  Ann.  d.  mines,  vol.  38,  p.  372;  Manes,  in  same,  1823, 
vol.  8.  p.  515;  Naumann,  in  Erlauter.  z.  geogn.  Karte  v.  Sachsen,  II.  p.  176, 
and  248;  Stelzner,  im  Beitrage  z.  geogn.  Kenntii.  d.  Erzgebirges.  I.  1865. 


AND  GEYER.  117 

occurring  mica:  chlorite,  tourmaline,  and  apatite,  also  occur. 
The  whole  granite  mass  is  traversed  by  numerous  lodes,  which 
strike  NE.—SW.  and  dip  70—80°  towards  NW.;  they  are 
nearly  parallel,  intersect  only  at  very  acute  angles,  are  besides 
collected  in  groups,  in  that  several  lodes  occur  near  one  an- 
other at  but  slight  intervals;  and  are  separated  from  the  next 
group  by  a  mass,  of  rock.  They  vary  from  1  to  8  inches  in 
breadth,  and  consist  principally  of  quartz,  but  hold  in  addition 
steatite,  tin  ore,  wolfram,  rnispickel,  and  pyrites.  The  tin  -ore 
is  not  confined  to  the  lodes,  but  occurs  also  in  the  country  rock, 
which  is  more  or  less  impregnated  with  it,  especially  in  the 
jointing  fissures.  It  then  loses  its  granitic  nature,  consists  in 
general  only  of  quartz,  and  gradually  passes  into  the  matrix  of 
the  lodes.  'It  is  impossible/  says  Von  Charpentier,  '  to  determine 
the  limits  between  the  quartz  of  the  lodes  and  the  stanniferous 
quartzose  country  rock,  as  also  between  this  and  the  granite 
adjoining  it,  so  imperceptibly  does  the  one  merge  into  the 
other.  On  this  account  flucans  are  extremely  rare,  and  are 
only  indicated  in  the  broader  lodes;  the  lode  generally  passes 
as  a  whole  into  the  rock.'  It  might  well  be  supposed,  that  the 
tin  ore  had  penetrated  the  granite,  subsequently  to  its  forma- 
tion, through  the  fissures  with  the  quartz,  and  in  doing  so 
had  partially  replaced  the  feldspar.  The  whole  appearance  re- 
minds one  very  much  of  the  Altenberg  stockwerk:  this  last 
might  be  marked  as  a  more  complete  result  of  the  same 
operation. 

An  interesting  observation  of  Von  Charpentier  is:  that  the 
tolerably  horizontal  fissures,  which  divide  the  granite  into  floors, 
also  intersect  the  lodes,  and  are  either  empty,  or  at  times  filled 
with  tin  ore  for  a  considerable  distance.  The  entire  Stockwerk 
together  with  its  lodes,  and  the  gneiss  and  mica-schist  enclos- 
ing, are  traversed  by  a  vein  of  an  entirely  different  kind,  the 
so-called  'rothem  Falle'.  This  strikes  E.  — W.,  dips  65°  in  North, 
and  consists  of  quartz,  hornstone,  and  red  ochre,  together  with 
numerous  horses,  which  are  of  granite  within  the  granite,  of 
mica-schist  within  the  mica-schist.  This  lode  belongs  from  its 
entire  nature  to  the  common  iron  lodes  of  the  Erzgebirge. 

To  the  West  of  Geyer  there  occurs  a  pyrites  deposit  about 
140  feet  wide,  which  contains  iron  pyrites,  with  somewhat  of 
copper  pyrites  and  galena.  It  is  doubtful,  whether  it  should  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  beds,  or  lodes.  From  its  gen- 


1 18  ANNABERG. 


eral  nature  it  is  to  be  probably  attributed  to  the  metalliferous 
greenstones,  with  which  we  shall  become  acquainted  in  the 
Schwarzenberg  district. 


ANNABERG  DISTRICT.  * 

§  83.  On  the  Pohl  mountain  near  Annaberg  the  gneiss  is 
frequently  broken  through,  and  partly  overlaid,  by  basalt;  near 
Buchholz  it  is  intersected  by  dikes  of  porphyritic  granite.  Se- 
veral silver  lodes  are  known  to  exist,  and  have  some  of  them 
been  exploited  for  a  long  time.  The  most  important  have 
been  opened  by  the  Markus  Roling  mine.  They  are  lodes  strik- 
ing E. — W.,  having  a  breadth  of  2- 8  inches,  whose  gang  con- 
sists of  quartz  and  fluor  spar  with  somewhat  of  heavy  spar,  in 
which  are  found  ruby  silver,  silver  glance,  native  silver,  cobalt, 
nickel,  and  bismuth  ores ;  as  well  as  somewhat  of  copper  pyri- 
tes, tetrahedrite,  and  native  copper.  This  is  a  similar  formation 
to  that  of  Joachimsthal.  Numerous  remains  of  former  tin  placers 
are  found  in  the  woods  South  of  Annaberg. 


JOACHIMSTHAL  DISTRICT.2 

§  84.  The  district  of  Joachimsthal  consists  of  mica-schist 
with  subordinate  layers  of  hornblende  schist  and  limestone,  tra- 
versed by  numerous  dikes  of  quartz-porphyry  and  basalt ;  which 
last  occurs  partly  in  a  decomposed  condition  as  wacke,  and  as 
so-called  Butzenwacke,  even  contains  the  remains  of  tree  trunks. 
Two  large  granite  masses  arise  out  of  the  same  mica  schist  to 
the  West.  The  dikes  of  porphyry  chiefly  strike  NNW.-SSE., 
those  of  basalt,  which  intersect  them,  WSW. — ENE.,  some  of 
them  even  WNW.— ESE. 


1  See:    Von  Charpentier,  min.  geogr.    v.    Chursachs.,  p.  326;   Nau- 
mann,  in  Erlauterung  d.  geogn.  Karte  v.  Sachsen,  II.  p.  251. 

2  See:  Paulus,  Orographie  des  Joachims.  Distrikt,  1820;  Maier,  geogn. 
Untersuch.  z.  Bestim.  d.  Alters  d.  Silber-  u  Kobaltgange  z.  Joachims.    183); 
Vogl,  Gangverhaltnisse  u    Mineralreichthum  Joachims.  1856,  and  in  oester. 
Zeits.  f.  Berg.  u.  Hiittenwesen,  1855,  no.  5;  Jokely,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichs- 
anstalt  1857,  p.  4f>,  and  569. 


JOACHLMSTHAL.  119 

The  lodes  are  tin,  silver,  and  iron-lodes. 

The  tin  lodes  are  only  known  in  the  granite  region  North- 
east of  Abertham,  at  Neuhammer,  Hirschenstand  and  Sauersack. 
They  were  actively  worked  formerly  by  the  Maurizi  mine. 
About  20  of  them  have  been  opened,  which  strike  in  such 
various  directions,  as  to  form  a  network.  They  consist  of  fine 
granular  granite,  with  but  little  quartz  and  mica  (consequently 
altogether  unlike  greisen)  ;  which  contains  as  accessories,  tour- 
maline, talc,  mispickel,  pyrites,  and  tin  ore.  These  and  similar 
lodes  are,  near  Flatten,  accompanied  by  tin  placers. 

The  silver  lodes  are  divided  into  four  groups,  tolerably  distinct 
from  each  other.  One  principal  group  lies  directly  alongside  of 
the  town  of  Joachimsthal,  a  second  near  Abertham,.  a  third  at 
Diirnberg,  and  a  fourth  at  Gottesgabe.  Vogl  considers  the  first 
three  to  form  one  zone ;  which  strikes  WNW. — ESE.,  and  has 
been  principally  exploited  at  the  three  points  named;  and  many 
of  the  lodes  possibly  extend  through  all  three  without  a  break. 
There  are  two  lines  of  strike,  nearly  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  which  all  these  lodes  follow,  and  are  accordingly  distin- 
guished as  morgengdnge  and  mitternachtgange-  The  morgen- 
g tinge,  of  which  about  17  are  known  around  Joachimsthal,  all 
strike  nearly  parallel  to  the  mica  schist  from  WNW.  to  ESE., 
but  have  a  greater  dip  than  this  towards  NNE.  Twenty  one 
mitternacht  lodes  are  known,  of  which  the  Greschieber  lode  is 
nearly  perpendicular,  while  the  lodes  on  both  sides  generally  dip 
away  from  it.  Maier  states,  that  they  frequently  do  not  come 
to  the  surface,  but  wedge  out  towards  it,  while  they  encrease  in 
breadth  with  the  depth.  The  morgen  lodes,  being  the  more  re- 
cent, intersect  the  mitternacht  ones;  but  Maier  states,  that  the 
reverse  also  takes  place.  Both  classes  always  intersect  the  mica- 
schist  with  all  its  subordinate  strata,  the  quartz  porphyry,  and 
often  even  the  dikes  of  basalt  and  wacke.  Still  the  case  ap- 
pears to  occur,  where  dikes  of  the  last  have  intersected  lodes, 
or  have  penetrated  into  their  fissures;  from  which  may, be  de- 
duced: that  the  silver  lodes  were  almost  contemporaneous  with 
the  formation  of  the  basalt,  in  that  their  fissures  in  part  follow 
the  basalt  dikes,  in  part  are  intersected  by  the  basalt.  At  all 
events  they  also  stand  in  a  certain  genetic  connection  with  the 
porphyry,  which  here  is  evidently  of  much  greater  age  than  the 
basalt.  This  subject  is  still  somewhat  obscure.  The  silver  lodes 
have  not  yet  been  found  in  the  granite. 


120  SCHWARZENBERG  ORE-DISTRICT. 

The  matrix  of  all  these  lodes  consists  principally  of  clay 
and  fragments  of  schist,  which  have  evidently  been  formed  by 
the  friction  of  the  walls  on  each  other.  The  remaining  gang 
stones  are  most  generally  quartz  and  calc.  spar,  the  last  especi- 
ally in  the  neighborhood  of  intersected  limestone :  more  rare  are 
brown  spar,  dialogite,  and  fluor  spar.  The  ores  are  more  fre- 
quent and  varied  in  the  mitternacht  lodes,  than  the  morgen  ones. 
Vogl  enumerates  42  minerals,  mostly  metallic  ones,  as  occurring 
in  the  Geister  lode,  which  belongs  to  the  first  class.  I  reca- 
pitulate only  the  most  important  ones;  viz.  ruby  silver,  silver 
glance,  native  silver,  stephanite,  acanthite,  galena,  blende,  tetra- 
hedrite,  copper  pyrites,  pyrites,  marcasite,  arsenic,  bismuth,  sinal- 
tine,  copper  nickel,  chloanthite,  bismuthine,  and  ores  of  uranium. 

The  distribution  of  the  ores  in  the  lodes  is  by  no  means 
an  equal  one.  Maier  states,  that  they  were  mostly  collected  in 
the  upper,  now  exhausted,  workings;  and  he  attempts  to  explain 
this  by  the  theory  of  sublimation.  Ruby  silver  and  arsenic  were 
found  particularly  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  limestone,  very  sel- 
dom near  the  porphyry;  where,  on  the  other  hand,  other  silver 
ores  were  collected,  and  also  penetrated,  as  impregnations,  in- 
to the  cracks  of  the  porphyry.  Galena,  blende,  and  pyrites, 
have  repeatedly  penetrated  the  wacke  dikes.  The  cobalt  ores 
are  more  frequent  in  the  mitternacht,  than  the  morgen  lodes, 
and  more  commonly  near  Abertham,  than  at  Joachimsthal.  At 
greater  depths  the  ores  are  for  the  most  part  only  found  at  the 
junctions.  Vogl  considers  the  lodes  to  have  been  formed  by 
infiltration.  He  found  altogether  83  different  mineral  species  in 
this  district,  of  which  the  greater  portion  were  found  in  the 
silver  lodes. 

ORE-DISTRICT  OF  SCHWARZENBERG.1 

§  85.  The  Schwarzenberg  district  consists  chiefly  of  mica; 
under  and  out  of  which  stand  out  several  masses  of  granite,  gene- 
rally surrounded  by  gneiss;  the  most  important  of  which,  the  Rac- 
kelmann,  occurs  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  town.  The 


'See:  Cotta,  in  Erlaut.  z.  geogn.  Karte  v.  Sachsen,  II.  p.  219;  Von 
BeusVin  Gangstudien,  vol.  3,  p.  224;  M tiller,  in  same,  vol.  3,  p.  174,  and 
286;  Freiesleben,  in  his  geological  works;  Sternberger,  in  oester.  Zeits. 
f.  Berg-  und  Huttenw.  1857,  p.  122. 


CHIEF  GROUPS.  121 

crystalline  schists  all  have  a  gentle  slope  away  from  this  gra- 
nite dome,  so  that  their  lines  of  strike  surround  it  concentrically. 
The  ore-deposits  of  this  district  occur  as: 

1.  bedded  veins,  combined  with  greenstone,  and   containing 

many  different  ores; 

2.  hematite  lodes. 

The  bedded  veins  surround  the  granite  of  the  Rackehnann 
also  concentrically,  as  they  follow  the  schistose  structure  of  the 
mica  schist,  not  as  a  continuous  circle,  but  as  small  fragments 
of  rings.  These  often  attain  a  great  breadth  in  the  central 
portion  of  their  extent ;  and  from  this  cause  approach,  in  hori- 
zontal section,  an  irregular  lenticular  form.  They  are  always 
so  firmly  combined  with  the  greenstones,  that  they  are  only  with 
difficulty  separated  from  these,  and  are  frequently  accompanied 
by  granular  limestone,  or  dolomite.  Their  composition  is  very 
manifold;  and  they  can  also  be  classified  in  groups  according 
to  their  distribution.  Although,  in  a  mining  point  of  view,  of 
but  little  importance,  they  seem  to  me  geologically  very  inter- 
esting. They  are  certainly  characteristic  of  a  particular  type 
of  ore- deposits;  on  which  account  I  will  describe  them  more 
fully  than  their  actual  usefulness  would  warrant.  The  variety 
of  their  mineral  "composition  is  striking,  in  that  no  determined 
arrangement  can  be  recognised. 

a*  The  Breitenbrunn  Group.  The  champion  deposit 
of  this  group,  which  is  exploited  by  the  Fortuna  and  St. 
Christoph  mines,  falls  into  two  divisions.  The  upper,  the  so- 
called  'Kamm',  consists  of  a  mixture  of  quartz,  prase,  hornblende, 
actinolith,  and  chlorite;  the  lower,  the  so-called  'Erzflotz!,  of 
magnetic  iron,  pyrrhotine,  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  mispickel, 
black  and  yellow  blende,  somewhat  of  tin  ore,  garnet,  idocrase, 
actinolith,  chlorite,  hardened  clay,  and  hornblende;  forming  an 
irregular  granular  mixture  together  with  the  more  seldom  occurring 
quartz,  calc.  spar,  brown  spar,  fluor  spar,  apatite,  diopside,  sahlite, 
pistacite,  tourmaline,  mica,  talc,  and  picrolith ;  under  which  follows 
the  so-called  'Sohlgestein',  consisting  of  an  intimate  mixture  of 
quartz  and  feldspar  with  somewhat  of  pyrites.  Its  greatest 
known  breadth  is  7  feet,  the  strike  and  dip  parallel  to  that  of 
the  mica-schist,  the  last  being  about  25°  towards  Southwest. 
More  recently  the  chief  object  of  exploitation  has  been  blende. 

b.  The  Klobenstein  Group.  A  metalliferous  greenstone, 
in  the  Sechs-Bruder  mine,  contained:  hornblende,  actinolith, 


122  SCHWARZENBERG    GROUPS. 

pistacite,  quartz;  garnet,  chlorite,  serpentine,  tremolith,  apatite, 
steatite,  copper  pyrites,  and  magnetic  iron.  The  Wohnhiit ten- 
stein  group  is  similarly  composed. 

c.  Raschau  Group.    "The  Staramasser  mines,  at  Graul  and 
Katharina,  exploit  pyrites  deposits  50  to  120  feet  broad,  which 
belong  to  a  greenstone  mass.     Where  but   little  pyrites   occurs, 
the  greenstone  is  always  compact  and  firm;   in  those  workings, 
on  the  contrary,    where  pyrites  and  mispickel  predominate,   the 
greenstone  is  decomposed,  assumes  the  nature  of  wacke,  and  is 
no  longer  recognisable.     Besides  the  pyrites,  the  following  min- 
erals also   occur:    hornblende,   sahlite,   kaolin,   lithoinarge,    calc. 
spar,  pyrrhotine;    and  in  fissures,   as  products  of  decomposition, 
copperas,     cyanosite,      native     copper,      pharmacosiderite,     and 
scorodite. 

d.  Unverhofft-Gliick  Group.     Seven    mines    have    ex- 
ploited   deposits    in    the    neighborhood    of   the  Anton    smelting 
works.     The  rock  consists  of  greenstone  with  actinolith,  quartz, 
erlan,  dialogite,  brown  spar,   blende,  copper   pyrites,    mispickel, 
pyrites,  and  argentiferous  galena;  to  a  subordinate  degree  occur 
picrolith,  pistacite,  helvin,  allochroite,  serpentine,  and  fluor  spar; 
while  native  silver,  pyromorphite,  and  cerusite,  are  found  in  the 
geodes.     This  so-called  ' Erzflotz'  is  accompanied   by  a  parallel 
layer,  consisting  of  granular  limestone  and  dolomite,  (which  occur 
to  the  West  as  foot-wall,   to  the  East  as  hanging- wall,)  and  con- 
tains  at  times   fragments   of   the   ore-deposit,    and   must   conse- 
quently   have    intersected    it.     The    Schiitzenhaus    group  is 
exactly  like  this;  and  the  Gross-Pohla,  Fiirstenberg,  Wil- 
de nau,  and  Bermsgrun  groups  are  very  similar. 

e.  Teufels stein  garnet  rock.    A  formation  allied  to  the 
preceding  occurrences  crops  out  on  the  Teufelssteiri    near  Sach- 
senfeld;    in    which    allochroite    predominates,    accompanied    by 
pistacite,  hornblende,  tremolith,  fluor  spar,  quartz,  magnetic  iron, 
pyrites,  and  erlan. 

All  these  deposits ,  appear  to  belong  together,  and  to  be  the 
common  result  of  some  geological  event.  That  the  greenstones, 
with  which  the  ores  are  so  intimately  combined,  have  been  forced, 
as  igneous  rocks,  through  nearly  parallel  fissures  in  the  direc- 
tion of  .cleavage — widening  the  fissures  in  their  passage — can 
hardly  be  doubted.  Besides  their  analogy  to  the  other  green- 
stones of  the  Erzgebirge,  the  great  breadth  of  these  veins,  with 
their  dip  of  but  20° — 30°,  also  confirms  this  view.  How  could 


JOHANNGEORGENSTADT,  AND  EIBENSTOCK.  123 

such  broad,  flat  fissures  have  remained  open,  and  been  filled, 
in  any  other  manner?  Still,  it  was  not  necessary,  that  the 
mineral  matter,  forming  the  ores  and  many  of  the  other  mine- 
rals, should  have  been  originally  present  in  the  greenstones. 
The  fact,  that  the  greenstones  are  only  locally  melalliferous, 
and  rich  in  minerals,  favors  the  view ;  that  the  contents  of  the 
metalliferous  deposits  have  in  some  manner  subsequently  pene- 
trated the  greenstones,  either  by  infiltration,  or  sublimation. 
Baron  V.  Beust  has  attempted  to  explain  the  ore  distribution  in 
these  greenstones  by  the  formation  of  fissures  in  determined 
belts,  through  which  the  solutions  might  have  come  in  contact 
with  the  greenstones ;  and  that  the  influence  of  the  different 
kinds  of  rocks  must  have  been  of  such  an  energetic  nature,  as 
to  cause  the  deposits  from  the  solutions  only  to  take  place 
within,  and  partly  at  the  expense  of,  the  greenstones.  The  so 
frequent  occurrence  of  these  rocks  together  with  granular  lime- 
stones and  dolomites,  is  almost  more  difficult  to  explain,  than 
the  local  contents  in  ores;  the  limestones,  it  is  true,  lie  over, 
or  beneath  them;  in  some  cases,  however,  show  by  their  inte"r- 
secting  and  containing  fragments,  that  they  have  subsequently 
penetrated.  An  intersection  appears  to  take  place  at  Unver- 
hofft  Gliick,  fragments  of  the  greenstone  are  found  here  in  the 
limestone.  Have  the  parallel  limestone  beds  been  subsequently 
softened  under  great  pressure,  and  moved  from  their  original 
position? 

DISTRICT  OF  JOHANNGEORGENSTADT  AND 
EIBENSTOCK. A 

§  86.  This  district,  situated  near  the  highest  portion  of 
the  Erzgebirge,  consists  mostly  of  granite  and  mica  schist.  The 
schist  passing  at  times  into  clay  slate,  forms  here  a  portion  of 
the  great  district  of  this  .rock  in  the  Erzgebirge ;  it  also  forms 
tourmaline  schist,  and  a  few  subordinate  beds  in  granite.  It 
passes  but  exceptionally  into  gneiss.  There  is  found,  in  this 
district,  a  large  number  of  tin  and  iron  lodes,  chiefly  in  the 
granite ;  while  a  few  lodes,  containing  ores  of  silver  and  cobalt, 
traverse  the  mica  schist  of  the  Fasten  Mountain. 


1  See:  Von  Charpentier,  min.  geog.  v.  Churs.,  p.  249;  Oppe,  in  Gang- 
studien,  vol.  II.  p.  132,  with  map;  Manes,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1823,  vol   8. 


124  TIN  LODES. 

The  tin  lodes  strike  either  E.— W.  or  N.— -S. ;  but  they 
at  times  deviate  from  this  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  district. 
Their  dip  is  in  every  way  irregular.  The  content  of  the  lode 
resembles  granite ;  it  consists  principally  of  quartz,  kaolin,  litho- 
marge,  mica,  talc,  chlorite,  and  tourmaline,  with  somewhat  of 
tin  ore.  The  last  occurs  in  pockets,  or  ribbons.  The  distribu- 
tion of  these  minerals  in  the  lodes  is  more  irregular,  than  in 
common  granite;  so  that  they  cannot,  without  reservation,  be 
termed  stanniferous  granite  veins.  The  following  minerals  are 
found  at  times  in  the  lodes;  viz.  apatite,  fluor  spar,  nacrite, 
precious  serpentine,  garnet,  micaceous  iron,  wolfram,  molyb- 
denite, mispickel,  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  copper  glance,  malachite, 
red  copper,  and  very  rarely  galena,  and  native  gold.  Near  iron 
ore  lodes  they  also  contain;  hornstone,  hematite,  specular  iron, 
and  uranite;  near  metalliferous  greenstones  (not  far  from 
Schwarzenberg),  actinolith  and  silver,  cobalt  and  bismuth  ores. 
These  subordinate  minerals  appear  to  be  mostly  of  secon- 
dary formation;  and  either  penetrated  into  the  granitic  rock 
subsequently,  or  were  formed  by  the  occurrence  of  peculiar 
circumstances.  The  general  character  of  the  lodes  is  so  like 
that  of  granite;  that  they  might  be  considered  to  have  been 
injected  in  an  igneous-fluid  state;  with  which,  however,  do  not 
agree  their  slight  breadth,  and  at  times  banded,  even  though 
not  exactly  symmetrical,  texture,  as  well  as  the  irregular  dis- 
tribution of  the  ores  in  them.  Since  feldspar  and  mica  may 
also  be  formed  in  the  wet  way,  a  decision  can  only  be  arrived 
at  with  great  difficulty.  In  any  case  these  lodes  form  a  common 
district  with  those  previously  mentioned  at  Abertham  near 
Joachimsthal.  The  distribution  of  the  tin  ore  in  the  lodes  appears, 
according  to  Oppe,  to  have  been  much  governed  by  the  nature 
and  influence  of  the  wall-rock.  According  to  Oppe  the  lodes 
are  richest  in 

tourmaline   schist;    after  which, .  following  the  order  in   which 
they  have  had  the  most  favorable  influence, 

foliated  mica-schist  containing  tourmaline, 

granite, 

foliated  mica-schist,  without  tourmaline, 

common  mica-schist;  and  lastly,  as  most  unfavorable. 

clay-slate. 

It   is   stated,   that  .the   order   should  be   nearly    reversed  as 
respects  the  iron  lodes. 

These  tin  lodes  are  the  oldest  lodes  of  the  region,    but  are 


IRON  LODES.  125 

among  themselves  not  all  of  the  same  age.  Where  in  them 
the  granitic  gang  comes  in  contact  with  other  gang  stones,  the 
first  always  appear  as  the  eldest. 

In  addition  to  the  above  is  the  tourmaline  schist  of  the 
Auersberg,  which  forms  an  insulated  mass  in  the  granite,  partly 
containing  tin  itself,  partly  traversed  by  very  slender  tin  veins; 
and  this  stannous  rock  appears  to  have  been  the  source,  whence 
were  formed  the  formerly  worked  tin  placers  around  Eibenstock. 

The  lodes  of  iron-ore  occur  sometimes  singly,  sometimes 
united  in  groups.  They  appear  most  thickly,  united  in  a  group 
which  intersects  the  granite  mass  almost  N. — S.,  passing  east- 
wardly  of  the  town  of  Eibenstock.  A  great  number  of  lodes 
intersect  one  another  at  very  acute  angles,  and  nearly  at  one 
point,  near  Rehhiibel.  They  often  occur  here,  as  generally  in 
the  Erzgebirge,  as  contact-lodes,  between  granite  and  mica-schist. 
They  are  much  rarer  in  the  mica-schist  itself,  than  in  the 
granite;  but,  as  bedded  lodes,  follow  the  mica-schist  at  times 
in  its  line  of  strike.  The  majority  of  these  lodes  have  a  sudden 
dip  towards  West.  Their  gangs  must  be  regarded,  as  having 
been  mostly  formed  from  the  granite;  but  they  have  no  such 
resemblance  to  this,  as  those  of  the  tin  lodes;  on  the  contrary 
they  appear  more  as  masses,  which  have  been  formed  by  a 
lixiviation  of  the  adjoining  rock,  partly  with,  partly  without  a 
crystalline  texture.  They  consist  of  hornstone,  quartz,  and 
ferruginous  clay  with  hematite,  more  rarely  combined  with 
specular  iron.  The  hornstone  passes  into  ferruginous  quartz, 
and  jasper;  the  quartz,  into  amethyst,  and  chalcedony,  or  opal; 
the  clay,  into  kaolin,  or  lithomarge;  the  hematite,  into  black 
iron  stone  (a  variety  of  limonite  rich  in  manganese),  limonite, 
and  xanthosiderite.  As  subordinate  minerals,  occur  polianite, 
psilomelane,  cobalt  ores,  bismuthine,  bismuth  ochre,  bismuth, 
copper  pyrites,  copper  glance,  erubescite,  malachite,  and  red  copper. 

A  local,  and  certainly  very  remarkable,  occurrence  was 
the  discovery,  in  1834,  of  seams  of  anthracite,  1/2  to  5  inches 
thick,  extending  about  40  feet  in  a  hematite  lode  of  the  Lorenz 
mine  at  Rehhiibel.  The  iron  lode  consisted,  at  this  point,  prin- 
cipally of  schist  and  granite  fragments  with  quartz,  hornstone, 
and  clay.  The  anthracite  appears  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  adjoining  mica-schist,  the  latter  at  this  point  containing  thin 
seams  of  the  coal,  which  may  have  penetrated  entirely  in  a 
mechanical  way,  like  the  fragments  of  rock  in  the  lode. 


126  SCHNEEBERG  DISTRICT. 

The  texture  of  these  iron  lodes  is,  as  a  rule,  an  irregular 
granular  one;  and  they  but  seldom  show  traces  of  a  combed 
arrangement.  The  wall-rock  is  often  strongly  impregnated  over 
a  great  breadth ;  the  lodes  are  at  time&  as  much  as  100  feet  broad. 

Lodes  of  silver  and  cobalt  ores  at  the  Fastenberg.  This 
mountain  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  mica-schist ;  which  is 
traversed  by  numerous  granite  dikes,  striking  S.—  N.  or 
SE.-r-NW. :  to  the  North  it  is  joined  by  a  mass  of  granite.  A 
broad  lode  of  iron  Ore  cuts  through  the  mica-schist  and  granite. 
A  large  number  of  silver  lodes  occur  in  the  mica-schist,  tra- 
versing this,  and  the  granite  dikes,  and  faulting  these  last. 
They  also  penetrate  the  granite  mass,  appear  to  contain  fewer 
ores  in  this,  are  cut  off  by  the  iron  ore  lode,  but  are  again 
found  beyond  this.  The  gang  of  these  lodes  is  quartz,  and 
hornstone,  with  somewhat  of  fluor  spar,  calc.  spar,  clay,  and  par- 
ticles of  the  wall-rock,  in  which  occur  many  ores  containing 
silver,  lead,  copper,  cobalt,  nickel,  bismuth,  arsenic,  iron,  and, 
as  it  appears,  tin.  Von  Charpentier  mentions  especially  native 
silver,  ruby  silver,  silver  glance,  kerargyrite,  tetrahedrite,  galena, 
cerusite,  mimetene,  native  copper,  copper  glance,  blende,  pitch- 
blende, mispickel,  arsenic,  and  copper  nickel. 

SCHNEEBERG  DISTRICT.  * 

§  87.  The  district  of  Schneeberg  consists  chiefly  of  mica- 
schist,  at  times  passing  into  clay-slate,  and  burst  through  by 
large  granite  masses,  as  well  as  smaller  ones  of  greenstone. 
The  ore-deposits  are  lodes,  which  mostly  occur  in  the  mica- 
schist  and  clay-slate,  but  at  times  also  extend  into  the  granite. 
The  most  of  them  occur  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
Schneeberg  and  Neustadtel.  Miiller  has  classified  them,  according 
to  their  ores  and  relative  age,  into: 

1.  copper  lodes, 

2.  quartz  veins, 

8.  pyritous  lead  lodes. 

4.  heavy  spar  lodes, 

5.  cobalt  lodes, 

6.  iron  lodes,  and 

7.  so-called  Schwebende. 

1  See:  Mil  Her,  in  Gangstudien,  III.  p.  1;  Von  Charpentier,  min.  geog. 
von  Chursach.;  Freiesleben,  in  his  geological  works  of  1843,  1844,  1845,  and 
1846;  Martini,  in  Karsten's  Archiv,  1829,  XIX.  p.  531;  Berggeist,  1860, 
p.  517,  525,  and'527. 


CHIEF  LODES.  127 

Tin  lodes  are  also  found  in  a  more  southerly  direction, 
with  which  we  became  acquainted  in  the  preceding  §;  while, 
to  the  North,  traces  of  quicksilver  lodes  are  found  in  clay-slate 
near  Hartenstein;  which  are,  however,  of  no  importance. 

The  total  of  the  Schneeberg  lodes  forms  an  apparently 
irregular  network;  the  like  lodes  generally,  however,  have  the 
same  strike ;  from  which  it  follows,  that  fissures  have  been  burst 
open  in  various  directions  and  filled  at  different  periods. 

The  copper  lodes  strike  NE.— SW.  and  mostly  have  a  steep 
dip  toward  SW.  They  are  formed  of  quartz  with  copper  pyrites, 
erubescite,  copper  glance,  tetrahedrite,  and  red  copper ;  at  times 
also  galena,  black  blende,  pyrites,  and  mispickel.  The  chief 
representatives  of  this  formation  are  the  Konig-David  lode,  and 
those  on  which  the  St.  Michaelis,  St.  Christoph  and  Griin-Schild 
mines  are  exploited.  The  first-mentioned  traverses  granite  and 
mica-schist,  and  contains  in  addition  to  the  above  mentioned  ores, 
chrysocolla,  malachite,  azurite,  native  copper,  allophane,  tyrolite, 
linarite,  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  anglesite,  native  silver,  as  well 
as  jasper,  heavy  spar,  and  brown  spar.  The  greater  part  of 
these  minerals  have  evidently  been  formed  by  the  decomposition 
of  the  original  sulphurets.  The  texture  is  chiefly  irregular 
granular,  although  at  times  the  sulphurets  form  leaders  in  the 
quartz,  from  which  it  follows,  that  they  are  in  general  of  more 
recent  formation  than  this. 

The  quartz  veins  have  a  similar  strike  to  the  copper  lodes, 
with  a  northwesterly  dip  of  45°  to  80°.  They  cross  the  cobalt 
lodes  nearly  at  right  angles,  and  occur  for  the  greater  part  in 
mica-schist  and  clay-slate,  but  also  penetrate  the  granite.  Their - 
matrix  in  the  main  is  only  quartz  and  clay;  but  still  they  now 
and  then  contain  somewhat  of  galena,  copper  pyrites,  pyrites, 
mispickel,  black  blende,  chrysocolla,  chlorite,  tourmaline,  and 
fluor  spar.  At  the  junctions  with  the  cobalt  lodes,  which  inter- 
sect them,  they  are  also  impregnated  with  cobalt  ores. 

The  pyritous  lead  lodes  strike  NW. —  SE.  and  dip  toward 
SW.  They  occur  in  the  clay-slate  and  mica-schist,  and  contain 
principally  quartz,  chlorite,  mispickel,  blende,  pyrites,  copper 
pyrites,  galena,  and  decomposed  wall-rock.  They  more  rarely 
contain  tetrahedrite,  erubescite,  molybdenite,  brown  spar,  calc. 
spar,  and  some  minerals  formed  by  decomposition;  such  as 
pyromorphite,  cerusite;  malachite,  and  nacrite.  They  are  of  no 


128  COBALT  LODES. 

mining  importance;    since  up  to  the  the  present  time  they  have 
not  been  found  prolific  in  ores. 

These  three  types  of  lodes  do  not  probably  •  differ  much  as 
regards  their  age,  and  in  this  respect  closely  follow  the  more 
southerly  tin  lodes.  The  following  classes  are  much  more  recent. 

The  heavy  spar  lodes  of  this  district,  which  were  formerly 
noted  for  their  richness  in  silver,  but  have  been  now  mostly 
exhausted  or  abandoned,  frequently  occur  as  companions  of 
other  lodes.  When  they  occur  alone,  they  strike  N. — S.  and 
are  perpendicular.  They  generally  occur  in  the  mica-schist  and 
clay-slate,  near  where  granite  or  greenstone  have  burst  through 
the  same.  Their  gang  is  principally  heavy  spar;  with  which 
are  associated  fluor  spar,  brown  spar,  calc.  spar,  and  quartz; 
and  which  contain  at  times  rich  silver  ores,  lead  ores,  cobalt, 
nickel,  bismuth,  manganese,  and  iron  ores. 

The  cobalt  lodes  are  now  the  most  important  objects  of 
the  Schneeberg  mining.  More  than  150  of  them  are  known, 
mostly  found  in,  the  mica-schist  and  clay-slate;  still  in  their 
lower  workings  they  have  been  followed  into  the  granite.  They 
are  mostly  collected  around  Neustadtel;  and  strike  NW. — SE , 
although  many  vary  greatly  from  this,  and  dip  toward  NW. 
and  SE.  The  chief  matrix,  filling  these  complexly  composed 
lodes,  is  hornstone,  with  somewhat  of  chalcedony  and  amethyst; 
at  times  traces  of  the  former  presence  of  heavy  spar  is  remarked. 
The  hornstone  forms  the  oldest,  and  generally  also  the  broadest 
layer.  From  this  oldest  layer,  to  the  middle  of  the  lode,  three 
or  four  layers  may  be  distinguished,  which  follow,  but  are  not 
sharply  separated  from  one  another,  and  which  have  a  very 
complex  composition.  The  first  of  these,  or  the  second  layer, 
contains:  quartz,  brown  spar,  safflorite,  smaltine,  copper  nickel, 
chloanthite,  bismuth,  bismuth  ochre,  bournonite,  tetrahedrite,' 
hematite,  specular  iron,  spathic  iron,  limonite,  and  psilomelane. 
The  third  contains:  fluor  spar,  dolomite,  calc.  spar,  arsenic, 
pyrites,  lonchidite,  pitchblende,  copper  pyrites,  galena,  red  blende, 
and  polianite.  The  fourth:  realgar,  earthy  cobalt,  cobalt  bloom, 
roselite,  millerite,  bismuthine,  bismuthite,  bismuth  ochre,  eulytine, 
hypochlorite,  marcasite,  pyrrhotine,  polybasite,  stephanite,  proust- 
ite,  pyrargyrite,  sternbergite,  silver  glance,  kerargyrite,  native 
silver,  ganomatite,  gummite,  uranite,  liebigite,  uranium  ochre, 
kupferpecherz,  pharmacosiderite,  malachite,  chrysocolla,  native 
copper,  pyromorphite,  wulfenite,  cerusite,  pyrolusite,  and  psilo- 


SCHNEEBERG  IRON-LODES.  129 

melane.  Of  still  more  recent  origin  from  decomposition  are  calc. 
sinter,  gypsum,  cobalt -beschlag,  arsenious  acid,  annabergite,  iron 
sinter,  kottigite,  and  manganese  ochre.  These  numerous  minerals 
by  no  means  form  constant  layers  in  the  lodes;  some  of  them 
occur  but  very  seldom,  and  much  scattered  ;  but  the  order  of 
succession  in  which  they  were  formed,  which  appears  to  have 
been  partly  by  transformation,  remains  in  general  the  one  here 
mentioned. 

About  60  iron-lodes  are  known  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Schneeberg;  they  mostly  occur,  at  the  outer  limits  of  the  granite, 
as  contact-lodes,  and  in  the  granite;  more  rarely  within  the 
mica-schist.  Their  general  direction  of  strike  is  NW.— SE.,  but 
at  times  varies  greatly  from  this.  One  lode  in  particular,  the 
so-called  Rothe  Kamm,  forms  a  contact-lode  along  the  nearly 
straight  Northeast  boundary  of  the  Oberschlema  granite-mass. 
The  same  can,  toward  the  Northwest,  be  followed  for  quite  a 
long  way  in  the  mica-schist,  and  finds,  to  the  Southeast,  an 
almost  straight  continuation  at  the  limit  of  the  Auerhaminer  granite- 
mass.  Nearly  in  the  prolongation  of  its  direction  of  strike  is  found 
the  Rothberg  lode,  not  far  from  Schwarzenberg ;  while  between 
these  two  points,  where  the  rock  consists  almost  entirely  of  mica- 
schist,  it  appears  seldom  worth  mining.  This  occurrence  on  the 
the  limits  of,  and  in  the  granite,  is  repeated  near  Schwarzen- 
berg and  Eibenstock.  The  predominating  minerals  in  these 
lodes  are:  red  and  brown  hornstone,  jasper,  ferruginous  quartz, 
rock  crystal,  amethyst,  kaolin,  clay,  hematite,  limonite,  and 
manganese  ores.  Subordinate  to  the  preceding  are  chalcedony, 
opal,  heavy  spar,  brown  spar,  spathic  iron,  calc.  spar,  specular 
iron,  stilpnosiderite,  chalcolith,  uranite,  as  well  as  cobalt,  bis- 
muth, and  copper  ores. 

All  these  Schneeberg  lodes  must,  from  their  entire  charac- 
ter, be  considered  as  lodes  formed  by  infiltration,  but  in  which, 
after  their  formation,  an  extraordinary  number  of  transmutations 
must  have  taken  place.  Especially  does  this  seem  to  have  been  the 
case  with  the  cobalt  lodes.  The  granite  appears  to  have  played 
the  most  important  part,  as  causal  igneous  rock ;  still  all  the  lodes 
are  of  much  more  recent  origin  than  this. 


130  THE  FICHTELGEBIRGE 

BLEISTADT. l 

§  88.  This  district  is  mostly  formed  of  mica-schist,  locally 
passing  into  gneiss,  and  traversed  by  a  dike  of  porphyry,  whose 
course  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  Erzgebirge.  Near 
Bleistadt  are  found  a  few  lodes,  which  strike  N. — S.  or 
WSW.— ENE.  To  the  first  class  belong  6  lodes,  which  in  places 
cross  one  another  at  very  acute  angles.  The  most  important  of 
them  is  the  Karl-Leopold,  properly  composed  of  two  lodes,  which 
frequently  unite  and  again  separate  Since,  however,  the  horse 
between  the  two,  consisting  of  clay,  fragments  of  schist,  and 
quartz,  is  also  metalliferous,  it  is  worked  like  a  Stockwerk. 
The  lodes  proper  are  1 — 2  feet  broad,  the  horse  between  them 
at  times  7  to  8  fathoms.  In  the  other  N. — S.  lodes  the  gang 
is  also  chiefly  clay  and  quartz,  in  which  occur  galena,  blende, 
and  pyrites.  Pyromorphite  and  cerusite  have  been  formed  by 
the  decomposition  of  galena.  The  two  lodes  of  the  second  class, 
which  are  the  best  known,  have  the  same  composition.  The 
ores  occur  in  them  in  bands  or  nests,  in  which  blende  forms  the 
outer  layer  of  the  galena  nests.  In  the  upper  workings,  besides 
pyromorphite,  and  cerusite,  much  limonite  has  been  found.  No 
connection  has  been  discovered  between  the  se  lodes  and  the  dikes. 
of  porphyry. 


II.   THE  FICHTELGEBIRGE. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  89.  1  include  under  the  Fichtelgebirge  the  entire  moun- 
tain-district, forming  an  elevated  plateau,  included  between  the 
Erzgebirge,  the  Bohemian  Forest,  and  the  Thuringian  Forest. 
Consequently,  I  include  (in  addition  to  the  granitic  mass  of  the 
Fichtelgebirge,  in  its  more  narrow  sense),  the  Voigtland  and  the 
Franconian  Forest.  While  the  broad  elevated  plateau  is  generally 
1500  to  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  the  granite  peaks  rise  to  a 
height  of  3000  feet. 

1  See:  Jokely.  in  Jahrb.  der  geol.  Reichsanst.  1857,  p.  46;  Sternberger,- 
in  oster.  Zeitschr.  f    Berg-  u.  Hiittenw.  1857,  p.  71. 


GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION.  131 

But  few  ore-deposits  are  known  to  exist  in  the  granite 
district;  while  more  have  been  found  in  the  rocks,  generally 
slaty,  surrounding  the  granite:  they  are  of  far  less  importance 
than  those  of  the  Erzgebirge. 

Devonian  and  Silurian  rocks,  as  well  as  azoic  clay-slate, 
predominate  in  the  broad  plateau.  The  last  passes  into  mica- 
schist,  and  this  into  gneiss,  which  last  occupies  but  a  small 
extent.  The  gneiss  is  found,  partly  on  the  walls  of  the  granite, 
partly,  combined  with  mica  and  hornblende  schist,  as  an  isolated 
mass  of  elliptical  form,  in  the  middle  of  the  silurian  formation 
near  Miinchberg,  whose  strata,  remarkably  enough,  it  overlies. 
The  mica-schist  contains  subordinate  layers  of  granular  lime-stone, 
dolomite  and  quartzite.  Eclogite  and  serpentine  frequently  traverse 
the  Miinchberg  gneiss.  Numerous  greenstone  masses  (diorite  and 
diabase)  intersect  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  clay-slates;  which 
greenstones  are  mostly  divided  into  two  zones,  nearly  parallel 
to  the  strike  of  the  strata,  from  NE.  to  SW.  Besides  these  two 
zones,  numerous  masses  of  greenstones  occur  scattered  through 
the  strata.  Limestones  and  iron  ores  are  principally  found 
within  the  zones. 

True  porphyries  are  extremely  rare  within  this  large  moun- 
tain-district, which  may  be  the  cause,  that  the  characteristic  lode- 
formations  of  the  Erzgebirge  are  wanting. 

Isolated  masses  of  basalt  occur  in  various  places  but  appear 
to  stand  in  no  relation  to  the  ore-deposits. 

The  lodes  are  found  principally  in  the  northern  portion  of 
the  plateau,  in  the  region  occupied  by  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and 
azoic  slates,  and  in  the  crystalline  schists  near  Goldkronach. 

The  iron  bed,  in  the  mica-schist  of  Arzberg,  is  the  most 
important  of  the  ore  beds ;  and  traces  of  tin  ore  are  found  in 
granite  near  Weissenstadt,  which  are  worth  noticing,  in  that  it 
occurs  in  a  southwesterly  prolongation  of  the  Erzgebirge  tin-ore 
zone. 

Most  of  the  ore-deposits  of  this  district  have  been  but 
slightly  examined  and  described  5  since  they  are  not  of  very  great 
importance,  I  will  describe  them  concisely. 

The  lodes  mostly  contain  iron,  copper,  nickel,  cobalt,  anti- 
mony, and  gold  ores.  Iron,  copper,  nickel,  and  cobalt  ores 
frequently  occur  in  the  same  lodes;  but  the  iron  generally  pre- 
dominates. Lodes  of  this  nature  are  the  most  extensive;  they 

9* 


132  LODES  IN 

are  not  confined  to  one  locality,  but  occur  scattered  over  nearly 
the  whole  region  occupied  by  the  slates,  and  are  only  to  a  slight 
extent  combined  with  the.  greenstone  intersections  of  these. 


LODES  IN  THE  VOIGTLAND  SLATES. l 

§  90.  In  the  graywacke  rocks  between  Christgrtin,  and 
Stenn  near  Zwickau,  occurs  a  succession  of  greenstones,  which 
are  accompanied  by  iron  ore  deposits  of  a  peculiar  kind. 

As  these  deposits  principally  occur  at  the  limits  of  the 
greenstones,  they  may  be  comprised  under  the  general  name  of 
contact-deposits;  though  at  times  they  are  found  altogether  within 
the  greenstones,  or  at  some  distance  from  them  in  the  slates. 
Though  clearly  of  a  veinlike  character,  these  deposits  are 
distinguished  from  the  iron  lodes  of  the  upper  Erzgebirge  and 
western  Voigtland  (occurring  as  true  fissure  lodes),  not  only  by 
the  irregularity  of  their  extent,  as  well  as  of  their  strike  and 
dip ;  but  also  by  the  frequent  absence  of  salbands.  The  frequent 
transition  of  their  matrix;  from  limonite,  and  hematite;  either 
pure,  or  somewhat  deteriorated  by  intermixture  with  chlorite, 
quartz,  and  calc.  spar;  through  more  or  less  ferruginous  green- 
stone, or  slate;  into  the  totally  barren  country  rock;  shows  a 
greater  resemblance  to  certain  classes  of  beds.  ,  They  appear  at 
times,  extending  for  a  considerable  distance  in  length  and  breadth, 
forming  veinlike  masses  several  fathoms  broad,  at  times  following 
the  greenstone  limits  and  slates  in  the  most  fantastic  curves;  at 
times  occurring  as  broad,  bedlike  zones,  of  extremely  ferruginous 
azoic  or  silurian  slate,  between  non-metalliferous  layers  of  this 
rock ;  again,  as  pockets  or  nests  in  the  midst  of  decomposed 
greenstone,  which  not  seldom  are  of  considerable  breadth  and 
extent.  Near  the  surface  their  ore  is  chiefly  massive  or  earthy 
limonite  with  somewhat  of  goethite  of  at  greater  depths  these  are 
replaced  by  hematite  in  various  degrees  of  purity. 

With  the  occurrence  of  the  greenstone  zone,  extending  from 
the  Elster  valley  near  Plauen  to  the  neighborhood  of  Hof,  are 
found  a  large  number  of  iron  lodes  of  another  formation.  They 

1  See:  M tiller,  die  Eisenerzlagerstatten  des  ob.  Erzgebirges  in  Voigtland, 
1856;  Spengler,  Zeitsch.  d.  deutsch.  geog.  Gesellsch.  1851,  vol.  III.  p.  384; 
Berggeist,  i860,  pp.  527,  and  708;  Humboldt,  in  bergm.  Journal,  1792, 
vol.  II.  p.  74;  Goldfuss  and  Bischof,  Beschreibung  d.  Fichtelgebirges. 
1817,  vol.  II.  p.  213. 


VOIGTLAND  SLATES. 

belong  to  the  same  system  of  fissures,  as  the  iron  lodes  of  the 
upper  Erzgebirge,  with  which  they  stand  in  very  close  geological 
relation;  and  form  a  belt,  whose  individual  members,  commonly 
parallel,  have  a  general  strike  from  SE.  to  NW.  They  are 
characterised  by  their  composition;  which  consists  chiefly  of 
limonite  and  spathic  iron,  together  with  quartz,  hornstone,  and 
clay;  while  heavy  spar,  goethite,  and  small  quantities  of  copper 
sulphurets,  or  salts,  are  more  rare  occurrences.  Breithaupt  has 
discovered  three  new  minerals  in  these  lodes;  homiehlin,  roettisite, 
and  conarite.  The  separate  members  of  this  belt,  whose  breadths 
vary  from  2  to  14  feet,  are  found  throughout  the  whole  extent 
of  the  greenstones  mentioned,  which  they  generally  intersect  at 
right  angles  to  their  axis.  It  is  true,  that  several  of  them 
extend  beyond  the  greenstones  into  the  slates;  but  their  ores 
diminish  so  rapidly  in  these,  that  they  are  mostly  unprofitable 
to  work. 

Another  very  important  iron  locality  occurs  above  Plauen, 
and  is  also  in  the  zone  of  the  Voigtland  greenstones:  it  extends 
from  the  river  Eister  Southwest  nearly  to  Hof.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  lodes  is  the  Grune-Tanneiy  which  can  be  traced 
from  Bosenbrunn  almost  to  Pirk  for  a  distance  of  8400  feet,  and 
in  whose  different  branches,  five  mines  are  or  have  been 
exploited,  but  only  to  a  slight  distance  beneath  the  surface.  The 
lode,  which  has  at  times  a  breadth  of  upwards  of  14  feet,  con- 
sists chiefly  of  limonite,  somewhat  of  spathic  iron,  and  goethite, 
with  quartz,  and  small  quantities  of  copper  ores;  it  is  stated 
to  have  been  at  no  point  exploited  to  a  greater  depth  than  25 
fathoms.  Not  far  from  this  occurs  the  Dreifaltigkeit  lode,  which 
has  a  known  length  of  1050  fathoms,  and  has  been  worked  to 
a  slight  depth  for  copper,  as  well  as  iron  ores. 

The  iron  ore  deposit  of  Oberbohmsdorf  near  Schleiz  also 
belongs  to  this  class. 

It  is,  according  to  Spengler,  a  hematite  lode  in  aphanitic 
greenstone,  having  a  texture  resembling  conglomerate. 

This  lode  strikes  parallel  to  the  greenstones  from  NE.  to 
SW.,  dips  towards  SE.  and  attains  a  breadth  of  20  feet.  Both 
its  breadth  and  relative  percentage  of  iron  appear  to  diminish 
with  the  depth.  The  following  wood-cut  gives  an  idea  of 
the  stratification.  The  percentage  of  iron  in  the  red  clay  iron- 
stone decreases  with  the  depth;  and  it  passes  into  a  still  fer- 
ruginous mass,  containing  pyrites,  which  resembles  greenstone. 


134  IRON-DEPOSITS  IN  SE.  SCHIST- REGION. 


d  e 

a.  Quartzose  mica-schist. 

b.  Aphanite  and  slaty  greenstone. 

c.  Iron-stone  deposit. 

d.  Clay-slate. 

e.  Compact  mica-schist. 

The  analogous  lodes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Steben,  Naila, 
and  Selbitz,  were  concisely  described  by  Humboldt  in  1 792.  The 
great  Silurian  and  Devonian  slate-district  of  the  Fichtelgebirge 
is  here  bounded  to  the  North  by  azoic  clay-slate;  while  both 
are  frequently  burst  through  by  diorite,  and  diabase.  The  lodes 
frequently  intersect  one  another  at  acute  angles;  attain  a  breadth 
of  10  to  20  feet,  and  consist  principally  of  spathic  iron,  and 
limonite,  with  quartz.  As  subordinate  minerals;  occur:  chal- 
cedony ;  lydian  stone;  fluor  spar,  actinolith,  hematite,  copper 
pyrites,  and  malachite.  According  to  Goldfuss  and  Bischof,  they 
also  contain  azurite  and  iron  pyrites;  while  the  Ehrlich  lode  at 
Steben  contains  ores  only  in  the  clay-slate  cleaving  into  thick 
slabs,  while  in  that,  which  cleaves  into  thin  plates,  it  is  very 
narrow  and  contains  no  ores. 

IRON-DEPOSITS  IN  THE  SOUTH-EASTERN 
SCHIST-REGION.  ' 

§  91.  The  mica- schist,  between  Wunsiedel  and  Eger,  con- 
tains, parallel  to  its  strike,  from  SW. — NE.  two  strata  of  granular 
limestone,  of  which  the  immediate  hanging-wall  frequently  con- 
sists of  limonite  deposits.  These  are  best  opened  up  by  mines 
near  Arzberg  and  Biebersbach. 

The  limonite,  which  is  frequently  covered  by  a  crust  of 
clay,  contains  concretions  of  jaspery  brown  ferruginous  quartz, 
and  considerable  hausmannite. 

These  limonite  deposits  have  probably  been  formed  by  the 
alteration  of  spathic  iron  beds;  since,  in  the  deeper  workings  of 
the  mines,  are  still  found  traces  of  spathic  texture.  Under  dif- 


1  See:    Goldfuss  and  Bischof,   Beschr.  d.  Fichtelgeb.  II.  pp.  90,  and 
127;  Flurl,  die  Gebirge  Baierus  u.  d   Oberpfalz,  pp.  424,  and  683. 


ORE-DEPOSITS  AT  GOLDKRONACH.  135 

ferent  circumstances  the  spathic  iron  might  have  been  altered 
into  magnetite  deposits,  combined  with  pyroxene  or  amphibole, 
like  the  magnetite  deposits  in  the  greenstones  of  the  Erzgebirge, 
which  so  frequently  occur  in  immediate  contact  with  granular 
limestone. 


GOLD  AND  ANTIMONY  OKE-DEPOSITS  AT 
GOLDKRONACH.1 

§  92.  Goldkronach  lies  at  the  extreme  southwesterly  end 
of  the  Fichtelgebirge,  where  hornblendic  gneiss  joins  slates  tra- 
versed by  greenstones,  which  Hahn  considers  as  being  azoic. 
These  only  occupy  a  small  extent,  surrounded  on  three  sides 
by  gneiss.  This  district  contains  gold  lodes,  which  Hahn  de- 
scribes nearly  as  follows. 

The  auriferous  lodes,  occurring  in  the  older  crystalline  clay^ 
slate  (azoic  clay-state)  near  Brandholz,  are  frequently  recognised 
only  as  thin  fissures.  These  are  distinguished  by  thin  bands  of 
clay  of  dark  brown,  light  brown,  or  almost  white  color,  which 
divide  the  hanging-  and  foot-walls  like  a  mathematical  plane. 
Both  the  hanging-  and  foot-walls  of  these  fissures  have  a  quartz- 
ose  character  for  a  distance  of  several  inches,  and  are  impreg- 
nated by  auriferous  iron  pyrites  and  mispickel,  being  but  sel- 
dom entirely  bftrren.  He  never  found  native  gold  in  such 
places,  and  but  seldom  stibnite. 

These  appearances,  especially  the  thin  leaflike  nature  of 
the  lodes,  are  observed  with  satisfaction,  since  they  are  fre- 
quently the  forerunners  of  an  approaching  advantageous  change 
in  the  breadth  and  contents.  To  these  single  leaves  (if  I  may 
be  permitted  to  use  the  term)  is  suddenly  joined  a  second  leaf, 
as  if  springing  out  of  the  rock.  The  rock  becomes  softer,  and 
both  the  leaves  separate  from  each  other,  enclosing  between 
themselves,  as  selvages,  the  lode  proper,  which  in  this  manner 
frequently  attains  a  breadth  of  a  foot  or  more. 

The  lode  gradually  contracts  in  the  same  manner  as  it  ex- 
panded. The  selvages  again  approach  each  other,  and  the  lode 
returns  to  its  empoverished  condition.  The  lode  acts  in  this 

lSee:  Hahn,  in  Berg-  und  huttenm.  Zeitung,  1855,  p.  97;  Goldfuss  and 
Bischof,  Beschr.  des  Fi'chtelgeb.  I.  p.  184.  The  last  describe  the  country- 
rock  as  mica-schist. 


136  THURINGIAN  FOREST.  GEOLOGICAL 

manner,  not  merely  in  one,  but  in  all  directions,  in  which  it  is 
exploited.  The  places,  where  the  ores  occur,  have  a  lenticular 
form,  whose  greatest  diameter.-is  30  to  60  feet  or  more.  The  gang 
of  these  lodes  is  generally  a  hard,  fine,  fibrous  white  quartz,  fre- 
quently traversed  by  threads  of  the  same  having  a  blue  color ; 
it  is  richly  impregnated  with  auriferous  mispickel,  and  iron  py- 
rites; and  generally  contains  grains,  or  lamina,  of  gold.  Stib- 
nite  also  occurs,  as  a  rule,  with  the  encreasing  breadth  of  the 
lode;  partly  in  larger  masses  with  a  crystalline  texture,  partly 
in  fine  geodes  as  completely  formed  glancing  needles,  frequently 
having  a  radiated  structure.  Kermesite  and  Jamesonite  (?)  occur 
as  rarities;  the  former  having  a  spendid  silk  glance.  Hahn 
found,  as  still  greater  rarities,  valentinite  and  native  antimony, 
the  last  of  which  he  supposes  to  have  been  formed  from  the 
stibnite  by  the  action  of  vapors. 


III.   THE   THURINGIAN  FOREST. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  93.  The  Thuringian  Forest  is  geologically  divided  into 
two  very  unequal  parts.  The  southeastern  portion  which  joins 
the  elevated  plateau  of  the  Fichtelgebirge,  without  any  natural 
boundary  occurring  between  them,  forms  like  this  a  broad  pla- 
teau, consisting  principally  of  Silurian  rocks;  which  are  to  the 
North  bounded  by  Zechstein,  to  the  Southwest  by  the  carboni- 
ferous formation,  rothliegendes,  and  buntsandstein.  In  this  broad 
Silurian  district,  whose  chief  direction  of  strike  is  NE.  to  SW., 
but  few  igneous  rocks  occur;  and  these  are  small  masses,  and 
dikes,  of  granite,  porphyry,  and  greenstone.  Perhaps  in  conse- 
quence of  this,  it  but  seldom  contains  ores. 

The  northwestern  portion  forms  a  small  mountain-ridge 
with  hilly  surface  striking  from  SW.  to  NE.  Its  geological 
formation  differs  from  the  other  portion,  and  is  much  more 
varied.  Granite,  syenite,  gneiss,  and  mica-schist,  appear  to  be 
the  oldest  rocks;  and  are  frequently  traversed  by  various  por- 
phyries and  greenstones.  The  porphyries,  in  particular,  which 
may  be  divided  into  quartzose  and  quartzless  (mostly  mica  por- 


FORMATION.  EASTERN  ORE-DEPOSITS.  137 

phyries),  play  an  important,  and  frequently  predominant  part. 
Combined  with  these,  partly  overlying,  partly  traversed  by  them, 
are  the  carboniferous  formation  and  rothliegendes,  which  form 
very  important  strata  among  the  mountains.  Silurian  rocks  are 
entirely  wanting:  the  zeclistein  formation  forms  a  small  border,, 
frequently  much  tilted,  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  mountains.  ^ 

ORE-DEPOSITS  IN  THE  EASTERN 
SILURIAN  FORMATION  OF  THE  THURINGIAN  FOREST.1 

§  94.  1.  Iron  ores.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Spinach,  not 
far  from  Sonnenberg,  .considerable  quantities  of  limonite  and 
hematite  are  obtained  in  the  silurian  rocks,  whose  bedding  cor- 
responds to  that  described  in  §  90. 

At  Schmiedeield,  near  Graienthal,  a  belt  of  iron  ores  occurs 
in  the  Silurian  district;  which  is  parallel  to  the  strike  of  the 
slates,  and  is  about  100  feet  broad.  The  veins  have  a  greater 
dip  than  the  Silurian  strata,  being  about  85°  in  the  NW.  They 
consist,  at  the  surface,  of  limonite  with  lumps  of  oolithic,  blackr 
manganiferous  ironstone.  Hematite  has  been  found,  at  greater 
depths,  in  several  of  the  lodes;  so  that  the  limonite  appears  to 
be  a  product  of  alteration  from  this;  or  perhaps  more  correctly, 
both  are  to  be  regarded  as  being  products  from  the  alteration  of 
spathic  iron;  in  which  case  these  lodes  would  correspond  to 
those  of  the  Silurian  district  in  the  Fichtelgebirge.  The  iron- 
stone of  Unter-Wirrbach  near  Blankenburg  appears  to  be  ana- 
logous to  these,  but  existing  in  larger  quantities. 

2.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  ores.  Near  Steinhaida,  in 
the  same  region,  a  small  remnant  of  zechstein  and  buntsand- 
stein  is  found  on  the  top  of  the  Silurian  plateau.  Gold  wa& 
formerly  obtained  from  quartz  veins  in  the  Silurian  rocks;  which 
is  also  the  probable  origin  of  the  gold  occasionally  found  in 
the  bed  of  the  Schwarze. 

At  Weitisberga,  not  far  from  Lehesten,  near  the  place, 
where  a  mass  of  granite  has  burst  through,  are  several  lodes. 
These  appear  to  be  more  in  small  masses  of  greenstone  occur- 
ring in  the  slates,  than  in  the  slates  themselves;  and  contain 

'See:  Voigt's  Bergbaukunst,  1789,  vol  I.  p.  182;  the  same,  Magazin  d. 
Naturkunde,  1806,  p.  472;  Moll's  Annalen,  1808,  vol.  VII.  p.  174;  Tant- 
scher  in  Karsten's  Archiv,  1829,  vol.  19.  p.  346;  Berggeist,  1860,  p.  657. 


138  NORTHWESTERN  MAGNETITE  DEPOSITS. 

galena,  blende,  and  copper  pyrites,  intimately  combined  with 
hornblende,  and  calc.  spar.  Tantscher  thinks,  these  ores  form 
a  bed,  or  segregation,  in  the-  clay- slate. 

Near  Neustadt,  a  copper  lode  traverses  the  Silurian  slate 
nearly  parallel  to  its  direction  of  strike:  it  is  at  times  9  feet 
broad.  It  consists  on  each  side,  for  a  breadth  of  3  feet,  of  quartz, 
and  calc.  spar,  with  copper  ores;  while  the  middle  of  the  lode 
is  formed  of  a  breccia  of  clay-slate  3  feet  broad. 


MAGNETITE   DEPOSITS  OF  THE  NORTHWESTERN 
THURINGIAN  FOREST.1 

§  95.  The  small  granite  mass,  which  comes  to  the  surface 
between  various  kinds  of  porphyries  near  Schmiedefeld,  con- 
tains, westerly  of  this  village,  at  the  Krux  mines,  some  iron  ore 
deposits  of  irregular  form,  and  whose  true  character  is  not  yet 
accurately  known.  The  surrounding  rock  is  hornblende  granite; 
which  appears  to  pass  into  a  kind  of  greenstone,  or  is  combined 
with  this.  The  form  of  the  deposits  may  be  best  described  as 
a  segregation,  although  their  true  nature  is  not  yet  determined. 
The  most  important  is  the  Schwarz-krux,  consisting  of  magnetite, 
which  is  partly  very  pure,  partly  mixed  with  quartz,  and  gar- 
nets ;  and  frequently  also  contains  iron  pyrites,  mispickel,  cop- 
per pyrites,  specular  iron,  and  fluor  spar.  From  the  analyses 
of  the  ore,  it  contains  somewhat  of  tin.  The  impurities  gen- 
erally appear  at  the  outer  limits.  It  is  remarkable,  that  these 
deposits  are  intersected  by  small  granite  dikes;  which  differ  in 
their  character  from  the  surrounding  granite,  and  'probably  tra- 
verse it.  Notwithstanding  this,  a  supposition  might  be  drawn, 
that  this  extensive  mass  of  magnetite  was  in  fact  only  an  altered 
mass  in  granite,  torn  away  by  this,  as  it  came  to  the  surface, 
from  an  iron  ore  deposit  in  the  Silurian  rocks;  but  such  a 
supposition  lacks  confirmation.  n 

The  Roth-  and  Gelb-krux,  near  the  Schwarz-krux,  contain 
similar  iron  deposits;  but  which  consist,  partly  of  hematite, 
partly  of  very  pyritous,  and  consequently  poor,  magnetite. 


*See:    Krug   von   Nidda,    in   Karsteii's  Archiv,    1838,   vol.  XI    p.  13; 
Heim,  Geogn.  Beschreibung  d.  Thiiringer  Waldes,  1803,  vol.  II.  p.  100. 


MANGANESE  AND  IRON  LODES  IN  PORPHYRIES.  139 

MANGANESE  AND  IRON  LODES   IN  THE  PORPHYRIES 
OF  THE  THURINGIAN  FOREST.1 

§  96.  The  quartz  porphyries,  as  well  as  those  free  of 
quartz  (mica  porphyry  and  melaphyr),  are  traversed  in  various 
places  by  manganese  lodes,  whose  strike  is  parallel  to  the  ridge 
of  the  mountains.  These  lodes  exceptionally  penetrate  the  gra- 
nite. They  contain  chiefly  pyrolusite,  and  psilomelane,  with 
heavy  spar,  and  calc.  spar ;  with  these  are  combined  wad,  haus- 
mannite,  braunite,  and  more  rarely  manganite.  They  often  con- 
tain also  hematite,  and  limonite. 

Credner  says:  'These  ores  are  found  on  the  Rumpels  and 
Mittel  Mountains  near  Elgersburg,  which  are  the  chief  localities 
of  the  same  in  the  Thuringian  Forest,  mostly  without  gang. 
They  have  but  exceptionally,  small  quantities  of  tabular  heavy 
spar,  and  calc.  spar.  Large  and  small  horses,  of  the  porphyry, 
in  which  the  lodes  occur,  are  frequently  found  in  the  matrix  of 
the  lodes.  When  the  pyrolusite  occurs  pure,  it  is  found  form- 
ing parallel  bands  with  the  selvages  of  the  lodes,  or  its  needles 
are  all  turned  towards  the  middle  of  the  lode.  More  commonly 
such  a  regular  arrangement  does  not  occur.  Pyrolusite 
and  psilomelane  occur  in  irregular  masses  between  the  frag- 
ments of  porphyry,  clay,  and  clayey  wad,  in  the  lode-tissures. 
The  breadth  of  the  lodes  is  liable  to  great  variations,  being  in 
some  places  10 — 15  feet;  while  in  others  they  are  but  the  thin- 
nest lines;  and  then  the  whole  porphyry  mass  is  covered  by  a 
network  of  threads,  as  in  a  stockwerk.  Frequently  a  lode  va- 
ries in  breadth  with  its  strike  and  dip ;  so  that  at  close  inter- 
vals it  changes  from  a  considerable  width  to  a  barren  cleft; 
which  appears  to  depend  on  the  difference  in  the  power  of  re- 
sistance of  the  wall-rock.  The  length  is  just  as  variable.  On 
the  Rumpels  Mountain,  lodes  are  known  extending  3500 — 4000 
feet;  while  others  have  been  found  workable  only  for  short  dis- 
tances. Their  extreme  depth  has  not  yet  been  reached;  and 
the  frequently  expressed  opinion,  that  they  wedge-out,  has  never 
been  confirmed.  At  the  Gottesgabe  mine,  pyrolusite  has  been 
found  five  feet  broad,  at  a  depth  of  50  fathoms,  and  extends 


'See:  Credner,  Geogn.  Verhalt.  Thiiring.  u.  d.  Harz.  1843,  p.  130; 
Yon  Nidda,  in  Karsten's  Archiv.  1838.  vol.  XL  pp.  48,  70,  76;  Fritsch, 
in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellsch.  vol.  XII.  p.  137. 


140  ARGENTIFEROUS  ORE-DEPOSITS  IN 

still  deeper.  The  contact  of  the  lode  with  the  wall-rock  does 
not  always  remain  constant  in  its  character,  the  nature  of  the 
last  exerting  an  unmistakable  influence.  Where  the  rock  is  firm, 
the  matrix  of  the  lode  is  easily  detached  from  it.  The  foot- 
wall  is  distinguished  by  a  regular  line  of  contact,  which  at 
times  is  almost  a  mathematical  plane,  and  by  so-called  slick  en- 
si  ides.  The  last  can  be  traced  for  considerable  distan- 
ces by  thin  parallel  furrows,  mostly  inclined  10—25°,  and  by 
the  deep  red  coloring  of  the  wall-rock  at  the  foot-wall.  Tlio 
manganese  lodes  around  Elgersburg  can  be  classified  into  five 
groups;  some  of  which  apparently  unite:  they  all  strike  from 
N.  or  NE.  to  S.  or  SW. 

The  analogous  occurrence  of  pyrolusite  near  Ilmenau,  and 
that  near  Friedrichsroda,  are  less  important.  At  the  last  loca- 
lity the  pyrolusite  occurs  in  melaphyr  conglomerate,  in  con- 
choidal  layers,  parallel  to  the  salbands  of  the  lodes.  The  veins 
have  the  uncommon  strike  of  N.  or  NW.  to  S.  or  SE.' 

The  iron  lodes,  in  the  porphyry  district,  and  on  its  edges, 
are  more  widely  extended,  than  the  manganese  lodes.  They 
are  closely  related  to  the  veins  of  manganese,  essentially  in 
fact  a  modification  of  these.  Their  line  of  strike  is  SE. — NW., 
parallel  to  the  ridge  of  the  mountains.  Quartz  and  calc.  spar 
are  the  principal  vein-stones,  more  rarely  heavy  spar.  One  of 
the  lodes  occurs,  on  the  Dom  Mountain  near  Suhl,  where  the 
porphyry  and  buntsandstein  join;  while  the  others  strike  paral- 
lel to  this  in  the  porphyry,  but  are  inclined  to  it,  so  that  they 
probably  unite  at  some  distance  beneath  the  surface. 

ARGENTIFEROUS  ORE-DEPOSITS 
IN    THE    CARBONIFEROUS   FORMATION.1 

§  97.  A  dark  clay-slate  overlies  the  granite  at  Goldlauter 
near  Suhl,  which  belongs  to  the  carboniferous  formation.  This 
slate  dips  towards  NW.  and  attains  a  thickness  of  70 — 100  feet. 
At  times  it  passes  into  pyroschist,  and  contains  very  thin  lay- 
ers of  anthracite,  as  well  as  impressions  of  ferns,  stigmaria,  and 
fish.  A  bed  of  particularly  dark  color  can  be  distinguished  in 


'See:    Krug    von  Nidda,  in  Karsten's    Arch.    1838,  vol.  XL  p.  34; 
Cotta,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittemn.  Zeit.  1858,  p.  352. 


THE  CARBONIFEROUS  FORMATION.  141 

this,  having  a  very  irregular  slaty  cleavage,  and  which  varies 
considerably  in  thickness.  This  is  the  bed  containing  the  ores; 
which  is  here  described,  more  from  its  geological  interest,  than 
its  economic  value.  The  ores  form  very  regular  thin  ellipses, 
or  lenticular  masses,  from  1  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  con- 
centric arrangement  in  their  interior,  whose  regularity  is  at 
times  disturbed. 

Krug  von  Nidda  says  of  them :  '  Their  composition  is  pecu- 
liar, and  deserves  notice.  The  interior  kernel  generally  con- 
sists of  a  brown  earthy  or  compact  mineral,  which  is  probably 
spherosiderite;  in  the  place  of  this  occurs  at  times  a  black  crys- 
talline granular  limestone,  which  contains  small  geodes  lined 
with  crystals  of  calc.  spar.  This  kernel  is  generally  surrounded 
by  copper  pyrites,  tetrahedrite,  native  silver,  and  a  silvery 
white  ore,  containing  a  considerable  percentage  of  silver,  and 
crystallizing  in  extremely  fine  needles.  This  last  mineral,  to 
judge  from  its  .crystals,  is  probably  mispickel,  which  apparently 
crystallizes  in  quadratic  prisms  having  their  acute  edges  re- 
placed. A  layer  of  reddish  brown  spar,  containing  but  slight 
traces  of  metals,  surrounds  the  preceding  minerals.  Over  this 
follow  alternating  bands  of  mispickel,  iron  pyrites,  and  argilla- 
ceous shale.  The  mispickel  occurs  only  massive;  the  iron  py- 
rites is  partly  massive,  partly  in  small  pentagonal  dodecahedrons. 
The  shaly  substance  always  encreases  towards  the  exterior;  the 
separate  bands  of  mispickel,  and  iron  pyrites,  are  thinner,  and 
occur  at  greater  intervals.  Mispickel  and  iron  pyrites  replace 
one  another :  first  the  one,  and  then  the  other,  predominates. 
A  very  thin  band  of  calc.  spar  sometimes  forms  the  exterior 
limit,  on  which  are  disseminated  very  thin  laminse  of  ruby  sil- 
ver. The  ellipses  are  seldom  so  perfectly  formed,  as  to  permit 
the  observation  of  all  the  layers  mentioned  on  a  single  piece. 
At  times  the  argentiferous  kernel  occurs,  and  the  outer  rings 
are  wanting;  at  times  one  or  the  other  of  the  bands  surrounds 
the  kernel;  at  times  the  last  is  wanting,  and  one  of  the  bands 
takes  its  place.' 

Whether  in  this  case  the  ores  were  originally  deposited 
with  the  carboniferous  strata,  or  subsequently  penetrated  by  some 
peculiar  process  of  impregnation,  I  will  not  attempt  to  decide. 
The  nature  of  these  deposits  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
Kupfers chief er  (copper  slates);  but  the  strata,  in  which  they 
occur,  are  much  older. 


142 


IRON-DEPOSITS  IN 


IRON- DEPOSITS  IN  THE  ZECHSTEIN  FORMATION. » 

§  98.  The  zechstein  formation  is  the  most  metalliferous 
of  those  occurring  in  the  Thuringian  .^Forest.  In  it  are  found 
the  copper  ore  beds,  copper,  silver  and  cobalt-lodes,  as  well  as 
iron  deposits.  I  will  here  pass  over  the  copper-slate  (knpfer- 
schiefer),  and  the  lodes  combined  with  it;  as  it  belongs  not 
merely  to  the  Thuringian  Forest,  but  is  extended  over  a  large 
extent;  and  will  describe  the  whole  hereafter. 

The  iron  deposits,  in  the  zechstein  of  the  Thuringian  Forest, 
are  of  various  kinds.  The  most  important  occur  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Herges  on  the  southwesterly  border;  and  are  exploited 
by  the  Stahlberg,  Mommel,  and  other  mines.  Danz  has  de- 
scribed these  deposits  very  minutely.  They  evidently  consisted 
originally  of  spathic  iron;  but  have  been  altered  from  the  sur- 
face into  limomte. 

Their  form  is  very  irregular  ;  and  they  must  hence  be 
described  as  segregations.  They  approach  a  lode  in  form,  in  that 
they  lie  in  a  row  from  SE.  to  NW.,  and  even  appear  to  be 
united  with  each  other;  while  the  fact  of  their  being  confined 
to  a  .  zechstein  zone  suggests  the  idea  of  a  contemporaneous 
deposit.  Their  manner  of  bedding  is  very  remarkable,  and  not 
yet  entirely  clear. 


Johannes  Shaft 


Buntsandstein 


Mica-schist. 


Cellular  limestone. 


1  See:  Freiesleben,  geogn.  Arbeiten,  vol.  II.  p.  113;  Credner,  geogn. 
Verb.  Thiiring.  u.  d.  Harz.  1843,  p.  129;  Tantscher,  in  Karsten's  Archiv, 
1829,  vol.  10,  p.  364;  Dauz,  Topographic  des  Kreises  Schmalkalden.  1848. 


ZECHSTEIN-FORMATION. 


143 


Morgengesang. 


Ironstone. 


The  zigzag  lines  are  veins   of  heavy  spar. 

On  the  Klinge  near  Lautenbach. 


Cellular  limestone 


a.   Clay  selvages. 

Wasser  Shaft. 


Ironstone. 


Biintsandstein 


Ironstone. 


144 


IRON  DEPOSITS  IN  ZECHSTEIN-FORMATION 


Freundschaft  Mine. 


Bunt- 

sandstein. 


Ironstone 


Cellular  limestone. 


Simonsberg  Adit. 

Buntsandstein 


Ironstone, 


Ferruginous 
limestone. 


Ferruginous  limestone. 

Moritz-Shaft  Adit. 


1 

Buntsandstein. 


Mica-schist. 


The  preceding  woodcuts  represent  eight  successive  sections 
from  actual  surveys.  Danz?  from  whom  they  are  copied,  gave 
several  more. 


THE  HARTZ:  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION.  145 

In  explanation  of  these  wood-cuts  1  would  only  remark, 
that  the  cellular  limestone  (rauhkalk)  is  at  this  locality  the 
upper  member  of  the  zeclistein  formation,  whose  lower  strata 
-are  apparently  missing.  The  Roth  is  the  upper  member  of  the 
bunt  sand  stein  formation,  and  consequently  belongs  over  the 
variegated  sandstone  (bunts  and  stein)  proper.  The  ferruginous 
limestone  (eisenkalk)  is  a  variety  of  the  cellular  limestone,  which 
in  all  probability  originally  contained  spathic  iron,  but  now  the 
peroxide  of  iron.  The  zigzag  lines  denote  veins  of  heavy  spar. 

The  strata,  of  the  zeclistein  and  buntsandstein  formations, 
are  much  dislocated,  in  part  overturned:  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  wood-cuts.  Granite  and  porphyry  appear  to  have  burst 
through  with  violence ;  which  is  the  more  remarkable  as  at 
every  other  locality  in  the  Thuringian  Forest,  these  rocks  occur 
under  such  circumstances,  as  prove  them  to  have  been  formed 
previous  to  the  zechstein  period. 

I  will  not  attempt  to  solve  the  question;  and  only  remark, 
that,  though  it  appears  difficult,  it  is  possible,  that  the  igneous 
rocks  were  brought,  into  their  present  relations  with  the  mica 
schist,  when  already  hardened,  and  consequently  not  by  igneous 
action. 

It  is  worth  noticing,  that  the  bituminous  shales,  the  copper 
slates,  and  the  Weissliegendes,  appear  to  be  entirely  wanting; 
while  they  recur,  more  to  the  South,  near  Aschbach. 


IV.  THE  HARTZ. 

GENERAL  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  99.  The  Hartz  rises,  out  of  more  recent  formations,  as 
a  nearly  elliptical  district,  immediately  surrounded  by  a  com- 
plete border  of  the  Zechstein  formation,  which  may  be  desig- 
nated as  the  boundary  of  the  mountain  district.  Between  the 
border  of  Zechstein,  and  the  older  formations,  crop  out  somewhat 
of  Rothliegendes,  and  a  little  of  the  Carboniferous  formation 
with  coal  beds.  But  the  chief  mass  of  the  mountains  is  of  older 
origin. 

10 


146  GENERAL  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

The  mountains  proper  consist  principally  of  slaty  and  sandy 
rocks,  with  subordinate  strata  of  quartzite,  siliceous  slate,  and 
limestone ;  which  were  until'  recently..*classitied  under  the  gray- 
wacke  group.  These  old  and  mostly  much  tilted  rocks,  whose 
chief  direction  of  strike  is  SW.— NE.,  intersect  the  axis  of  the 
mountains  obliquely.  They  are  frequently  broken  through  by 
various  kinds  of  igneous  rocks,  especially  by  two  large  masses 
of  granite,  that  of  the  Brocken  and  that  of  the  Ramberg:  also, 
by  various  small  masses  of  greenstone  (diabase  and  diorite), 
which  have  some  of  them  penetrated  in  a  bedlike  form ;  by  quartz- 
porphyry  and  by  quartzless  porphyries  often  called  melaphyr. 
The  older  sedimentary  rocks  are  at  times  much  disturbed,  where 
they  come  in  contact  with  these  igneous  rocks;  and  are  changed 
in  their  lithological  condition,  being  altered  into  hornstone,  etc. 
Crystalline  schists  proper,  and  basaltic  rocks,  are  entirely  wanting. 

The  old  slaty  sedimentary  formations,  which  were  formerly 
all  comprised  under  the  so-called  graywacke  group,  belong, 
according  to  the  more  recent  researches  of  Romer,  by  whom  their 
fossils  have  been  more  accurately  examined,  to  at  least  three 
different  periods;  namely,  the  Silurian,  the  Devonian,  and  the 
Subcarboniferous. 

The  total  slate  district  of  the  Hartz  is  Silurian,  southeasterly 
of  a  straight  line  which  would  connect  Stollberg  and  Harzgerode. 
From  there  the  Silurian  slates  form  a  broad  western  branch, 
between  parallel  formations  of  the  Subcarboniferous,  through  Giin- 
tersberg  and  Hasselfeld,  nearly  to  Andreasberg. 

The  occurrence  of  the  Devonian  strata  is  confined  to  three 
larger  districts,  at  Elbingerode  (much  limestone),  Andreasberg, 
and  Goslar;  and  several  smaller  ones,  in  the  neighborhoods  of 
Clausthal  and  Wildenau. 

The  slates,  sandstones,  and  limestones,  of  the  Subcarbo- 
niferous or  Culm  formation,  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  the 
surface  of  the  entire  Hartz  northwesterly  o  fStollberg  and  Harz- 
gerode. 

The  ore  deposits  of  the  Hartz  may  be  classified,  according 
to  the  metals  predominating  in  them,  into: 

1.  Iron  ore  deposits,  lodes,  and  beds. 

2.  Manganese  ore  deposits,  lodes,  and  segregations. 

3.  Antimony  lodes. 


IRON   ORE    DEPOSITS.  147 

4.  Silver,    lead   and    copper    ore    deposits,    with  cobalt- 
and  nickel-ores. 

a.  Lodes  in  the  Subcarboniferous,  Devonian  and 
Silurian  districts. 

b.  Segregation   of  pyrites   in   the   Devonian   dis- 
trict near  Goslar. 

c.  Copper  slates  in  the  Zeclistein. 

The  iron  ore  deposits  occur  much  scattered,  chiefly  in  the 
Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Subcarboniferous  districts.  The  man- 
ganese deposits  are  mostly  confined  to  the  porphyry  region 
around  Ilfelcl.  The  silver,  lead,  and  copper  deposits  are  distri- 
buted in  groups,  which  may  be  named  after  the  following  lo- 
calities: Goslar,  Clausthal,  Andreasberg,  and  Harzgerode.  The 
antimony  deposits  are  essentially  confined  to  the  Wolfsberg 
(Wolfs  Mountain). 

IRON  ORE  DEPOSITS.1 

§  100.  Those  in  the  Hartz  are,  similarly  to  those  already 
described,  distributed  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  mountains. 
They  contain  principally  hematite,  and  limonite;  but  exceptionally 
magnetite,  or  spathic  iron.  The  relative  rarity  of  the  magnetite 
can  be  most  simply  explained  by  the  fact  that  metamorphic 
crystalline  schists  are  entirely  wanting,  while  it  is  commonly 
only  in  these  that  iron  deposits  are  changed  to  the  condition  of 
magnetite  by  catogene  metamorphosis. 

In  the  Hartz,  as  in  the  Erzgebirge,  and  Fichtelgebirge,  the 
iron  deposits  mostly  accompany  the  igneous  rocks,  are  even 
frequently  contact-formations,  or  are  enclosed  in  them.  They 
occur  here,  as  in  the  Voigtland,  principally  combined  with  cer- 
tain pyroxenic  greenstones  (diabases) ;  but  are  also  found,  at 
least  apparently,  independent  of  these.  They  occur  as  lodes, 
and  beds. 

The  dome-shaped  masses  of  greenstone,  in  the  Silurian 
district  of  the  Eastern  Hartz  near  Tilkerode,  contain  hematite 
deposits,  which,  according  to  Zinken,  do  not  extend  into  the  clay- 

1  See:  Freiesleben,  Bemerk.  liber  d.  Harz,  1795,  p.  259;  Zimmer- 
mann,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  1837,  vol.  X.  p.  '26;  Schultz,  in  the  same,  1821, 
vol.  IV.  p.  229;  Zinken,  der  ostliche  Harz,  1825,  vol.  I.  p.  135;  Credner, 
Geogn.  Verb.  Thiir.  u.  d.  Harz,  1843,  p.  127;  Jasche,  Mineralogische  Stu- 
dien,  1838,  p.  4;  Perdonnet,  in  Ann.  des  Mines,  1828,  vol.  III. 

10* 


148  MANGANESE  DEPOSITS. 

slate :  this  is  at  the  most  colored  red  by  peroxide  of  iron  near 
the  same,  or  is  traversed  by  small  threads  of  iron-stone.  They 
form  irregular  lodes  in  diabase,  especially  where  it  joins  the 
clay-slate.  They  chiefly  strike  N. — S.  and  but  rarely  dip  other- 
wise than  45° — 90°  towards  E.  Their  vein-stones  are  brown  spar, 
calc.  spar  and  quartz.  What  is  very  curious  is  the  occurrence, 
in  addition  to  specular  iron,  and  red  hematite,  of  all  sorts  of 
selenium  minerals,  especially  clausthalite,  lehrbachite,  and  tilke- 
rodite,  also  auriferous  palladium:  according  to  Credner,  also 
spathic  iron,  which  is  changed  at  the  outcrop  into  limonite. 

The  iron  deposits  occurring  at  Elbingerode,  Lehrbach,  and 
Zorge,  are  very  similar. 

On  the  Krokenstein  a  contact-lode  of  hematite  occurs  at 
the  junction  of  limestone  and  clay-slate;  it  appears  to  have  no 
connection  with  the  greenstones. 

MANGANESE  DEPOSITS.1 

§  101.  These  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  porphyry 
district  of  the  Hartz  around  llfeld.  For  although  many  of  the 
iron  lodes  spoken  of  contain  some  ores  of  manganese,  this  is  a 
very  subordinate  occurrence,  while  the  manganese  ores  are  the 
principal  objects  of  exploitation  at  llfeld. 

They  form  lodes  in  porphyry,  at  times  3  feet  broad,  princi- 
pally in  that  free  from  quartz,  which  is  often  termed  melaphyr. 

While  pyrolusite  and  psilomelane  predominate  in  the  man- 
ganese lodes  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  manganite  is  here  the 
principal  ore,  combined  with  hausmannite,  heavy  spar,  and 
calc.  spar. 

In  places  these  lodes  consist  almost  entirely  of  manganite, 
while  again  the  same  is  composed  almost  wholly  of  horses.  As 
the  lodes  essentially  occur  only  in  the  quartzless  porphyry;  they 
are  probably  to  be  regarded  mostly  as  secretions  from  the  same, 
but  naturally  secretions  in  fissures.  The  same  rock  also  contains 
at  times  manganese  ores  in  its  vesicular  cavities. 

In  addition  to  the  above  occur  pockets  of  manganese  ores, 
near  Elbingerode,  in  the  depressions  of  the  surface  of  the  sili- 
ceous slate,  which  is  here  embedded  in  the  Devonian  clay-slate. 


1  See:  Kerl,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Ztg.  1853,  p.  148;  Holzberger,  in 
the  same,  1859,  p.  283. 


ANTIMONY,  LEAD  AND  SILVER,  LODES.  149 

ANTIMONY  LODES.1 

§  102.  Near  Wolfs  Mountain,  southerly  of  Harzgerode,  a 
broad  lode  occurs  in  the  Silurian  district  of  the  Eastern  Hartz; 
consisting  chiefly  of  quartz,  with  somewhat  of  calc.  spar,  and 
various  ores  of  antimony,  especially  stibnite,  zinkenite,  bour- 
nonite,  feather-ore  Qamesonite)  and  tinder-ore. 

LEAD  AND  SILVER  LODES.2 

§  103.  They  occur  chiefly  in  three  districts  of  the  Harz. 
In  the  Eastern  Hartz,  in  the  Silurian  district  of  Harzgerode;  in 
the  Western,  so-called,  Upper  Hartz,  in  the  Devonian  district  of 
Andreasberg;  and  in  the  Subcarboniferous  district  of  Clausthal 
and  Zellerfeld.  Between  these  districts  various  single  lodes  of 
a  similar  character  occur,  as  at  Tanne,  etc.  Lasius  mentioned, 
as  a  characteristic  of  all  of  them,  the  fact  that  they  intersect 
the  rock  strata  at  a  very  acute  angle,  and  are  only  found 
where  many  strata  alternate  with  each  other. 

A.  District  of  Harzgerode  and  Neudorf.  The  lodes 
traverse  the  clay-slate  of  the  Silurian  formation,  especially  on 
the  Pfaffen  and  Meisen  Mountains,  they  strike  SE.  — NW.  pa- 
rallel to  the  principal  axis  of  the  Hartz.  On  the  Pfaffen  Moun- 
tain they  attain  a  breadth  of  14  feet.  They  consist  of  quartz, 
spathic  iron,  and  calc.  spar;  with  which  are  combined  galena, 
copper  pyrites,  iron'  pyrites,  tetrahedrite,  bournonite,  stibnite,  and 
which  is  very  remarkable,  traces  of  wolfram  (whether  cassiterite 
also?).  They  frequently  also  contain  fragments  of  the  wall- 
rock,  which  are  often  surrounded  by  concentrical  bands  of 
ore,  in  the  following  order;  spathic  iron,  massive  quartz,  fine 
granular  galena,  dark  brown  blende,  coarse  granular  galena. 
Zinken  has  described  some  mineralogical  details  of  these  lodes, 
particularly  of  the  Birnbaum  group,  and  also  the  circumstance; 
that  a  vein,  matrix,  in  places  of  porphyritic  nature,  in  places 
resembling  clay-slate,  is  traversed  by  numerous  small  veins, 


'See:  Hausmann,  die  Bildung  d.  Harzgebirges,  1842,  p.  134;  Cred- 
ner,  geogn.  Verh.  Thtiringens  u.  d.  Harz,  p.  126. 

2 See:  Credner,  Geogn.  Verhaltn.  Thuring.  u.  d  Harz,  p.  123;  Zinken, 
in  Von  Leonhard's  Jahrbuch,  1850,  p.  692;  and  Zeits.  d.  deutsch.  Geolo. 
Gesells.  1851,  p.  231;  Bergwerksfreund,  vol.  XXII.  p.  331;  Lasius, 
die  Harzgebirge,  1789. 


150  ANDREASBERG. 

which  consist  of  quartz  in  the  clay-slate,  but  in  porphyry  of 
galena,  whereby  the  nature  of  the  wall-rock  is  shown  to  exert 
a  very  peculiar  influence. 


B.    ANDREASBERG   DISTRICT.1 

§  104.  Andreasberg  lies  in  a  small  clay-slate  district  of 
the  Devonian  formation,  which  is  towards  the  South  bounded  by 
diabase,  towards  the  West  by  Subcarboniferous  strata;  while  to 
the  North  it  is  limited  by  granite,  and  to  the  East  borders  on 
Silurian  slates.  The  predominant  clay-slate  is  traversed  by  py- 
roxenic  greenstones  (diabases),  by  quartz,  as  well  as  lodes  and 
barren  veins,  so-called  Ruscheln  and  Schlechten,  by  which  local 
terms  are  meant  wide,  or  narrow,  fissures  filled  with  clay  and 
fragments  of  rock.  The  lodes  are  silver  lodes,  galena  lodes, 
copper  pyrites  and  ironstone  lodes.  The  first  alone  have  been 
exploited  for  many  centuries,  and  are  exhausted  to  a  consider- 
able depth. 

Ten  to  twelve  silver  lodes,  with  various  side  branches  are 
known:  they  are,  as  a  rule,  only  found  between  two  great  Ru- 
scheln, the  so-called  Neuf  anger  and  Edelleuter  faulen  Ruschel. 
These  Ruscheln,  about  5  fathoms  broad,  consist  of  decomposed 
clay-slate;  and  strike  with  bendings,  branchings,  and  reunions, 
NW.  to  SE.  like  the  lodes  they  enclose.  Where  the  lodes  come 
in  contact  with  the  Ruscheln,  they  are  generally  cut  off;  they 
commonly  become  empoverished,  and  very  narrow,  for  indefi- 
nite distances  before  such  contacts.  Still  the  lodes  send  out 
branches,  or  droppers,  at  times  into  the  Ruscheln,  or  parallel  to 
them ;  from  which  may  be  deduced,  that  the  Ruscheln  represent 
fissures,  which  have  been  repeatedly  torn  open,  and  dislocated; 
whose  matrix,  the  decomposed  clay-slate,  already  existed  in 
them  before  the  formation  of  the  lodes. 

Two  of  the  most  interesting  cases  are  represented  by  the 
following  wood-cuts.  :*1- 


xSee:  Schultz,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  1822,  vol.  V.  p.  95;  Hausmann, 
die  Bildung  des  Harzgebirges,l842,  p.  134;  Credner,  Geogii.  Verh.  Thtir. 
u.  d,  Harz:  Kerl,  in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1859,  p.  21;  Breithaupt,  in 
the  same,1860,  p.  9;  Credner,  Geogn.  Beschreibung  des  Bergwerkdistricts 
St.  Andreasberg,  1865;  in  the  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellschaft,  and  as 
separate  imprint. 


SILVER  LODES. 


151 


S.    Samson  champion  lode. 

T.  Clay-slate. 

N.R.   Neufanger  Rtischel. 

L.   Clay-aselvage  of  the  Ruschel. 

H.  Cath   rina  shaft. 


o.  Upper 

m.  Middle 

t.  Lower 


level. 


The  lode  loses  its  independent  character  in  the  Ruschel,  mixes  with  it, 
and  makes  it  metalliferous. 

The  so-called  Schlechten  are  merely  thin  clay-fissures,  al- 
ways intersecting  both  the  lodes  and  the  Ruscheln,  and  fre- 
quently also  faulting  them. 


152  ANDREASBERG  LODES. 

The  most  important  of  the  silver  lodes  are  the  Gnade-Got- 
tes,  Bergmannstrost,  Samson,  Franz-Gliick,  Felicitas,  Gideon,, 
and  Jacobs- Gliick.  The  first  two  strike  ESE. — WNW.,  are 
nearly  perpendicular,  and  somewhat  oMer  than  the  others;  these 
strike  SSE  — NNW.,  are  also  nearly  perpendicular,  intersect  and 
fault  the  first,  without  differing  essentially  in  their  contents. 
They  attain  a  breadth  of  4  feet,  and  consist  chiefly  of  very 
beautifully  crystallized  calc.  spar,  and  quartz,  with  rich  silver 
ores,  especially  ruby  silver.  The  calc.  spar  has  also  penetrated 
the  adjoining  clay-slate  for  a  considerable  distance.  Besides 
these,  have  been  found:  galena  (much  less  than  at  Clausthal)r 
yellow  blende,  dark  and  light  tetrahedrite,  pyrargyrite,  fire- 
blende,  discrasite,  arsenic  silver,  scherbencobalt  (an  intimate 
mixture  of  arsenical  antimony,  discrasite,  and  ruby  silver),  na- 
tive silver,  silver  glance,  stephanite,  kerargyrite  (buttermilk  ore)r 
dark  tinder  ore  (a  mixture  of  jamesonite  and  mispickel),  gano- 
matite  (an  intimate  mixture  of  realgar,  arsenic,  stephanite,  ruby 
silver,  discrasite  and  arsenolith),  native  copper,  bournonite,  chry- 
socolla,  heavy  spar,  fluor  spar,  harmotome,  apophyllite,  stilbite, 
heulandite,  chabasite,  analcime,  datolith;  and  very  rarely  gar- 
net, epidote,  and  axinite.  Kerl  also  mentions  as  rarities,  ame- 
thyst, brown  spar,  aragonite,  witherite,  talc,  zygadite,  prehnite^ 
pharmacolith,  hsematoconite,  anthraconite,  naphtha,  iron  pyrites, 
millerite,  pyrrhotine,  leucopyrite,  arsenic,  antimony,  clausthalite, 
copper  nickel,  smaltine,  erythrine,  breithauptite,  annabergiter 
pharmacolith,  cerusite,  stibnite,  realgar,  and  even  crystals  of  al- 
bite,  these  last  occurring  on  the  greenstone  of  the  wall-rock. 
Breithaupt  observed  galena,  as  a  pseudomorph,  after  'anhydrite. 

The  zeoliths  and  other  silicates,  as  well  as  the  want  of  ga- 
lena, and  the  predominance  of  rich  silver  ores;  characterise  the 
Andreasberg  lodes,  and  distinguish  them  essentially  from  the 
silver  lodes  of  Clausthal,  in  which  galena  abounds.  They  evi- 
dently form  a  very  peculiar  mineral  combination.  Some  of  the 
lodes  possess  a  very  regular  banded  texture;  the  Felicitas,  for 
example,  has  the  following  succession : 

Salband,  crystalline  calc.  spar  with  somewhat  of  disseminated  galena. 

Friable  calc.  spar  with  somewhat  of  tetrahedrite. 

Crystalline  calc.  spar  without  ores. 

Massive  tetrahedrite. 

Friable  calc.  spar  with  somewhat  of  tetrahedrite. 

Tetrahedrite  with  galena.    (Middle  of  the  lode). 


CLAUSTHAL  DISTRICT.  153 

It  appears  that  the  neighboring  diabases  must  have  exerted 
a  particular  influence  on  the  origin  of  these  lodes.  Haus- 
rnann  considers  them  to  have  been  formed  by  sublimation;  and 
cites,  in  favor  of  this  view  the  fact,  that  fine  incrustations,  for 
example  of  realgar,  are  found  on  the  lower  sides  of  crystals  in 
geodes.  Even  could  it  be  proven  that  some  of  the  minerals  of 
these  lodes  had  been  formed  by  sublimation,  it  would  scarcely 
be  permissible  to  adopt  a  like  manner  of  formation  for  their 
total  matrix,  especially  for  the  chief  minerals  composing  them; 
viz.  calc.  spar,  and  quartz.  Some  of  the  minerals  mentioned 
are  clearly  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  others,  and  are  only 
found  in  the  upper  workings*,  for  example,  kerargyrite,  tinder 
ore,  and  ganomatite. 

The  diabases  appear  to  be  traversed  by  the  lodes.  The 
cleaving,  of  the  fissures  containing  the  last,  was  in  any  case  more 
recent,  than  the  first  elevation  of  the  Hartz,  and  the  breaking 
through  of  the  diabases. 

It  is  worth  noticing,  that  the  Samson-lode  has  been  ex- 
ploited, and  found  productive,  to  the  perpendicular  depth  of  2500 
feet,  or  600  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea ;  while  it  has  only  been 
possible,  on  account  of  the  Ruscheln,  to  follow  it  in  a  horizontal 
direction  for  a  distance  of  2100  feet.  No  influence  of  the  wall- 
rock  on  the  ore  contents  has  been  noticed  here. 


C.    DISTRICT  OF  CLAUSTHAL.1 

§  105.  I  consider,  as  belonging  to  this,  the  region  lying 
between  Altenau,  Grund,  and  Lautenthal.  The  same  consists 
principally  of  clay-slate  and  sandstone  of  the  Subcarboniferous, 
which  are  traversed,  in  the  direction  from  Lehrbach  to  Harz- 
burg,  by  nearly  straight  lines  of  diabases.  These  have  either 
burst  through  parallel  to  the  stratification,  or  have  been  em- 
bedded parallel  to  it;  the  Subcarboniferous  is  bounded,  north- 
wardly towards  Goslar,  by  the  striking-out  of  somewhat  older 
Devonian  deposits.  . 

'See:  Zimmermann,  das  Harzgebirge,  I.  pp.  105,  320;  Hausmanu, 
Bild.  d.  Harzgeb.  p.  133;  Credner,  Geogn.  Verh.  Thtir.  u.  d.  Harz.  p.  121; 
Kerl,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1859,  p.  21;  Kohler,  in  the  same,  1859,  p. 
198;  Cotta,  in  the  same,  1864,  p.  393;  Wimmer,  in  Bericht  d.  Vereins 
Maja,  Halle,  1854,  p.  14;  and  in  Von  Leonhard's  Jahrbuch,  1854,  p.  841; 
there  was  also  used  a  manuscript  of  Mr.  Heucke,  written  in  1854. 


154  LODES,  AND  GROUPS. 

The  strata  and  slates  of  the  Subcarboniferous  formation 
mostly  strike  NE. — SW.  and  dip  toward  SE.  while  the  Devo- 
nian formation  is  unconformable  with  these.  The  evidently  ig- 
neous embeddings  of  diabase,  between  Lehrbach  and  Altenau, 
contain  curious  remains  of  a  limestone  occurrence,  wedged-in 
parallel  to  them,  which  Romer  considers  as  belonging  to  the 
Devonian  Stringocephalus  limestone. 

The  lodes  occurring  in  this  district  are  interesting  for  two 
reasons;  first,  because  of  their  great  breadth,  and  secondly,  on 
account  of  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  filled. 

They  all  strike  E. — W.  with  at  times  deviations  towards 
WNW.  and  ESE. ;  consequently  they  are  parallel  to  the  chief 
axis  of  the  Hartz,  they  thus  form  together  a  mineral  belt; 
whose  breadth  however  is  nearly  as  great,  as  its  known  length. 
In  the  direction  of  their  breadth  they  lie,  between  the  localities 
of  Lautenthal  and  Laubhiitte,  near  Grund.  The  limits  of  their 
length  are  the  Rosteberg  near  Grund,  and  Altenau.  They  have 
been  classified  into  nine  separate  groups,  each  of  which  con- 
sists in  part  of  but  a  single  champion  lode  with  several  side- 
veins.  These  are  called: 

1.  The  Burgstadter  Group, 

2.  The  Zellerfelder  Group, 

3.  The  Spiegel-  and  Hutschenthaler  Group, 

4.  The  Bockswieser  Group, 

5.  The  Lautenthaler  Group, 

6.  The  Wittenberg-  and  Wolfshagner  Group, 

7.  The  Rosenhofer  Group, 

8.  The  Silbernaaler  Group,  and 

9.  The  Isakstammer  and  Laubhiitter  Group. 

This  classification  has  evidently  been  occasioned  more  by 
the  chronology  of  their  discovery  than  by  the  real  nature  of  the 
case.  If  we  follow  the  chief  fissures,  according  to  their  real 
position,  and  their  probable  connection,  from  South  to  ^North, 
we  find  five  principal  fissures  with  several  subordinate  ones,  at 
nearly  equal  distances  apart,  westerly  of  Clausthal  and  Zeller- 
feld,  which,  in  their  eastern  prolongation,  in  part  actually  unite, 
in  part,  at  least  according  to  their  direction,  approach  one  an- 
other at  an  acute  angle ;  so  that  they  must  collectively  unite  be- 
fore reaching  Altenau,  when  they  continue  in  the  same  direction. 

The  most  southerly  of  these  fissures  is  the  Laubhtitter-lsak- 
stammer  lode;  which  strikes  W. — E.,  and,  if  it  continues  in 


CLAUSTHAL  GROUPS.  155 

this  direction,  must  unite  with  the  Silbernaaler  Group  easterly 
of  Clausthal. 

The  Silbernaaler  Group  is  the  one,  which  has  been  traced 
for  the  greatest  distance,  over  five  miles.  It  'commences  at  the 
outer  westerly  limit  of  the  Hartz;  at  the  Hilfe-Gottes  mine ;  and 
continues,  with  a  double  bending,  as  the  Bergwerkswohlfahrt- 
lode,  almost  to  Altenau.  It  unites  with  the  Rosenhofer  group, 
under  the  Hirschler  pond.  The  whole  group  consists  essentially 
of  but  one  lode,  whose  breadth  varies  from  1  to  14  fathoms. 
Its  matrix  is  predominantly  so-called  Gangthonschiefer  l  (vein- 
clay-slate),  traversed  by  a  number  of  threads  of  heavy  spar, 
among  which  are  broader  veins  of  heavy  spar,  whose  salbands 
are  composed  of  very  argentiferous  galena,  following  the  direc- 
tion of  strike.  Ring-ores  also  occur  in  the  heavy  spar,  whose 
kernel  consists  of  clay-slate  surrounded  by  layers  of  heavy  spar 
and  galena;  also  slate-fragments  not  concentrically  enclosed. 
In  addition  to  the  above  mentioned  minerals  are  found  princi- 
pally ;  tetrahedrite,  copper  pyrites,  iron  pyrites,  quartz,  calc.  spar, 
and  spathic  iron.  The  lode  dips  about  70°  towards  N.,  which 
is  opposed  to  the  general  inclination  of  the  lodes  in  this  district. 

Northwardly  of  this  is  situated  the  Rosenhofer  group,  which 
extends  from  the  Innerste  valley,  under  Clausthal,  to  where  it 
unites  with  the  Silbernaaler  group.  At  the  Alter-Seegen  mine, 
westerly  of  the  town,  this  lode  consists  of  several  branches, 
which  apparently  unite  at  a  greater  depth,  but  which  show  a 
decrease,  rather  than  an  encrease,  in  richness  at  their  junction 
in  the  direction  of  strike.  Besides  this,  the  lode  is  frequently 
broken  up  into  numerous  branches,  several  of  which  have  caused 
faults;  hence  it  may  be  concluded,  that  they  are  not  of  exactly 
contemporaneous  formation.  Their  breadth  varies  from  1  to  11 
fathoms,  and  averages  6  fathoms.  Their  matrix  is  predominantly 
calc.  spar,  with  which  is  combined  galena:  copper  pyrites,  iron 
pyrites,  and  blende,  are  more  rare. 

Before  the  Rosenhofer  group  reaches  the  Silbernaaler,  it 
unites,  near  the  Dorothea  mine,  with  the  Burgstadter  group.  It 
is  faulted  about  20  feet  by  a  so-called  taube  Ruscliel.  It  con- 
sists of  a  champion  lode,  20  to  40  feet  wide,  with  numerous  parallel 


1  According  to  a  careful  examination  made  by  the  Author  in  1864,  the 
Gangthonschiefer  is  nothing  more  than  a  portion  of  the  wall-rock  (clay-slate) 
which  has  been  altered,  and  impregnated  with  ores. 


156          CLAUSTHAL  LODES,  AND  GROUPS. 

smaller  ones.  These  last  in  part  fault  the  champion  lode,  and 
are  therefore  of  more  recent  formation.  At  the  point  of  contact 
with  the  Rosenhofer  group,  .its  breadth  encreases  to  35  fathoms ; 
and  this  acute  junction  appears  at  certain  depths  to  have  deve- 
loped a  special  richness  in  galena,  but  at  a  greater  depth,  the 
blende  encreases  at  the  expense  of  the  galena.  Vein- clay-slate 
and  calc.  spar  form,  in  this  group  also,  the  chief  matrix ;  blende, 
galena,  copper  pyrites,  iron  pyrites,  etc.  occur  to  but  a  subor- 
dinate extent. 

The  Zellerfelder  group  forms  a  principal  fissure  between 
Wildemann  and  Zellerfeld;  this  divides  under  a  considerable 
angle,  as  well  eastwardly  beyond  Zellerfeld,  as  westwardly  near 
Wildemann.  The  southeasterly  of  these  intersects  the  Burg- 
stadter  group  at  the  Eleonore  mine,  while  the  northwesterly 
does  the  same  with  the  Spiegelthaler  group.  The  gang  is  prin- 
cipally composed,  with  a  breadth  of  6 — 17  fathoms,  of  vein- 
clay-slate,  calc.  spar  and  quartz ;  which  are  traversed  by  so- 
called  ribbon-ore  threads  (Banderzadern),  consisting  of  galena, 
copper  pyrites,  and  iron  pyrites.  These  only  form  isolated  masses 
of  ore,  principally  at  the  junctions.  In  the  Ring  and  Silber- 
schnur  mines,  beautiful  ring  ores  occur,  having  a  fragment  of 
clay  slate  as  kernel,  surrounded,  either  by  quartz,  with  galena, 
and  calc.  spar;  or,  first  by  a  layer  of  spathic  iron,  and  then 
quartz  with  ores. 

In  a  northerly  direction  follows  the  Spiegel-  and  Hutschen- 
thaler  group,  which  do  not  accord  with  one  another  in  their 
strike  and  position.  The  Hutschenthal  fissure  strikes,  like  the 
majority  of  the  lodes,  WNW.—  ESE. :  the  Spiegelthaler,  on  the 
contrary,  has  a  more  northerly  position,  and  strikes  E. — W. 

Following  this  is  the  Bockswieser  group,  nearly  on  the 
boundary  of  the  Devonian  rocks,  and  in  fact  partly  penetrating 
the  Devonian  strata.  The  same  appears  to  consist  of  two  parallel 
champion-lodes,  striking  WNW. — ESE.,  which  figure  under 
several  names.  They  traverse  Posidonomya  slate,  siliceous  slate, 
Groniatite  limestone,  Orthoceras  slate,  Calceola  slate,  and  quartz- 
like  sandstone  containing  Spirifers.  It  is  stated,  that  the  amount 
of  ore  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  country -rock,  and  that  the 
lodes  contain  the  most  in  clay-slate,  Calceola  slate,  and  Ortho- 
ceras slate.  The  breadth,  in  places,  exceeds  a  fathom;  and  the 
matrix  consists  of  clay-slate,  quartz,  calc.  spar,  brown  spar,  and 
more  rarely  heavy  spar,  galena,  blende,  and  pyrites. 


GENERAL  REMARKS.  157 

The  Lautenthaler  group  is  the  most  northerly  of  all.  It 
consists  of  one  champion-lode,  17  to  23  fathoms  broad,  which 
splits  up  into  numerous  leaders.  Its  chief  strike  is  nearly  E. — W.; 
it  has  been  followed  from  the  valley  of  the  Innerste  to  Hahnen- 
klee,  where  it  passes,  from  the  strata  of  the  Subcarboniferous, 
into  those  of  the  Devonian.  Its  principal  vein-stone  is  again 
vein-clay-slate,  with  chimneys  and  pockets  of  quartz,  calc.  spar, 
galena,  blende,  copper-  and  iron-pyrites.  The  leaders  of  the 
champion-lode  at  times  possess  a  symmetrical  texture,  with  the 
following  succession : 

Calc.  spar. 

Blende, 

Calc.  spar, 

Blende;  and  in  the  middle 

Galena  with  pyrites  and  blende. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  THE  CLAUSTHAL  LODES. 

§  106.  The  Western  Hartz  is  traversed,  in  its  central  por- 
tion, at  nearly  equal  distances,  by  a  number  of  broad  fissures, 
almost  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  whole  mountains ;  which 
obliquely  intersect  the  strata,  especially  those  of  the  Subcarbo- 
niferous  formation,  splitting  up  into  branches,  which  in  part 
again  unite. 

The  fissures,  often  many  fathoms  broad,  are  for  the  most 
part  filled  with  fragments  of  the  wall-rock,  especially  clay-slate 
(which  is  then  called  in  Clausthal  vein-clay-slate).  Perhaps  it 
would  be  more  correct  to  say;  that  many  single  fissures  have 
cut  through  the  rocks  in  zones;  that  these  zones  have  been 
disturbed,  and  now  appear  as  a  kind  of  fissure  -  matrix ;  that 
the  fissured  slate  has  at  the  same  time  been  altered  in  some 
degree  by  water,  or  vapors ;  and  is  distinguished,  as  so-called 
vein-clay-slate,  from  the  common  clay-slates.  The  other  vein- 
stones, and  the  ores,  which  have  penetrated  into  the  fissures, 
are  found  in  the  intermediate  fissures,  of  very  variable  width, 
which  are  frequently  united. 

If  we  consider  the  vein-clay-slate,  as  only  being  altered  in 
condition,  position,  and  coherence,  and  therefore  not  belonging 
to  the  mass  of  the  lodes  proper,  which  were  deposited  in  the 
fissures  from  solutions;  the  predominating  vein-stones,  and  ores, 
are:  quartz,  calc.  spar,  heavy  spar,  brown  spar,  spathic  iron, 
argentiferous  galena,  blende,  copper  pyrites,  and  iron  pyrites. 


158  THE  RAMMELSBERG 

Besides  these,  occur  in  the  lodes:  tetrahedrite,  light  colored 
tinder-ore  (a  mixture  of  lead,  silver,  antimony,  and  sulphur), 
bournonite,  melaconite,  malachite,  azurite,  cerusite,  pyromorphite, 
anglesite,  and  limonite  j  these  last  principally  in  the  upper  levels, 
as  products  of  decomposition. 

Kerl  mentions  in  addition  to  these:  amethyst,  pearl-spar, 
aragonite,  gypsum,  glauber  salt,  epsom  salt,  strontianite,  asphal- 
tum,  anthracite,  stibnite,  clausthalite,  tieinannite,  cinnabar,  amal- 
gam, mercury,  manganite,  limonite,  and  hematite. 

The  condition  of  the  matrix  entirely  corresponds  to  the 
results  of  an  infiltration:  as  favoring  this  view,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  occasional  combed  texture,  and  the  uncommonly 
frequent  formation  of  ring-ores,  as  also  the  fact  that  the  minerals 
have  penetrated  into  all  the  fine  clefts. 

The  differences  in  depth,  of  the  Clausthal  lodes,  consist 
(besides  the  secondary  decompositions  near  the  outcroppings), 
principally  in  the  champion-lodes  being  much  broken  up  into 
small  leaders  near  the  surface;  and  it  is  stated,  that  the  propor- 
tion of  blende  encreases,  while  that  of  galena  decreases,  with 
the  depth.  A  cessation  of  the  lodes,  or  their  matrix,  in  the 
direction  of  the  depth,  has  not  yet  been  observed  5  although  some 
of  the  workings  are  as  much  as  1730  feet  below  the  surface. 
Zimmermann  asserts,  that  in  broad  champion-lodes  only  the 
small  leaders  are  rich.  The  ores  are  very  unequally  distributed. 

A  difference  of  the  country-rock  in  general,  exerting  any 
important  influence  on  the  matrix  of  the  lodes,  has  only  been 
discovered,  according  to  Heucke,  in  the  case  of  the  Bockswieser 
lodes.  On  the  other  hand,  a  strongly  glancing,  black  clay-slate 
having  short  clefts,  as  well  as  a  red,  very  ferruginous  schist, 
which  occur  as  portions  of  the  matrix,  are  very  unfavorable  for 
the  branches  traversing  them.  Besides  which,  the  branches,  con- 
sisting of  heavy  spar  and  calc.  spar,  are  mostly  more  recent, 
and  poorer  than  the  others. 

THE  RAMMELSBERG  NEAR  GOSLAR.  l 

§  107.  The  Rammelsberg  consists  of  the  three  lowest  strata 
of  the  Devonian  formation;  the  Wissenbach  slate,  the  Calceola 
slate,  and  the  Spirifer  sandstone.  Some  great  subversion  has 

1  See:   Freiesleben,   Bemerkung.  iib.  d.  Harz,  1795,  p.  75;   La  si  us, 
die  Harzgebirge,  1789,  vol.  II.  p.  373;  Schultz,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  1821,  vol.  IV. 


NEAR  GOSLAR.  159 

caused  the  above  to  lie  in  reversed  order,  the  Wissenbach  slate 
being  the  lower-,  the  sandstone  the  upper-most  stratum. 

The  renowned  pyritous  deposit  occurs  in  the  Wissenbach 
slate,  which  forms  the  projecting  lower  portion  of  the  mountain; 
the  same  consists  here  of  real  clay-slate,  frequently  used  in  the 
surrounding  country  for  roofing.  In  the  immense  slate-quarries, 
on  the  left  declivity  of  the  Keppel  valley  above  Goslar,  the 
very  distinct  cleavage,  as  a  rule,  cuts  the  less  distinct  stratifica- 
tion at  an  acute  angle;  no  such  circumstance  has  been  remarked 
at  the  Rammelsberg.  Not  only  do  the  great  dimensions  of  the 
pyrites  deposits  coincide  in  general  with  the  cleavage;  but 
a  zone  of  Goniatites  and  Orthoceratites  changed  to  pyrites  in 
the  slate,  beneath  the  pyrites  deposit,  lies  parallel  to  the  cleav- 
age; and  they  all  lie  individually  with  their  breadth  and  length 
parallel  to  it.  Very  probably  therefore  in  the  Rammelsberg,  in 
so  far  as  it  consists  of  Wissenbach  slate,  the  stratification  and 
cleavage  are  parallel  to  one  another;  which  is  certainly  impor- 
tant for  the  observation  of  the  pyrites  deposit. 

This  deposit  has  been  called  a  lode,  bed,  and  segregation. 
Passing  over  the  earlier  descriptions,  I  subjoin  an  extract  from 
Hausmann.  He  says:  'The  same  consists  of  an  intimate,  but 
not  everywhere  uniform,  mixture  of  iron  pyrites,  copper  pyrites, 
galena,  blende,  and  mispickel,  associated  with  small  quantities 
of  other  ores;  with  which  are  combined  massive  heavy  spar, 
and  a  little  quartz  and  calc.  spar.  The  ore-bed,  which  has  been 
inserted  at  the  contact  of  the  clay  and  graywacke  slate,  has  a 
general  strike  of  ENE.— WSW.  and  a  variable  dip,  in  general 
45°  toward  SSE.  The  extension  is  also  variable  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  strike,  and  diminishes  with  the  depth:  it  amounts  to 
210  fathoms  at  a  depth  of  105  fathoms  beneath  the  mouth  of 
the  new  shaft.  The  breadth  of  the  undivided  bedded  mass  is 
assumed  to  be  40  to  45  fathoms.  At  a  depth  72  fathoms  below 
the  mouth  of  the  Kanekuhler  shaft,  the  ore-mass  separates  into 
two  branches ;  of  which  the  hanging  one  wedges-out  23  fathoms 
deeper,  the  lower  or  principal  one  continues  farther.  The  greatest 
thickness  of  the  last,  where  it  leaves  the  hanging  branch,  is 


p.  229;  Zimmermann,  das  Harzgebirge,  1834,  p.  103;  Hausmann,  die 
Bildung  d.  Harzgeb.  1842,  p.  132;  Credner,  Geogn.  Verb.  Thlir.  u.  d. 
Harz,  p.  121;  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1860,  Nr.  2;  Kerl,  in  same,  1853,  p.  7; 
Cotta,  in  same,  1864,  p.  309. 


160 


HAUSMANN'S   DESCRIPTION. 


23  to  25  fathoms.  It  also  gradually  decreases,  toward  the  West, 
in  the  line  of  the  strike;  while  toward  the  East  the  bed  has 
more  the  appearance  of  being  cut  off:  it  gradually  decreases  in 
the  direction  of  the  dip.  A  very  firm  clay-slate  (so-called 
Kniest)  impregnated  with  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  is  wedged-in 
between  the  two  portions  of  the  ore-mass,  forming  the  hanging- 
wall  of  the  principal  branch.  The  outer  limits  of  the  ore-bed 
are  very  irregular,  in  great  part  waving,  here  and  there  with 
•cracks:  it  is  traversed  by  numerous  joints.  The  most  conspi- 
cuous of  these  are  perpendicular,  and  intersect  the  bed  at  right 
-angles:  others  are  parallel  to  the  dip.  In  place  of  the  first  joints, 
sometimes  occur  small  veins  (so-called  Steinscheiden),  often 
barely  a  line  broad;  they  contain  copper  pyrites,  galena,  heavy 
spar,  and  calc.  spar;  and  extend,  neither  into  the  hanging-,  nor 
foot-wall/ 


E.  Ore-deposit. 

F.  Clay-slate  (=  Wissenbach  slate). 

G.  Graywacke  slate  of  Hausmann   (=  Calceola  slate). 
S.  Graywacke  of  Hausmann  (=  Spirifer  sandstone). 

The  wood-cut  is  a  copy  from  Hausmann;  it  does  not 
-altogether  agree  with  the  above  description,  but  represents  the 
ore-deposit  as  being  entirely  in  the  Graywacke  slate;  which  is 
more  correct  than  at  the  contact  of  the  same  with  clay-slate. 

So  far  as  I  know,  it  has  been  since  then  generally  described 
as  a  bed,  or  recumbent  segregation.  It  is  self-evident,  that  a  mass 
of  such  a  shape  having  a  broad  ramification  in  the  roof,  which 
indeed  was  the  foot-wall  before  the  subversion,  is  not  a  bed  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  Even  though  it  lies  parallel  to 
the  stratification  and  cleavage,  such  an  immense  ramification 
would  contradict  the  idea  of  a  bed,  leaving  altogether  out  of 
account  the  great  breadth  proportional  to  the  slight  extension, 
and  the  entirely  different  nature  of  the  mass  from  the  enclosing 
strata.  Should  any  other  term  be  found  appropriate,  it  will  still 
remain  difficult  to  explain  the  formation  of  such  an  entirely 
compact  aggregation  of  pyrites. 

Is  then   the   coherence    of  the    entire   mass   so    great,    as  is 


RAMMELSBERG. 


161 


generally  assumed?  From  the  statements  of  Director  Lehmann, 
and  from  my  own  observation,  I  am  convinced,  that  the  common 
view  requires  some  correction. 

The  pyritous  mass  appears  to  consist  of  more  or  less  len- 
ticular aggregations  of  pyrites,  separated  by  several,  though  but 
thin  layers  of  slate;  whose  totality  occupies  the  space  generally 
assigned  to  the  mass.  Whether  the  ore,  in  the  already  exhausted 
and  partly  inaccessible  portions  of  the  deposit,  formed  a  conti- 
nuous mass,  or  not,  can  no  longer  be  determined ;  the  portions 
of  pyrites,  at  present  opened  by  the  workings,  at  no  place  ex- 
ceeded a  breadth  of  50  feet,  the  majority  being  much  narrower. 
In  several  places  I  saw  very  distinctly,  that  two,  three  or  more 
irregular  lens-shaped  masses  of  pyrites  occurred  near  together, 
but  were  still  separated  by  thin  layers  of  slate.  The  following 
wood-cut  represents  one  of  these  points  of  observation. 


S.    Clay-slate. 

K.    Masses  of  pyrites. 

The  surveyors,  who  made  the  plans  of  the  mine,  may  have 
found  it  more  convenient  to  insert  the  masses  lying  near  each 
other,  and  exploited  together,  as  a  whole.  It  is  very  possible, 
or  rather  probable,  that  formerly  no  notice  was  taken  of  these 
thin  separations  by  the  slate,  and  that  the  points  exploited, 
for  widths  of  20,  30,  or  more  fathoms,  in  reality  consisted  of 
irregular  lenticular  masses,  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
slate.  In  this  manner  the  broad  and  rapidly  wedging-out 
branch  in  the  hanging-wall  can  be  easily  explained,  as  con- 
sisting only  of  single  lenses  lying  somewhat  outside  of  the 
principal  zone.  The  form  of  the  deposit,  as  a  whole,  is 
then  nothing  more  than  the  outer  contour  of  a  combination  of 
exploitable  ore;  while  the  form  of  the  separate  ore-masses  may 
be  very  different. 

The  whole  deposit  would  have  about  the  shape  in  the  fol- 

11 


162 


DESCRIPTION  OF 


lowing  ideal  section,  in 
which  the  separate  lenticu- 
lar masses  of  ore  are,  for  the 
sake  of  distinctness,  repre- 
sented somewhat  widely 
apart. 

The  explanation  of  this 
remarkable  aggregation  of 
pyrites  is  rendered  some- 
what easier  by  this  represen- 
tation ;  which,  though  ideal, 
is  founded  on  observations. 


We  have  no  longer  then  to  deal  with  a  single  deposit 
of  immense  breadth,  very  peculiar  shape,  and  proportionally 
small  extent  in  its  strike,  and  dip;  but  with  a  combination  of 
single  lenses  of  ore  in  a  particular  zone  of  slate.  Still,  indeed, 
the  difficult  question  remains  to  be  answered,  whether  these 
separate  bodies  of  ore  are  to  be  regarded  as  contemporaneous  lenti- 
cular beds,  or  as  formations  which  have  subsequently  penetrated. 

As  facts  in  favor  of  the  contemporaneousness  of  their  for- 
mation, consequently  of  their  true  bed-nature;  may  be  mentioned 
their  general  parallelism  with  the  cleavage,  which  here  corre- 
sponds to  the  stratification;  also  in  their  inner  texture,  since  a 
banded  arrangement  can  very  commonly  be  recognised  in  the 
massive  masses  of  pyrites;  which  also  runs  parallel  to  the 
cleavage,  and  consequently  to  the  stratification.  This  banded 
texture  is  most  distinctly  seen  in  the  so-called  melirt  ores,  con- 
sisting of  alternating  bands  of  pyrites  and  galena. l 

Unfavorable,  for  the  supposition  of  such  a  contemporaneous 
formation,  is  the  great  breadth  of  some  oi'  these  lenses;  which, 
from  the  manner  of  their  deposit,  must  have  been  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  the  mechanical  sediment,  of  which  the  clay- slate 
was  formed,  which  last  contains  distinct  fossils  converted  to 
pyrites.  In  those  places,  where  the  sulphurets  were  deposited, 
the  mechanical  precipitation  of  clay-silt  must  have  been  inter- 

1  The  large  pyrites  lenses  of  Schmollnitz  in  Hungary  mostly  have  a 
similar  texture,  and  are  also  surrounded  by  impregnated  slates.  I  am  unfor- 
tunately not  aware,  if  a  similar  separation  into  small  lenses  by  layers  of  slate 
has  been  observed,  or  not. 


RAMMELSBERG.  163 

rupted;  and  this  process  must  have  been  frequently  repeated  in 
the  same  localities.  The  depositing  of  so  many  sulphurets; 
which  contain,  besides  iron,  copper,  and  lead,  traces  also  of  zinc, 
bismuth,  mercury,  cadmium,  thallium,  manganese,  nickel,  cobalt, 
antimony,  arsenic,  selenium,  gold,  and  silver;  does  not  altogether 
agree  with  their  forming  a  contemporaneous  formation  in  an 
otherwise  entirely  mechanical  sediment,  which  they  have,  not 
merely  locally  impregnated,  but  even  in  places  dispossessed. 

This  circumstance  is  more  in  favor  of  the  view,  that  a  sub- 
sequent penetration  of  the  ores  took  place  in  the  form  of  solu- 
tions. But  how  then  could  such  like  impregnations  have  formed 
the  large  spaces  in  which  they  alone  predominate?  Still  less 
can  it  be  assumed,  that  these  spaces  already  existed,  since  from 
their  great  extent,  they  could  not  possibly  have  resisted  the 
pressure  of  the  overlying  strata  for  the  long  period  of  time 
required  for  the  formation  of  such  large  masses  of  pyrites. 

Only  a  gradual  replacement  of  the  slate  by  the  pyrites  is 
supposable,  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  last  may  have  by  degrees 
replaced  the  space,  and  in  part  acquired  the  texture  of  the 
slate,  as  is  the  case  of  many  pseudomorphs  by  replacement,  and 
fossils.  This  is,  however,  difficult  to  imagine;  and  the  problem 
still  remains  unsolved  in  regard  to  the  manner  of  formation. 
No  event  of  the  present  time  shows  any  thing  analogous  to  this. 

The  pyritous  masses  of  the  Rammelsberg,  moreover,  do  not 
form  the  only  case  of  this  kind:  they  are  very  similar  to  the 
deposits  of  Agordo,  Schmollnitz,  and  Fahlun ;  and  in  some  degree 
to  those  of  Rio-Tinto,  and  Domokos-Poschorita. 

The  chief  mass  of  the  deposit  is  formed  of  iron  pyrites, 
which  contains  but  little  copper  pyrites  disseminated  through  it: 
copper  pyrites,  galena,  and  somewhat  of  blende,  are  locally  fre- 
quent, in  places  even  predominant.  It  appears,  that  the  galena, 
with  somewhat  of  blende,  occurs  most  commonly,  and  in  larger 
masses,  in  the  foot-wall  of  the  western  portion;  over  this,  and 
more  to  the  East,  occur  the  so-called  melirt  ores,  consisting  of 
alternating  layers,  or  bands,  of  galena  and  pyrites.  Over  these, 
again,  occur  the  purer  copper  ores;  and  finally,  still  more  to 
the  East,  the  poor  iron  pyrites.  This  is  only  a  general  law  of 
distribution,  and  is  subject  to  many  exceptions.  The  following 
minerals  occur  at  times,  but  are  of  no  economic  importance: 
heavy  spar,  quartz,  calc.  spar,  tetrahedrite,  red  copper,  erubes- 
cite,  native  copper,  (in  the  places  where  the  other  minerals 

11* 


164  LAUTERBERG  DISTRICT. 

have  been  decomposed,)  copperas,  cyanosite,  goslarite,  voltaite, 
romerite,  copiapite,  botryogen(P),  glockerite,  and  gypsum;  also 
in  the  slate  forming  the  hanging-walj,  cerusite,  and  anglesite. 

All  the  ores  occur  massive,  being  only  more  or  less  gra- 
nular ;  geodes  are  very  rare.  On  the  other  hand  parallel  striated 
friction-surfaces  (schicken  slides)  are  tolerably  frequent. 

The  mineral  composition  of  the  deposit  is  a  very  simple 
one,  much  more  so  than  is  generally  the  case  with  lodes.  The 
thirteen  more  rarely  occurring  metals,  previously  mentioned, 
are  mineralogically  unrecognizable  in  all  the  ores,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  zinc. 

THE  LAUTERBERO  DISTRICT.  * 

§  108.  Lauterberg  is  situated  in  the  Subearboniferous  for- 
mation, which  is  traversed  in  the  neighborhood  by  porphyry. 
There  occur  here,  according  to  Schultz,  some  copper  lodes ;  the 
most  important  of  which  strike  NNW. — SSE.  and  attain  a  breadth 
of  3  fathoms.  Their  vein-stones  are  heavy  spar,  calc.  spar,  and 
quartz;  in  which  occur  irregularly  distributed  pockets  of  copper 
pyrites,  homichlin,  iron  pyrites,  melaconite,  malachite,  chryso- 
colla,  copper  glance,  erubescite,  covelline,  red  copper,  and  lime- 
malachite.  The  heavy  spar  is  frequently  found  in  a  peculiar 
sandy  condition,  similar  to  some  of  the  lodes  in  the  Black 
Forest.  According  to  Hausmann,  fluor  spar  and  anhydrite  also 
occur  in  the  lodes. 

THE  COPPER  SLATES 
IN  THE  HARTZ,  THURINGIA,  AND  HESSE.2 

§  109.  The  Zechstein  formation,  in  this  portion  of  Ger- 
many, consists  in  its  lower  strata  of  the  copper-slates  (Kupfer- 
scMefer)  and  the  white-beds  (Weisslieyendes),  it  rarely  crops 
out,  except  in  the  mountainous  districts ;  and  has,  during  a  long 
period,  been  exploited  in  numerous  places  for  the  ores  it 
contains. 

1  See:  Zimmmermanu,  Harzgeb.  p.  105;  Hausmann.  Bild.  d.  Harzgeb. 
p.  134.  Kerl,  in  Berg-  u.  htittenm.  Zeit.  1859,  p.  21;  Schultz,  in  Karsten's 
Archiv,  1821,  vol.  IV.  p.  22^. 

2  See:   Freiesleben,    Geogn.   Arbeiten,   vol.  III.  and   vol.  IV.  p.  15; 
Schmidt,  in   Karsten's  Archiv.   1823.   vol.  VI.  p.  73;   Von  Veltheim,   in 


COPPER-SLATES  IN  THE  HARTZ,  etc. 


165 


The  ores,  occurring  in  this  formation,  are  found,  partly  dis- 
tributed in  the  strata  above-mentioned,  partly  contained  in  fis- 
sures, so-called  backs  (Ruckeri},  which  intersect  these  beds; 
but  are  only  metalliferous  in  these,  while  above  and  below  them 
they  merely  contain  heavy  spar,  or  fragments  of  the  wall-rock. 
Since  the  metalliferous  lower  strata  of  the  Zechstein  formation 
are  most  completely  and  characteristically  developed  in  the 
region  around  Mansfeld,  at  the  southeasterly  base  of  the  Hartz, 
1  will  commence  with  the  description  of  the  same.  To  this  I 
will  subjoin  short  remarks  on  the  deviations  in  other  localities. 

Mansfeld.  The  red-beds  (Roihliegendes),  on  the  south- 
eastern side  of  the  Hartz,  form  a  geological  prolongation  of  its 
chief  axis,  without  projecting  as  a  mountain  chain  above  the 
surrounding  country.  This  prolongation  is  surrounded  by  a 


Dolomite,  Gypsum, 
and  Rocksalt. 


same,  1S27,  vol.  XV.  p.  80;  Tantscher,  in  same,  1829,  vol.  XIX.  p.  377; 
1832,  vol.  IV.  p.  289;  1834,  vol.  VII.  p.  606;  Pliimicke,  in  same,  1844,  vol. 
XVIII.  p.  139;  Weiss,  in  same,  1851,  vol.  XXIV.  p.  306;  Heuser,  in  Von 
Leonhard's  Taschenbuch,  1819,  p.  311;  Schulz,  in  same,  1820,  p.  105; 
Baumler,  in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellsch.  1837,  p.  25;*  Credner, 
(jeogn.  Verb.  Thiir.  u.  d.  Harz,  p.  125;  Buff,  in  Noggerath's  Rheinland- 
Westphalen,  vol.  II.  p.  152;  Klip  stein,  Versuch  einer  geogn.  Darstellung 
d.  Kupferschiefers  d.  Wetterau,  1830. 


166  COPPER-SLATES  IN  THE  HARTZ, 

border  of  Zechstein,  whose  strata  dip  gradually  toward  SE., 
and  contain  exploitable  ores,  principally  in  the  County  of  Mans- 
feld, and  the  neighborhood  of  Sangerhausen.  As  above  men- 
tioned, the  ores  are  found  in  the  copper-slates  and  white-beds. 
Both  can  be  followed  along  the  Hartz,  on  one  side  to  Seesen, 
on  the  other  to  Ballenstadt;  but  the  percentage  of  ore  they  con- 
tain, in  these  western  prolongations,  is  so  small,  that  they  can- 
not be  profitably  exploited.  In  Mansfeld,  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  worked  with  considerable  success,  owing  to  the  uniformity  of 
their  development.  The  general  bedding  of  the  Zechstein  forma- 
tion at  this  locality  about  agrees  with  the  wood-cut:  p.  165. 

The  upper  member  in  Mansfeld  consists  chiefly  of  unstra- 
tified  gypsum,  containing  cavities;  which  have  been  washed-out 
(so-called  'lime-chimneys'),  and  soft  bituminous  dolomite  or  lime- 
stone (so-called  'Asche').  Under  this  follows  a  regularly  strati- 
fied fetid  limestone,  or  Zechstein  in  its  more  narrow  sense :  this 
passes  underneath  into  a  bituminous  marl  slate,  whose  lowest 
portion,  10  to  20  inches  thick,  forms  the  copper-slate.  Under 
this  follows  a  white  or  gray  marly  sandstone,  in  part  conglo- 
merate, called  white-bed  or  gray-bed  (Weissliegendes  or  Grau- 
liegendes)]  which  also  contains  copper  ores  in  places.  This 
white-bed,  1  to  4  feet  thick,  is  distinctly  separated  by  its  dif- 
ferent color,  and  by  overlapping,  from  the  red  bed,  on  which 
it  lies. 

The  metalliferous  strata  of  the  formation  can  be  divided, 
according  to  Freiesleberi;  into 

capping  stratum, 
copper- slate,  and 
white-bed. 

The  capping  stratum  is  a  firm  bituminous  marl-slate,  which 
at  times  contains  copper  ores,  but  is,  as  a  rule,  unworkable. 
The  ores  occurring  here  and  there  in  it,  are :  iron  pyrites,  copper 
pyrites,  copper  glance,  erubescite,  red  copper,  malachite,  azurite, 
very  rarely  also  somewhat  of  galena.  These  ores  are  either 
finely  disseminated,  form  thin  plates  or  threads,  or  fill  very  fine 
clefts.  The  thickness  of  the  stratum  is  4 — 6  feet. 

The  copper-slate  consists  essentially  of  a  dark  bituminous 
marl-slate,  10 — 20  inches  thick,  in  which  copper  and  iron  minerals 
are  distributed  in  unequal  quantities.  Besides  copper  and  iron, 
occur  the  metals  silver,  cobalt,  nickel,  zinc,  lead,  bismuth,  and 
arsenic.  Both  the  quantity  and  quality,  of  these  ore-admixtures, 


THURINGIA,  AND  HESSE.  167 

are  locally  very  different.  They  are  in  part  very  finely  or  in- 
visibly disseminated,  in  part  form  thin  layers,  small  pockets, 
nests,  or  the  filling  of  fissures.  The  ores,  which  have  been  re- 
cognised in  the  copper-slate,  are:  copper  pyrites,  copper  glance, 
erubescite.  native  copper,  tetrahedrite,  melaconite,  red  copper, 
native  silver  (very  rare),  galena  (rare),  iron  pyrites ;  brown  and 
black  blende,  copper  nickel,  earthy  cobalt;  cobaltine,  bismuth, 
antimony,  and  arsenic  (the  last  four  very  rare).  Only  the  lower 
half  of  the  slate  is  generally  rich  enough  to  be  worth  smelting. 

The  white-bed  consists  of  sandstone,  coarse  conglomeritic 
sandstone,  sandy  or  calcareous  marl,  of  a  grayish  or  almost 
white  color.  This  is  at  times  penetrated,  in  its  upper  layers,  by 
streaks  of  ore,  which  is  then  called  sand-ore.  The  ores,  found  in 
it,  are:  copper  pyrites  (the  most  common),  copper  glance,  iron  py- 
rites, galena,  native  bismuth,  and  blende:  more  rarely,  native 
copper,  azurite,  malachite,  copper  nickel,  and  molybdenite.  The 
ores  are  disseminated,  and  mixed  in  with  the  rocks,  or  form 
veins  and  threads:  the  malachite,  and  azurite,  also  small  nodules. 
The  other  minerals  found  are:  calc.  spar,  gypsum,  heavy  spar, 
mica,  asphaltum,  and  coal.  Almost  the  only  petrifactions  found 
are  the  remains  of  plants. 

The  members  of  the  metalliferous  strata  show  many  modi- 
fications, when  examined  in  detail.  All  the  members  do  not 
every  where  occur,  they  are  not  every  where  of  the  same  thick- 
ness, and  not- altogether  composed  alike. 

The  metalliferous  portion  is  most  fully  developed  in  the 
region  lying  between  Hettstadt  and  Gerbstadt,  somewhat  more 
simply  near  Eisleben  and  Sangerhausen.  The  regular  bedding  of 
these  strata  is  frequently  disturbed,  both  in  Mansfeld  and  the 
Thuringian  Forest,  by  so-called  backs.  By  the  term  back,  the  Mans- 
feld miner  understands  all  disturbances  of  the  regular  bedding; 
that  is,  all  tiltings,  basins,  saddles,  narrowings  of  the  beds,  and 
true  intersecting  or  faulting  fissures.  These  backs  seldom  con- 
tain ores,  while  they  appear  to  have  often  exerted  an  influence 
on  the  metalliferous  contents  of  the  strata  traversed.  This  in- 
fluence is  shown  by  an  encrease  or  decrease  in  the  amount  of 
ores,  not  only  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  but  at  times  for 
a  considerable  distance,  even  to  the  next  back ;  it  is  also  proved 
by  the  ores  being  transposed  from  one  layer  to  another.  But  all 
the  backs  are  not  accompanied  by  such  changes,  many  exerted 
no  influence,  especially  true  fissures  or  vein-backs;  while  the 


168  COPPER-SLATES  IN  THE  HARTZ, 

other  disturbances  of  the  bedding,  which  only  caused  flexures 
without  cutting  through  the  strata,  and  in  consequence  narrow- 
ings,  breaks  or  divisions  of.. the  beds,,  are  mostly  injurious.  It 
is  remarkable,  that  the  chief  backs,'  whose  fissures  contain  a 
non-rnetalliferous  matrix,  or  at  the  most  now  and  then  some- 
what of  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  appear  to  have  considerably 
enriched  the  copper-slate,  and  sand-ore,  even  to  twice  its  gene- 
ral percentage.  These,  and  the  fissures  branching  from  them, 
are,  what  enriching  junctions  are  in  vein-mining.  This  enrich- 
ment extends  into  the  fetid  limestone,  the  so-called  capping  rock,, 
especially  around  Sangerhausen. 

Baumler  states,  that  recognizable  nickel-ores  occur  only  in 
the  vein-backs,  while,  in  the  copper-slate  itself,  they  occur  only 
in  an  imperceptible  condition. 

Kiffhauser. — A  large  quantity  of  copper-slate  was  for- 
merly removed  from  the  base  of  this  small  mountain,  which 
rises  in  the  Thuringian  basin. 

Thuringian  Forest.  The  Zechstein  formation  can  be 
followed  in  all  its  strata,  along  the  northern  base  of  this  moun- 
tain-chain. It  has  been  found  metalliferous,  and  been  exploited, 
at  the  following  places: 

A.  Saalfeld  and  Camsdorf.  In  this  district  the  prin- 
cipal portions  worked  were,  and  still  are,  the  so-called  backs, 
which,  as  mentioned,  are  veins  traversing  the  zechstein  and  cop- 
per-slate, and  frequently  causing  faults.  These  are  princi- 
pally cobaltiferous  in  the  niveau  of  the  copper-slates;  and  even 
the  copper- slate,  which  is  itself  hardly  exploitable,  is  impreg- 
nated with  cobalt  ores  in  the  neighborhood  of  these. 

Tantscher,  who  described  these  deposits,  distinguishes  three 
so-called  'cobalt  depths',  or  geological  niveaus. 

The  lowest  'cobalt  depth',  which  is  that  portion  of  the  veins 
between  decomposed  clay-slate  and  the  white-beds,  contains 
smaltine,  tetrahedrite,  earthy  olivenite,  copper  nickel,  and  cop- 
per pyrites.  The  second  or  middle  'cobalt  depth',  between  the 
lime-stratum  and  the  copper-slate,  also  immediately  above  this, 
contains  brown,  yellow,  and  green,  earth-cobalt;  erythrine,  tet- 
rahedrite, rarely  smaltine,  never  copper  nickel.  The  third  or 
upper  'cobalt  depth',  between  the  magnesian  limestone,  contains 
only  black  earth-cobalt  (cobaltiferous  wad);  which  has  often 
penetrated  for  a  considerable  distance  into  fissures  of  the  lime- 
stone, and  even  into  the  mass  of  the  same. 


THURINGIA,  AND  HESSE.  169 

B.  1 1m  en  an.     Large   quantities   of  copper-slate  were  for- 
merly   obtained    at    this    locality.      Recent    examinations    have  , 
proved,   that  the  bed   was   not  thick   enough,  being   6  to  10  in- 
ches  thick,  to   be  profitably   exploited   at  the   present   condition 
of  prices. 

C.  Katterfeld  and  Fischbach.     The  copper-slates  were 
here  also    extensively   worked;  but  the   mines  had   to  be   aban- 
doned on  account  of  the  encrease  in  the  price  of  labor  and  fuel. 

The  Zeclistein  formation  can  be  followed^  at  the  south- 
western base  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  from  Landnoden  to  the 
neighborhood  of  8uhl.  It  was  formerly  mined  in  the  following 
localities. 

D.  Schweina    and    Gliicksbrunn.     At   these   localities 
the   veins   traversing   the    zechstein,    were   those   principally   ex- 
ploited.    They   contained,    in   the   copper-slates   and  white-beds; 
copper,  nickel,  cobalt,  and  silver  ores:  above  and  beneath  these, 
only  heavy  spar  and  clay. 

E.  Alsbach.     Numerous  heaps  of  rubbish  show,    that  the 
copper-slates  were  formerly  extensively  worked. 

Riegelsdorfin  Hesse.  The  Zechstein  formation  crops 
out  here  for  a  short  distance,  under  the  Buntsandstein  (varie- 
gated sandstone).  The  copper-slate  forms  the  lowest  bed,  4  —  6 
inches  thick,  of  the  bituminous  marl-slate;  and  contains  finely 
disseminated  copper  pyrites,  tetrahedrite,  earthy  chrysocolla; 
more  rarely  red  copper,  vnelaconite,  and  native  copper.  The 
white-bed  beneath  it,  3  to  18  fathoms  thick,  also  contains  at 
times  in  its  upper  layer,  only  one  inch  thick,  copper  ores,  which 
are  then  called  sand- ores.  The  veins,  or  backs,  strike  in  vari- 
ous directions,  their  breadth  encreasing  from  the  smallest  dimen- 
sions to  4  fathoms.  They  vary  considerably,  as  to  their  extent, 
in  the  direction  of  strike  and  dip;  many  of  them  forming  fis- 
sures of  only  a  few  inches.  Some  of  them,  however,  have  pro- 
duced faults  of  over  28  fathoms;  and  they  must,  of  course,  be 
of  considerable  extent  in  the  direction  of  strike  and  dip.  These 
lodes  frequently  split  up  into  branches. 

The  following  minerals  occur :  calc.  spar,  calc.  sinter,  brown 
spar,  dolomite,  pharmacolith,  quartz,  heavy  spar,  anhydrite,  gyp- 
sum, iron  pyrites,  smaltine,  copper  nickel,  copper  pyrites,  tetra- 
hedrite, galena,  ochreous  limonite,  hausmannite,  cobaltiferous 
wad,  erythrine,  annabergite,  azurite,  and  earthy  olivenite. 

Heuser  has  distinguished  9  different  vein-formations  accord- 


170  STADT-BERGE,  AND 

ing  to  the  grouping  of  these  minerals;  but  as  these  have  been 
%  caused  by  slight  differences  in  the  manner  or  time  of  their  for- 
mation, it  is  sufficient  to  mention  them. 

The  influence  of  the  country-rock,  on  the  local  composition 
of  the  lodes,  is  here  very  perceptible.  Heuser  says,  that  the 
lodes  (containing  cobalt  ores)  are  the  richest  in  the  white-beds, 
while  they  decrease  in  the  fetid  limestone  (Zechstein):  and, 
when  the  lodes  extend  to  so  great  a  depth,  are  entirely  barren 
in  the  red  beds.  This  rule  has  been  confirmed  by  the  most 
varied  experience.  Still  it  has  its  exceptions;  since  the  lodes 
have  been  found  at  times  very  rich  in  the  fetid  limestone.  The 
cobalt-ores  have  also  penetrated,  at  times,  from  the  lodes  into 
the  wall-rock.  The  copper-slates  often  have  their  copper  ores 
replaced  by  cobalt  ones. 

Besides  the  veins  (or  filled  fissures),  occur  so-called  'chan- 
ges': These  are  really  nothing  more  than  unfilled  fissures,  or 
cracks,  which  are  frequently  combined  with  faults  of  upwards 
of  25  fathoms.  They  cut  through,  and  generally  fault  the  veins 
also.  They  principally  strike  N.— S.  and  are  parallel  to  the 
southern  dip  of  the  strata;  while  the  richer  veins  mostly  are 
parallel  to  the  strike  of  these  last,  and  are  intersected  by  the 
'changes'  at  right  angles. 

Stadtberge  and  Frankenberg  in  Hesse.  The  Zecli- 
stein  formation  again  occurs  with  somewhat  of  copper,  on  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  Rhenish  Devonian  and  Subcarboniferous  dis- 
trict, under  the  Buntsand stein.  According  to  Buff,  there  are 
many  more  copper-containing  strata,  or  zones,  to  be  recognised, 
than  in  Thuringia,  without  the  total  amount  of  ore  being  greater. 
Of  course,  this  greater  distribution  is  not  advantageous  to  mining. 

The  strata,  of  the  formation  at  Stadtberge,  are: 

cellular  limestone,  7  —  10  feet, 
cellular  wacke,  21—75  feet, 
fetid  limestone,  35-40  feet. 

Even  the  thinly  stratified  fetid  limestone  contains  here  and 
there  copper-glance  finely  disseminated  in  layers,  and  in  its  fis- 
sures oxidised  salts  of  copper.  In  its  lower  layers  it  alternates 
with  10  to  30  beds  of  the  copper-slates,  each  of  which  is  lj%  to 
2  inches  thick;  while  they  occupy,  with  the  interstratified  non- 
metalliferous  rock,  a  total  thickness  of  J/2  to  several  fathoms. 
They  consist  partly  of  a  crumbling,  partly  of  a  common  marl- 
slate.  The  predominating  ores  in  them  are  principally:  earthy 


FRANKENBERG  IN  HESSE.  171 

chrysocolla  (malachite?),  and  azurite,  which  cover  the  cleavage- 
fissures.  The  firmer  varieties  appear  to  contain  considerable 
quantities  of  very  finely  disseminated  sulphurets.  These  last 
are  probably  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  original  ores,  the  first 
mentioned  being  secondary  products,  during  the  formation  of 
which  the  condition  of  the  slate  has  been  altered,  so  as  to  form 
a  crumbling  mass.  The  amount  of  ore  is  always  less  on  saddles, 
and  near  disturbing  fissures,  but  especially  near  the  outcrop, 
than  in  basins  and  towards  the  depth. 

This  formation  is  also  traversed  by  veins,  or  backs,  which 
penetrate  into  the  Devonian  strata  and  contain  a  little  copper 
ore.  Their  matrix  is  principally  white  clay,  with  nodules  of 
copper  glance,  and  distributed  chrysocolla.  By  the  penetration 
of  one  of  the  backs  into  the  underlying  siliceous  slate,  this  was 
found  to  contain  somewhat  of  copper  in  its  numerous  cracks. 

At  Frankenberg  the  strata  of  the  Zechstein  formation,  com- 
mencing with  the  upper  ones,  are: 

Reddish-gray  limestone,  at  times  with  plates  of  mica,  only  a  thin  layer. 

Yellowish-gray  cellular  limestone,  about  3  feet. 

Variegated  clay,  21  feet. 

Brownish-gray  fine  granular  sandstone   with  somewhat   of  mica,  only  a 
thin  layer. 

Brownish-gray  argillaceous  shale,  at  times  containing  ores,  about  3  feet. 

Greenish-gray  limestone,  3  feet. 

Bluish-gray  argillaceous  shale,  about  7  feet. 

Reddish-gray  limestone,  2  to  4  inches. 

Ore-bed,  a  bluish-gray,  slaty  clay  with  darker  stripes,  6  to  14  inches. 

Reddish,  fine  granular  sandstone. 

Devonian. 

The  ore-bed  proper,  consisting  of  light  crumbling  clay,  does 
not  contain  the  ores  microscopically  disseminated  as  in  the  cop- 
per slate  proper,  but  as  the  remains  of  plants  converted  into 
ores.  Stalk,  fruit,  and  leaves,  are  converted  into  tetrahedrite, 
copper  glance,  and  marcasite:  iron  pyrites  occurs  but  seldom, 
copper  pyrites  never.  These  plants  are  converted  often  into 
coal,  and  have  threads  of  ore  running  through  them,  at  times 
to  anthracite  and  without  ore. 

Sp  ess  art.  This  uniform  mountain-ridge  consists  almost 
entirely  of  variegated  sandstone ;  but  in  some  places,  especially 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  older  rocks  and  strata  crop  out 
from  beneath  it,  among  which  is  also  the  zechstein  formation. 
This  is  mined  in  several  localities  of  the  westerly  edge  adjoin- 
ing Wetterau. 


172  SPESSART  IN  HESSE. 

The  bedding  and  strata  of  the  formation  in  this  neighbor- 
hood are,  commencing  with  the  upper  ones,  according  to  Von 
Klipstein,  the  following: 

Ironstone  bed. 

Bituminous  limestone. 

Copper-clay. 

Copper-slate. 

White-beds. 

Red-beds. 

Mica-schist. 

This  general  stratification  is  modified  in  its  details  at  vari- 
ous localities,  but  all  the  beds  can  be  referred  back  to  the  pre- 
ceding normal  formation.  The  special  relations  of  the  bedding 
and  ore  contents  are  best  known  around  Bieber,  on  which  ac- 
count I  will  describe  this  locality  alone. 

The  iron-stone  bed,  the  upper  member  of  the  zechstein 
in  this  region,  is  overlaid  by  a  limestone  at  Rohrig  and  Biichel- 
bach,  and  averages  7 — 8  feet  in  thickness,  but  is  at  times  even 
18  feet.  It  consists  of  M  very  good  and  pure  limonite,  which 
only  contains  small  quantities  of  ochreous  iron  and  psilomelane 
mixed  with  it.  The  bed  contains  numerous  geodes,  whose  walls 
are  covered  with  stalactitic  limonite,  and  psilomelane.  There  are 
found  in  the  bed  fibrous,  massive,  stalactitic,  reniform,  and  botry- 
oidal  limonite,  similar  varieties  of  psilomelane,  yellow,  brown, 
and  red,  ochreous  iron,  specular  iron,  and  pyrolusite. 

The  bituminous  limestone  is  thinly  stratified  in  its  up- 
per portion,  but  becomes  massive  at  a  greater  depth. 

The  copper-clay  is  a  very  clayey  schistose  marl  with 
slight  traces  of  ores :  in  its  lower  portions  it  passes  into  bitumi- 
mous  marl-slate,  several  fathoms  in  thickness,  whose  lowest  bed 
forms  the  copper-slate  proper,  and  contains  copper  ores  finely 
disseminated  through  it.  Besides  the  copper  ores  are  found 
somewhat  of  tetrahedrite,  cobalt,  and  bismuth  ore:  these  last 
only  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  intersecting  veins,  being  pro- 
bably impregnations  from  these.  The  copper-slate  is  vesicular 
in  many  places,  and  frequently  contains  heavy  spar  in  its  cel- 
lular cavities,  on  which  occur  small  plates  of  silver  tetrahedrite. 

The  white-bed  contains  boulders  of  granite,  gneiss,  mica- 
schist,  and  various  porphyries  in  a  conglomerate,  but  no  ores : 
it  gradually  passes  in  its  lower  portion  into  the  red-beds,  in 
common  with  which  it  fills  depressions  in  the  surface  of  the  mica- 
schist.  It  attains  a  thickness  of  !/a  to  56  feet. 


RHINE,  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 


173 


All  these  strata  are  traversed  by  veins,  which  also  extend 
into  a  mica-schist,  causing  many  faults,  and  in  some  places 
throwing  the  strata  70  feet.  Their  matrix,  1  to  3  feet  broad, 
contains  heavy  spar,  and  spathic  iron,  with  copper  nickel,  tetra- 
hedrite,  cobalt,  and  bismuth  ores.  The  ores  are  irregularly  dis- 
tributed, and  remarkably  enough  occur  principally  in  the 
mica-schist.  They  form  in  this  respect  a  great  contrast  to  those 
of  the  Hartz,  and  Thuringian  Forest,  in  not  containing  the  ores 
in  the  niveau  of  the  copper  slate.  The  impregnations  from  these 
lodes,  on  the  other  hand,  are  chiefly  found  in  the  bituminous 
marl-slate. 


V.  THE  KHINE. 

GEOLOGICAL    FORMATION. 

§  110.  This  district  is  included  between  the  following 
cities  lying  on  its  outer  border:  Bingen,  Luxemburg,  Sedan, 
Charlemont,  Liege,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Diiren,  Bonn,  Duisburg, 
Dortmund,  Waldeck,  and  Friedberg.  It  is  a  large  extent  of 
country,  but  forms  a  geological  whole. 

It  is  principally  composed  of  Devonian  strata,  which  have 
been  tilted  and  upturned  in  a  SW. — NE.  direction,  and  form  an 
elevated  plateau,  having  an  average  height  of  1100  to  1500  feet 
above  the  sea.  At  its  southwesterly  edge,  in  the  Hundsruck 
and  Taunus,  occur  quartzose  unfossiliferous  strata;  on  its  north- 
western edge  it  is  overlaid  by  strata  of  the  Subcarboniferous 
and  Carboniferous  formations. 

The  members  of  these  formations  are,  commencing  with  the 
uppermost,  in  general  the  following : 


According  to  Von  Dechen      In  part,  according  to  Sandberger. 


Upper  Millstone  grit. 
Carboniferous  zone. 
Millstone  grit. 


Carboniferous  shale  and  sandstone, 
with  coal-beds  and  black-band. 
Millstone  grit. 


Subcarboniferous  strata, 
siliceous  slate,  shaly  sand- 
stone, tabular  limestone,  and 
Posidonomya  slate. 

Mountain  limestone. 


Subcarboniferous  strata  consisting 
of  Posidonomya  slate,  siliceous  slate, 
alum  shale,  clay-slate,  and  bitu- 
minous limestone. 


174 


RHINE,  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION 


According  to  Von  Dechen.    !  In  part,   according  to  Sandberger. 


Verenulli  slate,  a  sandy  clay 
rock. 

Kramenzel,  consisting  of 
sandstone  and  concretions 
of  limestone  in  slate. 

Flinz  (Goniatite  slate). 


Eifel  limestone  and 
Stringocephalus  limestone. 

Lenne  slate,  sandy  clay 
rocks  containing  beds  of 
limestone. 

Wissenbach  slate. 


Older  Rhenish  Graywacke, 
(Spirifer  sandstone)  with 
beds  of  limestone. 


Cypridina  slate,  clay-slate,  and 
siliceous  slate. 

Schalstein,  combined  with  green- 
stone, hematite,  and  limonite.  Not 
strictly  confined  to  this  mveau. 
Gray  and  green  schists,  with  lime 
concretions  (Kramenzelstein}.  Clay- 
slate,  with  thin  layers  of  limestone 
(Flinz). 

Stringocephalus  limestone.  Eifel 
limestone,  and  magnesian  limestone, 
alternating  with  marl,  slate,  and 
sandstone. 

Spirifer  sandstone,  or  Rhenish 
Graywacke. 


Ardennes  shales,  unfossili- 
ferous  and  semi-crystalline. 


Taunus  shales,  clay-slate,  talc- 
schist,  and  quartzite,  without  or- 
ganic remains. 


Zechstein  and  Buntsandstein  on  the  outer  eastern'  edges, 
southerly  Rotliliegendes  and  tertiary  deposits,  overlie  these 
older  strata;  while  Buntsandstein  and  Muschelkalk  occur  in  a 
depression  between  Luxemburg  and  Diiren,  cretaceous  to  the 
North  and  lignite  on  the  heights  near  the  Wester-Forest.  These 
formations  [are  frequently  broken  through  by  greenstones, 
basalts,  and  trachytes;  where  the  Lenne  slates  occur,  by  quartz- 
porphyries.  Granite,  gneiss,  and  mica-schist,  Have  never  been 
found. 

The  ore-deposits  of  this  large  district  are  very  numerous, 
and  of  a  very  varied  character.  Of  course  they  cannot  all  be 
here  described  in  detail,  I  will  describe  in  the  following  order: 

1.  Iron  deposits. 

2.  Manganese  deposits. 

3.  Smithsonite  deposits  occurring  in  Devonian  and  Mountain 
limestone. 

4.  Copper,  lead,  silver,  nickel,  and  cobalt  lodes  in  the  De- 
vonian district. 


IRON  ORES  IN  WESTPHALIA,  etc.  175 

5.  Antimony  lodes. 

6.  The  lead-deposits  in  the  Buntsandstein  of  Commern. 

7.  Gold  deposits. 

IRON  ORES  IN  THE  CARBONIFEROUS  FORMATION. 

§  111.  In  Westphalia.1  The  Carboniferous  formation  of 
Ruhr  district  in  Westphalia  contains,  especially  at  Essen,  Bochum, 
and  Horde,  parallel  deposits  of  the  so-called  Kohleneisenstein, 
corresponding  to  the  English  blackband;  it  consists  of  an  inti- 
mate mixture  of  spathic  iron,  coal,  and  somewhat  of  silicate  of 
alumina.  It  was  long  mistaken  for  coal-shale,  on  account  of 
its  slaty  texture  and  black  color;  it  contains  in  places  so  much 
phosphorus  as  not  to  be  worth  smelting. 

At  Horde,  six  to  eight  beds  are  known  to  exist.  Lottner 
determined  the  bedding  and  thickness  at  one  point  to  be  the 
following : 

Ironstone      .    $&&'&.£~l •*:'*•: ,-*f  ;•*;  •    56  inches. 
Shale  with  a  streak  of  iron-stone  .     .    45        " 
Ironstone,  locally  replacing  a  coalbed     33        " 
Ironstone     .     .  ";V  -  -V/. '  .  V'':    -.    52        " 
Slate  .    .   -.-I-.'/  V'?^'-*j  -M^.    18 
Ironstone      .    .  -.•*  .*  .~?&-i&~Ai   &**.     4        " 
Ironstone      .     .     .     .-/  *^^'j?--:*^t^  •    10        " 
Besides  the  compact  beds,  nodular  concretions  are  also  fre- 
quent in  the  shales  of  this  coal  formation;  while  Schnabel  found 
a   bed,   24  feet   thick,   in  the  Charlottenburg   mine    at  Bochum; 
which  was,  however,  cut  off  in  numerous  places  by  shale.     All 
these  deposits  are  evidently  of  contemporaneous   formation  with 
the  coal-formation,  and  were  formed  from  fresh-water  deposits,  as 
they  contain  fresh-water  fossils.     The  question  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily    explained,    as  to   how  the   carbonafe   of  iron  was 
formed. 

Around  Saarbruck.2  The  ironstone  deposits,  of  the  Carbo- 
niferous formation  around  Saarbriick,  are  generally  richer  than 

1  See:    Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.   1852,  p.  74;    Herold,    in  Verhandl.  d. 
naturh.  Vereins  d.  preuss.  Rheinlande,  1852,  IX.  p.  606;  Carnall,  in  Zeitsch. 
d.  deutsch.  geolog.  Gesell.  1851,  III.  p.  3;   Noggerath,  in  Jahrb.  der  geol. 
Reichsanst.  1852,  p.  133;  Schnabel  (Analyses),  in  Poggend.  Annal.  vol.  LXXX. 
p.  441 ;  Lottner,  Geogn.  Skizze  d.  westphal.  Steinkohlengebirges,  1859,  p.  114> 

2  See:   Schmidt,  in  Noggerath's  Rheinland-Westphalen,  vol.  IV.  p.  97; 
Noggerath,  in  same.  vol.  IV.  p.  382. 


176  IRON-DEPOSITS  IN  DEVONIAN. 

those  of  the  Ruhr.  The  deposits  are  composed  of  brown  sphero- 
siderite;  the  beds  consist  chiefly  of  lenticular  concretions.  These 
concretions  frequently  contain  in  thejr  interior  the  fossil  remains 
of  plants,  fish  of  the  Genus  Amblypterus  or  Saurians  (Arche- 
gosaurus).  The  strata  composed  of  the  spheroids  form  regular 
beds  between  the  coal  shales,  especially  at  Lehrbach,  and  Borsch- 
weiler,  where  they  are  extensively  exploited  and  smelted. 

Beds  of  spherosiderite  are  also  found  in  the  lignite  near  Bonn. 

IRON  DEPOSITS  IN  THE  DEVONIAN. 

§  112.  Many  and  various  iron  deposits  occur  in  the  Rhenish 
Devonian,  of  which  only  a  few  can  be  mentioned.  The  same 
occur  as  beds,  fissure-lodes,  contact-lodes,  and  segregations,  on 
the  edges  of  greenstones,  basalts,  and  porphyries;  finally  also 
as  surface-deposits. 

Ironstone  beds.1  The  eastern,  especially  the  south- 
eastern, portion  of  the  Rhenish  Devonian  contains  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Dillenburg,  Wetzlar,  etc.  a  large  number  of  hematite 
beds  mostly  associated  with  Sclialstein. 2  These  often  have  a 
very  irregular  form,  and  might  on  this  account  be  easily 
mistaken  for  segregated  masses,  were  it  not,  that  the  fossils 
they  at  times  contain,  prove  them  to  have  been  formed  contem- 
poraneously with  the 'other  Devonian  strata.  According  to  Sand- 
berger,  these  iron  ore  beds  are  always  found  associated  with 
diabase  or  schalstein ;  they  are  frequently  bounded  by  these  on 
one  side,  while  they  are  surrounded  by  Cypridina  slates  on  the 


1  See:    Buff,   in  Karsten's  Arch.  1833.    vol.  VI.  p.  440;    Sandberger. 
Uebers.  d.   geol.  Verb.  v.  Nassau.    1847,  p.  127 ;   and  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb. 
1854,  p.  455;  Stifft,  Geogn.  Beschreib.  d.  Herzogth.  Nassau,  1831,  pp.  480, 
485,  and  486;   Becher,  Mineral.  Beschreib.  d.  Nassauischen  Lande;   Klip- 
stein,  inZeitsch.  d.  deutsch.  geolog.  Gesellsch.  1853,  p.  523;  and  in  Gemein- 
niitzige  Nachrichten  z.  Forderung  d.  Bergbau-  u.  Huttenwesens,  1859.  II. 

2  Cotta   says  in  his  Lithology :    'So  many  rocks  have  been  described 
under  the  name  of  Sclialstein,  that  we  can  only  say  in  general,  that  by  it  is 
understood  a  laminated  rock  interspersed  with  small  particles  of  calc.  spar. 
In  Nassau,  the  base  or  matrix  appears  to  be  a  very  fine  somewhat  laminated 
greenstone-tufa,  which  contains  calc.  spar  in  grains  or  thin  layers  of  green,  gray 
or  variegated  spotted  color.    In  some  places,  however,  this  rock  partakes  of 
the  character  of  breccia,  or  is  porphyritic  by  reason  of  crystals  of  labradorite. 
or  it  is  amygdaloidal,  or  is  even  penetrated  by  clay-slate  and  chlorite  schist." 
Lawrence's  Translation. 


NASSAU  BEDS.  GREENSTONE  DOMES.  177 

others;  they  contain  nearly  all  the  fossils  belonging  to  the 
Stringocephalus  limestone.  .About  5,  to  6,00  mines  are  worked 
on  these  beds  in  Nassau.  Stifft  says  of  this  region:  'The 
hematite  forms  curved  and  faulted  beds  in  scliahtein  and  green- 
stone, in  which  fossils  occasionally  occurred;  they  were  distin- 
guished as  'Fluss'  beds,  with  which  calc.  spar  was  combined,  and 
siliceous  beds,  mixed  with  common  and  ferruginous  quartz.  The 
first  often  lie  entirely  in  the  schalstein^  while  greenstone  or 
amygdaloid  forms,  at  the  most,  the  hanging- wall,  never  the  foot- 
wall,  of  these;  the  last  are  found  entirely  in  diorite,  and  pecu- 
liarly irregular  in  shape '  Buff  found  their  thickness  to  vary 
between  4  and  7  feet,  and  their  superficial  area  to  be  seldom 
more  than  a  few  hundred  square  fathoms.  In  addition  to  the 
hematite,  limonite  is  also  found  generally  associated  with  lime- 
stone (Allendorf,  Katzenellenbogen). 

Somewhat  northerly  of  Stockhausen  on  the  Lahn,  occurs 
on  the  Lohr  mountain  an  iron  ore-bed  in  schalstein  near  its 
contact  with  labradorite  porphyry.  Von  Klipstein  says  of  it: 
'On  the  southerly  slope  of  the  Lohr  mountain,  the  Bernhard 
mme  is  worked  on  this  bed,  where  it  crops  out  under  the  labra- 
dor  porphyry;  the  iron  ore  being  only  extracted  at  the  outcrop- 
ping of  the  bed,  where  it  exhibits  a  peculiar  character.  The 
mass  of  the  bed,  which  overlies  the  amygdaloid  of  the  Lohr 
mountain,  has  not  yet  been  opened  to  the  hanging- wall ;  it  is 
entirely  broken  up  into  branches  at  the  outcrop,  and  rendered 
impure  by  fragments  of  schalstein.  It  consists  of  a  very  ferruginous 
red  clayey  mass,  which  encloses  a  number  of  leaders  of  pure 
hematite.  At  some  distance  from  the  hanging-wall,  considerable 
brown  ferruginous  schalstein  can  be  observed.' 

Southerly  of  Brilon !  in  Westphalia,  a  chain  of  greenstone 
domes  (labrador  porphyry)  occurs  in  the  upper  Devonian,  or 
more  specially  between  the  Lenne  slates  and  Kramenzel,  and 
parallel  to  their  strata.  These  domes,  where  they  join  the  Kra- 
menzel, are  frequently  accompanied  by  hematite  masses,  which 
might  from  their  shape  be  termed  irregular  lenses,  or  contact- 
segregations  ;  but  they  frequently  contain  Devonian  fossils,  and 
must  consequently  be  contemporaneously  formed  beds  of  a  some- 
what irregular  shape. 


1  See:  Castendy  ck,  inZeitsch.  d.  deutsch.  geolo.  Gesellsch.  1855,  p.  253; 
Stein,  in  same,  1860,  p.  208. 

12 


178  IRONSTONE-LODES. 

The  same  develop  the  greatest  thickness  (3  fathoms)  on  the 
Eisenberg  (Iron  Mountain) ;  and  here,  as  in  the  surrounding 
neighborhood,  it  appears  that  their  thickness,  as  a  rule,  decreases, 
where  the  proportion  of  lime  in  the  Kramenzel  encreases,  and 
the  reverse.  When  the  last  consists  of  compact  limestone,  the 
iron  ore  bed  entirely  disappears;  and  it  seems  from  this,  that  in 
the  present  case  the  iron  ore  bed  and  limestone  mutually  replace 
one  another. 

Ironstone  lodes.  Lodes  of  spathic  iron,  whose  matrix 
has  been  partly  altered  to  limonite,  frequently  occur  in  the 
Devonian  district.  They  at  times  contain,  as  in  the  Saxon 
Voigtland,  somewhat  of  copper  pyrites;  and  thus  form  gradual 
transitions  into  copper  lodes  containing  spathic  iron,  which  are 
in  turn  closely  related  to  quartzose  lodes  containing  galena  and 
blende.  We  see  deposits  and  phenomena  recurring  in  the 
Rhenish  Devonian,  like  those  with  which  we  have  already  become 
acquainted  in  the  Fichtelgebirge,  §  90. 

The  Stahl  Mountain  near  Mtisen  in  the  County  of  Siegen 
affords  a  good  example.  I  am  aware  of  but  one  description, 
that  of  Schulze,1  written  in  1819,  of  this  locality;  I  use  his  de- 
scription as  a  basis,  filling  it  out  from  my  recollections  of  a  visit 
I  made  to  it  in  1830. 

Schulze  says:  'This  deposit  is  neither  a  vein ^  nor  a  bed, 
neither  does  it  coincide  with  the  idea  of  a  Stockwerk.'  It 
appeared  to  me  to  be  a  broad  but  irregular  vein.  The  lode 
traverses  the  slates  at  an  acute  angle;  it  commences  south- 
easterly, as  a  very  broad  but  pure  mass  of  spathic  iron,  and 
soon  attains,  in  its  strike  toward  NW.,  a  breadth  of  50 — 55  feet, 
while  still  farther  in  the  same  direction  it  splits  up  into  nume- 
rous branches.  The  rock  between  these  branches  is  clay-slate. 
Where  the  pure  matrix  of  spathic  iron  begins  to  branch,  the 
clay-slate  is  still  mixed  with  a  considerable  amount  of  the  same, 
which  is  entirely  wanting  at  a  greater  distance.  At  a  length 
of  about  90  fathoms  the  clay-slate  penetrates  into  the  branches 
of,  and  through  the  ironstone,  so  that  only  a  slate,  traversed  by 
small  veins  of  spathic  iron,  can  be  seen;  and*  the  previously 
perceptible  walls  of  the  branches  disappear.  The  branches  attain 


1  See:  Schulze,  in  Leonhard's  Taschenb.  1820,  p.  582;  Buff,  in  Nogge- 
rath's  Rheinland-Westphalen,  vol.  II.  p.  169;  Schmid,  in  same,  vol.  II. 
p.  216;  Von  Dec  hen,  in  same,  vol.  II.  p.  42. 


HUNDSRUECK  IRON-ORES.  179 

at  times  a  breadth  of  15  feet,  are  innumerable,  and  after  sepa- 
rating frequently  again  unite. 

According  to  my  recollection,  somewhat  of  copper  pyrites 
is  at  times  found  at  the  selvages  of  this  broad  and  irregular 
lode  of  spathic  iron.  Toward  SE.,  it  is  cut  off  and  faulted  by 
a  fissure,  "the  portion  thrown  has  not  been  again  discovered. 

Several  other  lodes  of  spathic  iron  occur  at  the  Martins- 
haart ;  those  of  the  Schwaben  mine  contain  argentiferous  tetrahed- 
rite  and  galena,  while  in  others  cerusite,  anglesite,  and  blende, 
are  found. 

Buff  has  described  an  interesting  independently  occurring 
hematite  lode,  near  the  village  of  Faule  Butter  in  the  Wilde- 
wiese  Mountains.  The  same,  occurs  in  the  Devonian  district, 
within  a  vein  of  conglomerate,  24  fathoms  broad.  The  con- 
glomerate vein  is  formed  of  boulders  of  the  Devonian,  cemented 
together  by  clay.  The  hematite  lode  attains  a  breadth  of  3 — 7 
feet,  and  dips  80°  towards  W.  Small  clay-dikes  intersect  it, 
and  contain,  like  the  lode  itself,  small  boulders  belonging  to  the 
Devonian  slate. 

Another  very  interesting  case  is  that  of  the  limonite  lode 
at  the  Alte  Birke  mine  near  Siegen.  The  same  is  diagonally 
intersected  by  a  perpendicular  dike  of  wacke,  which  passes  into 
spherically  jointed  basalt,  and  is  enclosed  by  selvages  of  jasper. 
The  limonite  has  become  somewhat  magnetic  at  the  point  of 
intersection  5  that  is,  it  contains  grains  of  magnetite,  which  have 
evidently  been  formed  by  the  once  igneous- fluid  basalt:  this 
latter  has  at  the  present  time  been  partially  decomposed  to  wacke. 

' .' "'.'".: 

IRON  ORES  IN  THE  HUNDSRUECK. ' 

§  113.  The  Hundsriick,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
consists  principally  of  unfossiliferous  clay-slate,  with  subordinate 
beds  of  quartzite.  It  is  geologically  a  very  uniform  region,  in 
which  occur  tolerably  frequent  iron  ore  deposits  of  two  different 
kinds.  The  first  consist  of  bedlike  impregnations,  and  of  veins 
in  clay-slate/  the  others  of  surface-deposits  of  limonite.  The  Hunds- 
riick ore-deposits  occur  mostly  in  the  Simmern  and  Zell  circuits. 

Impregnations.  The  soft,  decomposed  clay-slate  is  entirely 
penetrated,  in  certain  zones,  by  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron,  as 


1  See:  Noggerath,  in  Karsten's  Archiv,  1842,  vol.  XVI.  p.  470. 

12* 


180  LIMONITE  LODES.  SURFACE-, 

well  in  its  cleavage  and  cross  fissures,  as  also  in  its  mass;  so 
that  it  is  converted  into  an  Impure,  still  schistose  limonite.  Only 
in  the  fissures,  where  there  .was  more  room,  has  the  same  been 
formed  as  a~massive  or  even  fibrous" limonite,  which  occurs  at 
times  in  stalactitic  shapes.  The  same  frequently  also  contains 
somewhat  of  pyrolusite.  It  appears  doubtful,  whether  the  iron- 
ore  was  originally  deposited  with  the  clay-slate,  and  was  sub- 
sequently concentrated  in  the  fissures,  whether  it  is  the  product 
of  decomposed  pyrites,  or  whether  it  has  subsequently  penetrated 
from  without. 

The  limonite  lodes,  in  the  clay-slate  of  the  same  region, 
seem  to  have  been  originally  quartz  veins,  into  which  hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron  has  subsequently  penetrated;  partly,  in  that 
it  filled  and  widened  innumerable  cracks  in  the  quartz,  and  thus 
formed  a  sort  of  breccia,  adjoining  fragments,  of  which  can  still 
be  seem  to  have  once  belonged  to  it;  partly,  in  that  it  was 
chiefly  deposited  at  the  selvages  of  the  quartz  veins  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  outer  layers  of  the  lode  are  of  more  recent 
formation  than  the  central  one.  These  lodes  strike  and  dip  in 
various  directions,  at  times  parallel  to  the  cleavage,  as  bedded 
veins,  frequently  intersecting  and  faulting  one  another.  They 
also  contain  manganese  ores  in  places,  which  are  generally  found 
in  the  decomposed  clay-slate  (entirely  penetrated  by  hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron).  They  may  thus  be  regarded  as  a  modification 
of  the  impregnation-fissures. 

Surface-Deposits.  These  cover  the  much  tilted  clay- 
slates,  and  consist  of  variegated  clay,  in  which  the  iron-ore 
occurs  in  irregular  or  spherical  nodules,  mostly  collected  in 
layers.  The  clay  at  times  alternates  with  layers  of  a  sharp 
white  sand,  or  of  small,  rounded  pebbles  of  white  quartz.  The 
nodules  of  limonite  often  contain  considerable  psilomelane. 

Noggerath  considers  these  to  be  Tertiary  deposits  of  the 
age  of  the  lignite  formation  (at  Bonn).  Their  thickness  and 
special  nature  is  very  variable. 

MANGANESE  DEPOSITS.1 

§  114.  These  deposits  are  only  found  to  any  extent  in  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  Rhenish  mountainous  region,  and 

1  See:  Von  Klipstein,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  1843,  p.  265;  Sandberger. 
Uebersicht  d  geol.  Verhaltn.  d.  Herzogth  Nassau,  1847,  p.  130;  Gutberlet, 
in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1855,  p.  317. 


AND  MANGANESE,  DEPOSITS.  181 

appear  to  be  chiefly  combined  with  the  magnesian   limestone  of 
the  Devonian  formation. 

Von  Klipstein  has  fully  described  the  interesting  occurrence 
Of  Klein-Linden  in  the  valley  of  the  Lahn.  In  addition  to  some 
impregnations  in  the  dolomite,  which  have  partly  proceeded 
from  a  vein;  nodular  concretions  of  manganese  ores  are  found 
in  clay  on  the  surface  of  the  dolomite,  which  are  only  covered 
by  a  thin  stratum  of  earth.  In  the  lower  stratum,  next  to  the 
dolomite,  are  found  concretions  of  psilomelane,  while  in  the 
upper  stratum,  on  the  contrary,  only  those  of  pyrolusite.  This 
stratum  contains  considerable  oxide  of  iron  here  and  there  on 
its  surface. 

Surface  soil.  Clay  containing  peroxide  of  iron. 


>  y~ -/\  r^\ 


I  am  unable  to  state,  whether  these  nodules  are  portions  of 
a  former  deposit,  which  have  been  washed  away  from  it,  and 
collected  here ;  or  concretions  formed  on  the  spot.  They  were 
evidently,  at  the  time  of  their  formation  or  deposit,  composed 
of  pyrolusite,  which  has  been  converted  in  the  upper  stratum 
into  psilomelane,  by  the  penetration  of  water. 

Grutberlet  has  also  described  a  rather  peculiar  occurrence 
of  manganese  ores  on  the  Miihl  Mountain  near  Eimerode.  This 
mountain  consists  of  Devonian  clay-slate  overlaid  by  strata  of 
siliceous  slate  and  limestone.  Five  fissures  traverse  the  siliceous 
slate  and  limestone,  nearly  at  right  angles,  from  the  hanging- 
to  the  foot-wall,  where  they  suddenly  cease.  These  fissures,  as 
well  as  a  number  of  isolated  pockets,  and  nests,  contain  pyro- 
lusite. These  fissures  vary  much  in  breadth ;  and  small  clefts 
extend  from  them  sideways.  The  pyrolusite  is  associated  with 
calc.  spar,  magnesite,  clay,  and  lithomarge.  The  smaller  veins 
possess  at  times  very  distinct  selvages;  these  consist  of  magnesite, 
then  pyrolusite;  and  the  middle  is  occupied  by  crystallized  calc. 


182  ZINC  AND  LEAD  DEPOSITS, 

spar,  and  magnesite,  with  the  clay  and  lithomarge.  The  broader 
lodes  contain  many  horses  of  the  wall-rock,  by  which  they 
are  split  up  into  numerous  branches. 

Some  'other  interesting  occurrences  of  manganese  ores  in 
the  Rhine  district  are  described  by  List  in  Leonhard's  Jahr- 
buch  fur  Mineralogie,  1861,  p.  186;  Volger,  in  the  same,  1861, 
p.  336;  and  Zerrener's  'Die  Manganerzbergbaue1,  1861. 

ZINC  AND  LEAD  DEPOSITS. 

'"•  *  X'* 

§  115.  In  Westphalia.1  The  Devonian  Eifel  limestone; 
which  extends  from  Elberfeld  through  Iserlohn;  Balve,  and 
Meschede,  to  Briloil ;  forming  a  long  zone  between  Lenne  slate 
and  Goniatite  slate  or  more  recent  strata,  contains  zinc  and 
lead  ores  at  several  points. 

Between  Iserlohn  and  Westrich  the  same  occur  mostly  on 
its  limit,  as  contact-deposits  between  it  and  the  Lenne  slates. 
The  ores  occur  in  pockets  hanging  somewhat  together,  7—14 
feet  broad,  containing  clay  and  sand,  with  calamine,  somewhat 
of  galena,  and  iron  pyrites.  Towards  the  magnesian  limestone 
they  are  by  no  means  clearly  defined,  but  pass  into  its  cracks, 
and  as  impregnations  into  its  mass.  The  calamine  masses  lying 
in  clay  become  rarer,  -limestone  fragments  take  their  place, 
until  finally  the  limestone  altogether  predominates.  Their  limits 
towards  the  Lenne  slates  are,  on  the  contrary,  sharply  defined. 
Both  smithsonite  and  calamine  occur;  the  first  forms  rounded 
and  frequently  porous  masses,  the  last  mostly  compact  layers. 
These  ores  are  evidently  of  more  recent  formation,  than  the 
limestone. 

Similar  deposits  exist,  in  the  eastern  prolongation  of  this 
Devonian  limestone  zone,  near  Altenbiibreii,  Brilon,  Rosenbeck, 
and  Bleiwasche.  They  consist  principally  of  smithsonite,  with 
somewhat  of  galena,  free  of  silver,  and  are  here  found  to  be 
the  richest  within  'the  limestone,  while  towards  the  Lenne  slates 
they  are  too  poor  to  be  exploited.  Castendyck  states,  that 
they  are  essentially  the  matrices  of  very  irregular  fissures  in 
the  limestone.  Reddish  sandy  clay,  calc.  spar,  cerusite,  pyrites, 


.l  13ee:  Von  Dechen,  in  Noggerath's  Rheinland-Westphalen,  vol.  II.  p  37; 
Castendyck,  in  Berg-  u.  kuttenm.  Zeit.,  1850,  p.  689;  Huene,  in  Zeitsck. 
d.  deutsch.  geolo.  Gesellsch.  1852,  p.  575;  Berggeist,  1860,  p.  450. 


IN  WESTPHALIA.   . 


183 


and  limonite,  formed  by  "the  decomposition  of  the  last,  occur  in 
these  fissures  also.  The  ores  are  distributed  in  pockets,  or 
branches. 

Similar  deposits  are  found  at  Gladbach,  easterly  of  Cologne, 
in  a'  magnesian  limestone  of  like  Devonian  age,  although  no 
longer  in  the  same  zone.  Beds  of  lignite  occur  immediately 
over  the  magnesian  limestone.  The  surface  of  the  last  is  ex- 
tremely irregular,  and  the  ores  occur  in  depressions  of  the  same, 
sometimes  on  the  steep  sides,  or  in  fissures.  The  ores  consist 
of  loose  fragments  of  calamine,  smithsonite,  and  somewhat  of  galena 
enclosed  in  clay.  Single  layers  of  such  ore-fragments  occur, 
even  above  the  limits  of  the  limestone,  in  the  clay  of  the  lignite 
formation.  Von  Huene  gave  the  accompanying  section  of  this 
occurrence. 


D.  Dolomite;  T.  Clay;  g.  Calamine;   e.   Cerusite;  K.  Lignite;    e.  Blende. 

.  In  speaking  of  the  origin  of  this  deposit,  he  says:  'It  is  a 
remarkable  fact,  that  up  to  the  present  time,  no  blende  has  been 
found  in  the  calamine,  which  had  withstood  alteration.  Such 
fragments  occur  very  finely  in  the  broad  blende  lode  of  the 
Friihling  mine  at  Altenbruck,  two  miles  easterly  of  Eensberg, 
where  the  blende  has  been  altered  into  calamine  at  the  out- 
cropping of  the  deposit;  and  blende  is  still  found  in  the  centre 
of  larger  calamine  fragments.  The  whole  occurrence  of  ores  at 
Gladbach  and  Paffrath  clearly  shows,  that  these  are  no  longer 
in  their  original  deposit,  but  were  washed  into  the  wavelike 


184 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  AND  BELGIUM. 


surface  and  basins  of  the  limestone  at  the  time  the  clay  of  the 
lignite  formation  was  deposited.  The  edges  of  the  fragments 
being  mostly  still  sharp,  tends  to  show  that  they  are  but  a  short 
distance  from  the  original  deposits.  'It  is  probable  that  the  ore- 
fragments;  deposited  with  the  lignite  formation;  came  from  the- 
outcrops  of  similar  galena  and  blende  lodes;  such  as  occur  near 
Bensberg;  Herkenrath,  Altenbriick,  etc.,  but  which  are  there 
found  traversing  Devonian  rocks.  The  fact  is  curious,  however, 
that  the  blende  at  present  found  in  those  lodes  is  for  the  most 
part  coarsely  laminar,  while  that  just  mentioned  occurs  in 
botryoidal  form.' 

In  the  Neighborhood  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  in 
Belgium.1  The  chains  of  hills  in  this  region  consist  of  Devo- 
nian, Carboniferous,  and  Cretaceous  strata.  -  The  first  two  form 
saddles,  and  basins,  the  strike  of  whose  folds  is  from  NE.  to 
SW.  The  Cretaceous  strata  lie  nearly  horizontal,  overlapping 
the  others,  but  have  been  mostly  destroyed  by  erosion,  so  that 
the  older  rocks  come  to  the  surface  The  strata  of  the  older 
formations,  which  are  alone  of  importance  to  us,  are : 

Carboniferous  formations,  mostly  coal-shales; 

Mountain  limestone,  frequently  dolomitic; 

Upper  Devonian  slates; 

Lower  Devonian  limestones; 

Lower  Devonian  slates. 

The  zinc  ore  deposits  occur  only  inxthe  mountain  limestone 
or  in  its  limits  towards  above  and  below,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  section. 


Calamine. 


Calamine. 


a.  Cretaceous  Deposits. 

b.  Carboniferous  shales. 

c.  Mountain  limestone  and  dolomite. 

d.  Upper  Devonian  slates. 


e.  Lower  Devonian  limestones. 

f.  Lower  Devonian  slates.    Black. 
Zinc  Deposits. 


lSee:  Braun,  in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  gool.  Gesellsch.  1857,  p.  354;  Oeyn- 
hausen,  in  Noggerath's  Rheinland-Westphalen.  vol.  III.  p.  200;  Berggeist, 
1860,  p.  452;  Delanoue,  in  Annales  des  Mines,  1850,  XVIII.  p.  455;  Piot? 
in  same,  1844,  vol.  V.  p.  165;  Manes,  in  same,  1821,  vol.  VI.  p.  499; 


VEINS.  CONTACT-DEPOSITS.  185 

It  is  certainly  curious;  that  the  calamine  deposits,  on  the 
left  side  of  the  Rhine,  are  found  principally  in  combination 
with  mountain-limestone;  while  those  on  the  right  side,  occur 
with  the  older  Devonian  strata;  as  otherwise  a  great  analogy 
exists  in  their  geological  formation,  and  they  must  evidently  be 
regarded  as  mutual  prolongations  of  each  other,  only  separated 
by  the  broad  valley  of  the  Rhine.  From  this  fact  also  it  fol- 
lows, that  the  ores  must  be  of  much  more  recent  formation, 
than  the  magnesian  limestones  with  which  they  occur,  and  which 
only  appear  from  their  chemical  nature  to  have  exercised  a 
re-acting  influence  on  the  deposits,  entirely  independent  of  their 
own  geological  age. 

Max  Braun  distinguishes  in  this  region  : 

Veins, 

Contact  deposits, 

Pockets,  and      ^ 

Beds; 

which  all  principally  contain  zinc  ores,  are  intimately  related, 
and  were  probably  formed  contemporaneously.  The  veins  fill 
fissures  in  the  mountain-limestone,  above  and  beneath  which  they 
appear  to  continue  as  barren  cracks:  hence  their  being  filled 
with  ores  would  seem  to  have  been  essentially  caused  by  the 
nature  of  the  wall-rock.  They  contain  blende,  galena,  calc.  spar, 
and  at  times  quartz,  in  a  combed  arrangement. 

The  contact-deposits  occur,  resembling  segregations  more 
than  beds,  at  the  contact  of  the  limestones  with  the  shales, 
principally  at  the  upper  and  lower  limits  of  the  mountain-lime- 
stone; although  they  are  also  found  at  the  upper  limits  of  the 
Devonian  limestone.  The  contact-deposits  always  occur  in  connec- 
tion with  veins,  fissures,  faults,  or  breaks,  in  the  stratification; 


Bouesnel,  in  same.  1826,  vol.  XII.  p.  243;  Kueloux,  in  Annales  d.  travaux 
publiques  d.  Belgique,  1840,  vol.  VII.  and  1851,  vol.X;  Omalius  d'Halloy, 
in  Bullet,  geolo.  1841;  Bur  at,  Etudes  sur  les  gites  calaminiferes  en  Bel- 
gique, 1846. 


186  POCKETS,  BEDS. 

and  appear  to  have  penetrated  from 
these  between  the  original  strata,  ex- 
tending over  unequal  areas.  At  a 
depth  where  still  unaltered,  they  con- 
sist of  blende,  galena,  and  iron  pyrites ; 
while  near  their  outcrop  they  generally 

a.  Cretaceous  Marl  and  Diluvium.  contain  calamine,    smiths'onite,   galena, 

b.  Carboniferous  shales.  cerusite,  limonite,  clay,  and  sand.    The 
d   CatUnetaining  galeUa<          accompanying  two  wood-cuts  show  two 

e.  Clay  and  Limonite.  sections  in  the  St.  Paul  mine  at  Wel- 

f.  Mountain  limestone.  fcenradt. 

The  pockets  are  only  found  in  limestone  and  dolomite, 
but  as  well  in  those  of  the  Subcarboniferous,  as  of  the  Devonian 
formation.  They  occur  in  connection  with  the  veins,  or  the 
contact-deposits.  They  sometimes  occur  in  rows  parallel  to  the 
stratification,  and  contain  principally  calamine,  galena,  and 
cerusite. 

The  beds  are  confined  to  particular  strata,  which  they 
accompany  for  a  great  distance.  For  example,  a  clay-slate  layer 
of  the  Carboniferous  formation  contains  a  bed  of  blende  and 
galena  for  a  length  of  1300  fathoms;  and  a  layer  of  magnesian 
limestone,  5—6  feet  thick,  in  the  Devonian  shales,  contains  near 
Philippeville  in  Belgium,  considerable  galena  and  blende,  disse- 
minated in  it  for  an  extent  of  two  miles.  These  are  evidently 
not  true  beds,  but^  bedlike  impregnations;  and  indeed  all  these 
deposits  may  be  termed  impregnations,  in  the  broadesf  sense  of 
the  word,  i.  e.  as  infiltrations  in  previously  existing  rocks. 

The  adjoining  zinc-deposits  in  Belgium  are  all  of  a  similar 
character  to  these,  on  which  account  I  pass  them  over. 

COPPER,  LEAD,  SILVER,  NICKEL,  AND  COBALT-LODES. 

§  116.  The  Rhenish  Devonian  district  is  traversed  in  nu- 
merous places  by  veins,  whose  principal  gang  is  quartz,  with 
which  various  kinds  of  ores  are  combined.  These  ores  are 
either  copper  ores  alone;  or  copper  ores,  with  blende,  and 
somewhat  of  argentiferous  galena;  or .  argentiferous  galena,  with 
blende,  and  small  quantities  of  copper  ores ;  or  a  modification  of 
the  preceding  combinations,  in  which  nickel  and  cobalt  ores 
also  occur.  All  these  various  kinds  of  lodes  are  so  intimately 
connected  by  intermediate  steps,  that  they  cannot  be  divided 


RHENISH  LODES.    HOLZAPPEL  GROUP.        187 

into  separate   formations.     Stifft   indeed  divided  the  veins  in  the 
Devonian  of  Nassau  into  two  classes: 

1.  Copper  ores  with  iron  pyrites,  little  galena,  blende,  and  spathic  iron: 
these  poor  lodes  are  stated  to  traverse  the  slates  at  an  acute  angle. 

2.  Argentiferous 'lead  ores  with  copper  ores,  blende,  somewhat  of  smal- 
tine,  iron  pyrites,  and  spathic  iron:  these  are  mostly  parallel  to  the  strata. 

But  since  they  both  contain  quartz/  as  predominating  vein- 
stone, it  appears  to  me  impossible  to  separate  them  definitely 
from  one  another. 

I  will  describe  a  few  cases  of  these  widely  extended  for- 
mations, which  do  not  appear  to  follow  any  general  direction 
of  strike. 


HOLZAPPEL   GROUP.1 


§  117.  The  group  of  lodes,  extending  from  Holzappel  on 
the  Lahn  to  Welmich  and  Werlau  on  the  Rhine,  traverses  the 
strata  of  clay-slate  and  Devonian  schist:  it  is  distinguished  by 
its  length,  and  the,,  richness  of  several  of  the  lodes  forming  it. 

The  strata  of  the  intersected  Devonian  formation  strike  as 
a  rule  ENE.-^WSW.  and  dip  30°— 70°  towards  SE.,  exception- 
ally also  towards  NW.  caused  by  saddles  and  basins.  Their 
cleavage  frequently  varies  from  their  stratification,  and  even  at 
times  forms  right  angles  with  it.  Talcose  clay-slates  occur,  com- 
bined with  the  common  Devonian  strata.  It  would- seem  as  if 
the  formation  of  this  talcose  slate  had  some  particular  connec- 
tion with  that  of  the  ore-deposits,  as  it  occurs  pretty  constantly 
near  the  lodes.  A  second  kind  of  deposit,  which  traverses  the 
Devonian  clay-slate  in  various  directions,  is  composed  of  quartz 
beds  and  veins ;  which  last  mostly  intersect  the  strata  at  right 
angles,  and  are  always  intersected  by  the  lodes.  Basalt  dikes 
are  only  found  outside  of  the  group  of  lodes. 

These  Devonian-  clay-slate  strata  contain,  partly  in-  beds, 
partly  in  lodes,  iron  ores,  argentiferous  lead,  copper,  and 
zinc  ores. 

The  iron  ores  either  form  regular  beds  between  the  strata, 
or  surface-deposits  in  the  Diluvium;  or  else  take  part,  as  spa- 


'See:  Bauer,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  1840,  vol.  XV.  p.  137;  Schneider, 
in  Leonhard's  Taschenb.  1813,  p.  326,  and  Jahrb.  1836,  p.  520;  and  in  Nog- 
gerath's  Rheinland-Westphalen,  vol.  III.  p.  216 


188  HOLZAPPEL 

\ 
thic   iron,   in   the   composition  of  the  silver,   lead,    copper,    and 

zinc  veins. 

The  lodes  at  Holzappel  form  the  most  eastern  portion  of 
the  whole  group,  and  consist  of  three  leaders,  which  probably 
unite  at  a  greater  depth  into  one  lode.  Their  strike  and  dip, 
like  those  of  all  the  lodes  of-  this  group,  almost  coincide  with 
the  strike  and  dip  of  the  strata  of  the  country-rock.  They  are 
consequently  almost  bedded  veins;  and  many  observers  have 
supposed  them  to  be  true  beds. 

Two  fissures  have  faulted  these  lodes,  dividing  them  into 
three  portions,  in  the  most  easterly  of  which  but  one  of  the 
three  leaders  is  known,  it  being  perhaps  the  niveau  at  which 
all  three  have  united. 

The  matrix  is  principally  composed  of  quartz  and  horn- 
stone  'with  argentiferous  galena  and  blende.  Accompanying 
these,  as  originally  formed  minerals,  are  tetrahedrite,  copper  py- 
rites, spathic  iron,  heavy  spar,  calc.  spar,  and  dolomite.  These 
partly  alternate  in  ribbons  with  one  another,  partly  and  predo- 
minantly are  combined  in  an  irregular  granular  texture.  Clay- 
slate  is  also  occasionally  found  in  the  matrix.  Iron  pyrites 
occur  only  near  clefts,  and  appear  to  belong  more  to  these  than 
to  the  lodes.  Numerous  products  of  decomposition,  and  altera- 
tion, are  found  in  the  upper  workings:  cerusite,  pyromorphite, 
anglesite,  and  cerasine,  have  been  formed  from  galena.  The 
blende  is  represented  by  smithsonite  and  goslarite,  the  tetrahed- 
rite  and  copper  pyrites  by  azurite  and  malachite,  the  spathic 
iron  by  limonite  and  ochreous  iron. 

The  matrix  of  the  lode  is  separated  from  the  country-rock 
by  selvages,  and  at  times  by  friction-surfaces.  These  friction- 

v  «/ 

surfaces  are  generally  grooved  parallel  to  the  dip  of  the  ore- 
zones,  hereafter  mentioned,  and  the  so-called  banks.  The 
matrix  contains  no  geodes,  but  is  frequently  traversed  by  cross 
fissures,  which  do  not  extend  into  the  wall-rock,  and  are  covered 
by  drusy  crystallized  layers,  commonly  corresponding  to  the 
crystallized  minerals  on  -  which  they  lie:  thus,  the  quartz  is 
covered  by  quartz  crystals,  the  galena  by  crystals  of  galena,  etc. 
The  distribution  of  the  ores  in  the  lodes  is  by  no  means 
regular,  it  being  easy  to  distinguish  rich  from  poor  or  barren 
zones.  These  zones  slope  obliquely  to  the  plane  of  the  lodes 
at  an  angle  of  14°— 20°,  they  are  tolerably  parallel,  both  to 
one  another,  and  to  the  line,  which  the  stratification  of  the 


GROUPS,  AND  LODES. 


189 


country-rock  forms  with  the  plane  of  the  vlode.  Since  the 
grooves  of  the  friction-surfaces  follow  the  same  gentle  inclination, 
the  dislocation  of  the  fissures  must  have  been  sidewards  rather, 
than  in  an  up  and  down  direction. 

The  appearance  of  the  oblique  sloping  of  the  ore-masses  is 
apparently  not  merely  accidental,  but  was  probably  caused;  in 
the  first  place,  by  the  undeniable  influence  of  the  wall-rock  on 
the  deposits  of  ores,  and  secondly,  by  the  manner  in  which  the 
lode  intersects  the  strata.  As  regards  the  influence  of  the  wall- 
rock,  it  is  true,  it  cannot  be  shown,  between  which  strata  the 
lode  is  always  rich,  and  in  which  it  is  constantly  barren.  But 
the  Holzappel  miner's  proverb:  'the  noble  (soft,  crumbling)  wall- 
rock  makes  an  ignoble  vein',  deserves  attention.  It  is,  indeed, 
certain,  that  with  such  a  wall-rock  the  vein  is  mostly  narrow 
and  much  split,  it  only  continues,  as  barren  strings  of  quartz, 
frequently  alternating  with  plates  of  slate;  that  in  firmer  rock- 
strata,  on  the  contrary,  it  regains  its  former  breadth  and  ores. 
This  can  be  partially  explained  from  the  lesser  capacity  of  a 
soft  rock  to  retain  a  fissure  within  it  open;  but  there  is  pro- 
bably also  some  other  reason,  why  the  matrix  contains  more 
ores  in  some  strata  than  in  others,  since  the  lode  appears  some- 
times less  rich  in  a  hard,  rough  rock. 

The  walls  of  the  fissures  are  by  no  means  every  where  even 
and  parallel  to  each  other,  they  show  numerous  bends  and  dis- 
turbances, which  are  in  part  called  by  the  miners  'banks'. 
These  are,  as  it  were,  dams  or  folds  of  the  lode  which  gently 
incline,  being  parallel  to  the  stratification  and  plane  of  the  lode. 

Bauer  has  admirably  delineated  some  of  these,  the  two 
wood-cuts  are  copied  from  his  drawings. 


Holzappel  lode    in    the    Sophien    adit,  averaging  25 
inches  broad,  in  the  bank,  in  part  but  14  inches. 


190  LODES  ACROSS  THE  RHINE. 

In  these  two  cases,  as  in  other 
similar  ones,  the  fine  concentri- 
cal  structure  of  the  cylindrical 
projections  in  the  wall-rock  are 
very  striking.  The  fissures  inter- 
secting and  faulting  the  lode  are 
generally  filled  with  clay,  but 
occasionally  "contain  spheroidal- 
shaped  masses  of  ore,  identical 
with  those  in  the  vein.  The 
Hoizappei  lode  in  the  Herminen  country-rock  has  been  frequently 

level,   15—25  inches  brOad.  .  ,      f  !? 

impregnated,  from  these  nssures, 
with  copper  and  iron  pyrites. 

The  veins  of  Oberhof  are  entirely  similar  to  that  of  Hoiz- 
appei, and  form  the  western  prolongation  of  the  same ;  but  they 
have  a  fourth  leader,  which  contains  essentially  only  quartz  and 
copper  pyrites. 

At  a  distance  of  about  300  fathoms  from  and  in  the  foot- 
wall  of  the  Oberhof  lodes  occur  the,  now  abandoned,  Weinach 
lodes,  containing  quartz  and  copper  pyrites.  In  the  foot-wall  of 
these  are  found  the  Silbach  lodes,  five  in  number.  They  strike 
ENE.— WSW.  and  dip  40°— 45°  towards  SE.,  nearly  coincid- 
ing with  those  of  the  Devonian  strata.  The  breadth  of  these 
lodes  is  7 — 10  inches,  their  gang  is  quartz  combined  with  a 
talcose  mass.  The  ores  are  galena,  blende,  copper  pyrites,  tet- 
rahedrite,  and  spathic  iron:  in  the  upper  workings  the  same 
secondary  minerals  occur,  as  at  Hoizappei. 

Similar  lodes,  with  but  slight  modifications,  are  known  to 
extend,  in  large  numbers,  from  here  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Rhine,  and  to  the  Moselle ;  for  example,  at  the  Rauschenthal  mill 
near  Sieghofen  (with  a  different  strike),  at  Marierifels  (with 
veinstone  of  heavy  spar)  at  Hessisch  Weyer,  Sachsenhausen, 
Ehrenthal,  Dahlheim  (with  admixtures  of  stibnite),  Werlau  on  the 
Rhine  (where  cross  courses  of  quartz  'at  times  intersect  the  vein),  at 
Niederguntershausen,  Alterkulz,  Blank  erath,  and  Peters walde. 
Bauer  has  described  a  curious  occurrence  in  the  Sachsenhausen 
lode,  where  it  is  bent  like  a  hook  in  the  first  level,  as  shown 
in  the  wood-cut. 

The  wall-rock  nearly  follows  the  curve  in  the  lode. 

All  these  lodes,  more  specially  described  by  Bauer,  show 
such  a  similarity,  that  there  can  be  no  doubt,  as  to  their  rela- 


RHEINBREITENBACH.  191 

tion  to,  and  connection  with  each 
other.  They  lie,  for  the  greater 
part,  in  the  western  prolongation 
of  the  strike  of  the  Holzappel  lode. 
The  total  length  of  this  group, 
from  Holzappel  to  Peter swalde,  is 
36  miles;  and  in  the  whole  extent 
there  are  but  few  intervals,  where 
no  lodes  occur.  All  the  separate 

lodes  of  the  group  exhibit  a  great  conformity  in  their  outer  and 
inner  deportment.  They  are  generally  accompanied  by  a  white 
talcose  rock;  but  whether  it  exerts  any  influence  on  the  ore  in 
the  lodes,  has  not  yet  been  discovered. 

•»'  ., 

%  RHEINBREITENBACH.1 

§  118.  On  the  Firne  Mountain  at  Rheinbreitenbach,  a 
broad  lode  traverses  the  Devonian  strata,  tolerably  parallel  to 
the  stratification  or  cleavage,  so  that  it  has,  on  this  account, 
sometimes  been  regarded  as  a  bed.  The  same  contains  quartz 
and  hornstone  as  the  chief  veinstones;  the  ores  originally  formed 
in  the  lode  are  a  mixture  of  copper  glance,  and  erubescite,  with 
a  little  copper  pyrites,  homichlin,  iron  pyrites,  galena,  blende, 
and  spathic  iron.  In  the  upper  portions  of  the  lode,  and  to  a 
considerable  depth  below  the  outcrop,  a  number  of  minerals 
have  been  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  the  preceding;  viz. 
native  copper,  red  copper,  ehlite,  melaconite,  azurite,  malachite, 
chrysocolla,  libethenite,  sulphat  of  copper,  cerusite,  and  limonite. 

The  mass  of  the  lode,  in  the  undecom posed  portion,  is 
solid,  without  crystals,  or  geodes.  The  lode  frequently  comes 
in  contact  with  a  basaltic  dike,  which  is  altogether  decomposed 
near  the  lode,  resembling  a  greenish  gray  lode,  in  the  clefts  of 
which  are  found  thin  dendritic  leaves  of  native  copper.  From 
this  it  would  appear  that  the  dike  is  older  than  the  lode;  or, 
at  least,  its  decomposition  has  continued  after  the  formation  of 
the  latter. 


'See:  Noggerath,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1846,  p.  457;  S'tifft,  Geogn. 
Beschr.  d.  Herzogth.  Nassau,  p.  460;  S.andberger,  Uebers.  d.  geolo.  Verb, 
d.  Herzogth.  Nassau,  1847,  p.  124;  Odernheimer,  das  Berg-  u.  Hiitten- 
wesen  im  Herzogthum  Nassau,  1863. 


192  AGGER  VALLEY.  DILLENBURG. 

AGGER  VAtLEY.1 

§  119.  In  the  neighborhood  of.4;he  Agger  valley,  northerly 
of  Siegburg,  I  observed  a  large  number  of  lodes  in  the  Lenne 
slates,  whose  breadth  varies  from  1  inch  to  7  feet.  Their  matrix 
is  principally  quartz,  with  copper  pyrites,  and  other  copper 
ores  (partly  the  products  of  decomposition),  together  with 
blende,  and  galena,  or  even  nickel  and  cobalt  ores.  These 
ores  occur,  partly  associated,  in  part  singly.  The  direction 
and  distribution  of  the  veins  cannot  be  referred  back  to  any  law. 
The  Walpot  mine  has  been  worked,  at  intervals,  for  centuries, 
on  one  of  the  most  important  of  them.  Quartz  with  copper 
pyrites,  somewhat  of  pyrites,  and  very  little  blende  and  galena, 
occur  mingled  with  one  another  in  an  irregular  granular  tex- 
ture ;  frequently  forming  a  sort  of  breccia  with  fragments  of  the 
wall  -  rock. 

Riviere  mentions  over  100  blende  and  galena  lodes,  as 
occurring  in  the  same  neighborhood,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  between  Coblentz  and  Diisseldorf,  which  have  a  common 
strike  from  ENE.  to  WSW.  He  takes  this  opportunity  of  ex- 
pressing the  opinion ;  as  it  appears  to  me  not  confirmed  by  facts ; 
that  the  mass,  direction,  and  period,  at  which  the  fissures  were 
filled  by  the  matrix,  all  stand  in  the  most  intimate  mutual  con- 
nection ;  that  the  Rhenish  blende-lodes  were  formed  before  the 
mountain  limestone,  and  that  their  partial  erosion  afforded  the 
material  for  the  calamine  deposits  combined  with  the  latter.  He 
thinks,  that  the  copper  lodes,  on  the  contrary,  are  of  more  recent 
formation,  on  which  the  products  caused  by  their  partial  destruc- 
tion are  found  only  in  later  strata  than  those  of  the  mountain- 
limestone. 


DILLENBURG.2 

§    120.     The    Devonian    formation    in    the    Principality    of 
Dillenburg,  containing  schalstein,  is  also  traversed  by  numerous 


1  See:  Riviere,  in  Bullet,  de  la  soc.  geol.  de  France,  1848—49,  vol.  VI. 

P    171- 

2  See:  Stifft,  Geogn.  Beschr.  d  Herzogt.  Nassau,  p.  486;  Sandberger, 
Uebers.  d.  geolo.  Verb.  d.  Herzogth.  Nassau,  p.  125;  Klipstein,  in  Gemein- 
niitzige  Blatter  zur  Beforderung  d.  Bergbau  u.  Hiittenwesens,  r849,  vol.  I. 


DILLENBURG.  193 

copper  lodes;  which  bend  so  much,  as  to  vary  in  their  strike 
from  N.— S.  to  WNW.— ESE.  They  have  a  considerable  dip, 
frequently  send  out  droppers ;  possess  a  breadth  of  1  inch  to 
6  feet,  but  at  times  are  entirely  compressed.  Their  vein-stones 
are  quartz,  calc.  spar,  brown  spar,  heavy  spar,  and  clay ;  while 
the  ores  found  are:  copper  pyrites  (predominating),  copper 
glance,  red  copper,  tile  ore,  malachite,  azurite,  and  chrysocolla. 
The  pockets  of  ore  have  an  oblique  dip.  Stifft  found  the  dis- 
similar influence  of  the  different  kinds  of  wall-rock  to  be  very 
striking.  In  greenstone  the  principal  vein-stone  is  quartz;  the 
ores  are  rich,  but  few;  and  clay  selvages  are  wanting.  In  the 
schalstein,  calc.  spar  (brown  spar  and  heavy  spar)  forms  the 
chief  gang,  and  serves  as  a  support  for  the  quartz;  which  suc- 
cession is  reversed  in  the  greenstone.  The  ores  are  more  fre- 
quent, but  not  of  so  rich  a  character;  and  contain  considerable 
iron  pyrites,  which  is  almost  entirely  wanting  in  the  greenstone. 
The  lodes  are  accompanied  by  clay  selvages.  The  most  favor- 
able rock  for  ores  is  the  ferruginous  variety  of  schalstein. 
Considerable  impregnations  of  copper  pyrites  occur  in  the  schal- 
stein, alongside  of  the  lodes;  while  the  rock  is  here  traversed 
only  by  copper  and  iron  lodes,  and  veins  of  heavy  spar  free  of 
ores.  In  the  common  Devonian  strata  but  little  ore  occurs  in 
the  lodes,  and  the  predominating  quartz  is  intimately  combined 
with  the  wall-rock. 

Von  Klipstein  has  also  described  the  lodes  around  Dillen- 
burg,  in  which  quicksilver  ores  occasionally  occur.  He  states 
that  the  tetrahedrite  lodes  of  the  Aurora,  Isabella,  and  other 
mines,  stand  in  most  intimate  connection  with  the  greenstones, 
which  appear  to  be  the  ore-carriers.  A  group  extends  from 
Rossbach  to  Roth,  which  contains  tetrahedrite  holding  mercury 
and  silver.  Cinnobar  also  occurs  in  a  copper  pyrites  lode  of 
the  Neuermuth  mine  at  Nanzenbach,  while  traces  of  the  same 
are  found  in  the  hematite  occurring  in  the  schalstein  of  the 
neighborhood. 

Twenty  five  lodes  have,  up  to  the  present  time,  been  dis- 
covered at  Donsbach  near  Dillenburg,  which  contain,  in  a  gang 
of  quartz  and  calc.  spar;  copper  pyrites,  erubescite,  coppor 


pp.  19,  44,  58,  87;  and  1859,  vol.  II;  for  other  deposits,  see  also,  von  Dechen, 
in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1856,  p.  81;  and,  Cauchy,  in  Bullet,  de  la  soc.  ge"olo. 
de  France,  vol.  III.  p.  321. 

13 


ANTIMONY 

glance,  covelline,  azurite,  malachite,  tile  ore,  and  somewhat  of 
iron  pyrites.  They  vary  from  3  inches  to  5  fathoms  in  breadth, 
strike  NNE.-SSW.,  dip  ,60°—  80°^  in  SE.,  but  seldom  the 
reverse;  and  traverse  clay-slate,  sclialstein,  and  hematite  beds. 
The  calcareous  hematites  evidently  exert  the  most  favorable 
influence,  somewhat  less  favorable  the  ferruginous  schalsteins, 
and  the  siliceous  iron-stones;  while  the  common  schal steins,  and 
clay-slates,  are  in  this  connection  much  less  favorable. 

The  Devonian  strata  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dillenburg  * 
are  traversed  by  greenstones  and  pyritous  dikes  of  serpentine. 
About  20  veins,  resembling  one  another,  have  been  opened  by 
the  Hilfe-Gottes  mine  at  Nanzenbach,  having  different  directions 
of  strike;  one  of  these  contains  nickel  ores  in  sufficient  quan- 
tities to  be  exploited.  While  all  the  fissures  contain  a  matrix 
of  calc.  spar,  and  a  mineral  resembling  calc.  spar,  this  one 
vein  contains  an  ore-matrix  5  inches  broad,  consisting  of  copper 
pyrites,  riicolliferous  iron  pyrites,  a  mineral  substance  resembling 
chrysotile.  The  amout  -of  nickel  is  3  per-cent,  that  of  copper 
12 — 15  per-cent.  Arsenic  and  cobalt  have  not  been  found  in 
the  preceding  minerals,  but  occur  at  the  junction  of  the  lode 
with  one  of  the  non-metalliferous  veins.  The  junction  contains 
copper  nickel,  chloanthite,  smaltine,  and  cobaltine ;  similar  min- 
erals recur  at  the  junction  with  another  vein. 

The  ores  appear  to  be  confined  to  that  portion  of  the  lode, 
which  traverses  a  glauconitic  rock  resembling  greenstone,  while 
they  are  wanting  in  the  common  sandy  micaceous  slate.  This 
favorable  influence  appears  to  be  confined  to  this  single  lode, 
since  the  other  veins  also  traverse  such  rocks  without  containing 
any  ores. 

ANTIMONY   ORE -DEPOSITS. 

§  121.  The  Rhenish  Devonian  contains  in  several  locali- 
ties, deposits  of  antimony  ores,  which  occur  independently  of 
all  other  ore- deposits.  I  will  here  describe  two  cases, 

1".      Between    Wintrop'2    and    Uentrop,    a    few    miles    from 


1  See:     Von   Klip  stein,     Gemeinn.     Blatter  z.  Beford.    d.    Bergb.    u. 
Huttenw.  1849,  vol.  I.  pp.  18,  104;  Koch,  in  Cotta's  Gangstudien,    vol.  III. 
p.  246;  Sandberger,  Uebers.  d.  geol.  Verb.  d.  Herzogth.  Nassau,  p.  126. 

2  See:  Buff,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  1827,  vol.  VI.  p.  54,  and  1833,  2nd.  series, 
vol.  VI.  p.  439;  Arndts,  in  the  same,  1824,  vol.  VIII.  p,  272. 


ORE-DEPOSITS.  195 


Arnsberg,  strata  of  tabular  limestone,  J/2  —  I1/*  ^eet  thick,  alter- 
nate with  clay-slate,  alum  shale,  and  siliceous  slate.  They  are 
overlaid  by  the  millstone  grit  of  the  Carboniferous  formation, 
and  belong  to  the  Subcarboniferous  formation.  These  strata 
are,  some  of  them,  penetrated  by  stibnite,  as  well  the  bituminous 
limestone,  as  some  of  the  slate  layers.  The  penetration,  2  —  6 
inches  thick,  occupies  chiefly  the  middle  of  the  strata,  and 
disappears  towards  the  hanging-  and  foot-walls,  as  decreasing  dis- 
semination. The  rocks  are  less  compact,  and  of  a  darker  color, 
so  far  as  the  penetration  reaches.  The  massive  portions  of  ore, 
in  the  middle  of  the  strata,  enclose  at  times  small  fragments  of 
rock,  and  the  ores  penetrate  into  cracks  in  the  strata.  Anti- 
mony ochre  is  found  near  the  surface,  as  a  product  of  decom- 
position. The  rock  also  occasionally  contains  somewhat  of  iron 
pyrites,  blende,  calc.  spar,  and  fluor  spar.  The  Caspari  mine 
had  in  1827  opened  up  7  of  the  metalliferous  strata;  in  1833 
already  11.  Near  these,  but  without  any  apparent  connection 
with  them,  occur  veins  of  heavy  spar,  containing  copper  pyrites, 
and  bismuth  ores;  while  near  Meschede  there  is  a  vein  con- 
taining heavy  spar,  and  calc.  spar,  with  galena,  copper  pyrites, 
and  tetrahedrite. 

I  am  not  able  to  decide,  from  Buff's  description,  which  I 
have  borrowed,  whether  this  occurrence  of  antimony  ores  should 
be  termed  a  bed  or  veins.  In  the  one  case,  it  would  be  only 
a  bedlike  impregnation;  in  the  other  bedded  veins;  which  latter 
view  indeed  is  favored  by  the  fragments  of  wall-rock  surrounded 
by  ores,  and  the  occurrence  in  limestone  and  slate. 

2.  The  Hoffnung  l  antimony  mine  occurs  near  Briick  on 
the  Ahr,  in  the  Circle  of  Adenau.  The  Devonian  slates  strike 
nearly  N.  —  S.  and  dip  45°  in  W.  The  antimony  ores  form  a 
zone  in  these  80  —  120  feet  broad,  coursing  N.  —  S.  which  had 
been  opened  up,  as  being  metalliferous,  for  a  length  of  560  feet, 
in  1827.  This  zone  is  only  distinguished,  besides  its  containing 
ores,  from  the  common  Devonian  slate,  by  being  somewhat  more 
fissured. 

The  ores,  consisting  of  stibnite,  with  somew7hat  of  iron 
pyrites,  quartz  and  brown  spar;  are  found  partly  in  true  veins, 
partly  as  impregnations  between  the  planes  of  stratification,  or 
the  fine  cleavage-fissures. 


1  See:  Erbreich,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  1827,  vol.  VI.  p.  44. 

13* 


196  COMMERN  LEAD-ORE. 

The  lodes,  6  inches  broad,  form  among  themselves  a 
parallel  group,  striking  ENE. — WSW.  and  dip  40° — 50°  in 

South. 

.•*' 

The  impregnation-fissures  contain  only  quartz  with  the  ore, 
but  no  iron  pyrites. 

Erbreich  says  of  the  occurrence;  that  veins  occur  so  near 
each  other  (at  distances  of  1 — 7  feet),  that  the  formation  of  the 
fissures  at  the  same  time  lifted  the  strata  so,  that  a  portion  of 
the  matrix  of  the  lodes  penetrated  between  the  layers. 

LEAD  ORE  DEPOSIT  NEAR  COMMERN.  1 

§  122.  The  remarkable  lead  ore  deposit  of  the  Bleiberg 
(Lead  Mountain),  near  Commern  in  the  Prussian  Rhenish 
Province,  belongs  to  the  Variegated  Sandstone  formation,  which 
there  immediately  overlies  the  Devonian.  The  strata  of  the 
former  have  a  gentle  dip  towards  N.;  the  lowest,  immediately 
over  the  Devonian,  consists  of  a  coarse  conglomerate  of  com- 
pletely rounded  Devonian  boulders,  with  a  gray  quartzose 
binding  medium.  Over  this  follows  a  fine,  metalliferous  sand- 
stone, white  or  yellowish,  loosely  united,  and  having  pretty 
thick  strata.  These  sandstones  often  contain  some  irregular 
layers  of  conglomerate,  which  soon  wedge- out. 

The  sandstones  contain  ores,  for  a  distance  of  about  2  miles, 
but  are  less  rich  towards  their  outer  limits;  the  same  commence 
near  the  surface,  and  extend  with  the  strata  to  a  depth  as  yet 
unknown;  it  is  stated,  that  the  metalliferous  strata  are  at  times 
more  than  45  fathoms  thick.  The  sandstone  is  filled,  throughout 
its  whole  mass,  with  grains  of  galena,  varying  in  size  from  a 
pinhead  to  that  of  an  apple,  the  coarser  grains  being  the  most 
rare,  which  are  distributed  with  most  surprizing  regularity. 
Larger  grains  are  extremely  rare :  more  commonly  they  decrease 
in  size,  so  as  to  be  barely  visible.  The  interior  of  these  grains 
nearly  always  contains  fine  sand,  cemented  together  by  the 
galena.  From  which  it  appears  to  me  clear,  that  the  grains 
are  not  found  in  secondary  deposits,  which,  like  a  kind 


1  See:  Von  Carnal  1,  in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellsch.  1853, 
p.  242;  Dartiques,  in  Journal  des  mines,  1807,  vol.  XXII.  p.  341;  Breit- 
haupt,  in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1856,  p.  7;  C.  Haber.  in  Berggeist.  1866, 
No.  66;  and  1867,  Nos.  19,  20,  and  22. 


GOLD-DEPOSITS.  197 

of  alluvial  deposit,  have  been  only  accidentally  washed  to- 
gether with  the  sand;  but  that  the  ore  was  either  formed 
contemporaneously  with  the  sandstone,  or  penetrated  it  sub- 
sequently by  a  process  of  impregnation.  From  the  form  of 
the  occurrence,  it  would  appear  to  be  an  impregnation.  The 
grains  are  here  and  there  changed  into  cerusite;  and  Dartiques 
states,  that  they  frequently  also  contain  somewhat  of  blend e,  or 
are  colored  green  or  blue  by  small  amounts  of  copper.  The 
percentage  of  silver  they  contain,  is  1/230oo  to  Vasoo- 

Ore  also  occurs,  though  in  smaller  quantities,  in  the  layers 
of  conglomerate,  within  the  sandstone,  as  small  threads  of  pure 
galena,  without  admixtures  of  sand,  evidently  deposited  in  small 
cracks,  or  cavities;  consequently,  of  secondary  origin. 

The  friction-surfaces  of  the  sandstone  are  curious,  the  more 
so,  since  the  rock  is  so  friable,  and  since  the  dislocations, 
which  have  taken  place,  can  only  have  been  for  very  short 
distances. -r-.v  . 

C.  Haber  has  very  recently  described  this  lead  ore  deposit. 
He  explains  its  formation  by  impregnations,  which  have  pene- 
trated from  numerous  fissures  traversing  the  sandstone.  These 
fissures  appear  to  be  connected  with  true  veins  of  galena,  occur- 
ring in  the  Devonian  strata  beneath  the  sandstone. 


GOLD-DEPOSITS. 

§.  123.  The  oldest  account  o£  the  occurrence  of  gold,  on 
the  Eisenberg  (Iron  Mountain)  near  Corbach, 1  is  to  be  found 
in  Agricola:  he  speaks  of  gold  veins.  Bruckmann  states,  that 
gold  was  obtained  from  veins  only  so  recently  as  1560;  but 
that  Charlemagne  opened  the  first  gold-mine  near  Frankenberg. 
Von  Eschwege  has  lately  attempted  to  wash-out  the  gold  in  the 
river  alluvium  of  the  Edder.  He  obtained  the  gold  in  scales, 
without  finding  any  particles  of  rock,  to  which  the  same  was 
attached;  proving  the  existence  of  gold,  but  that  it  was  in  such 
small  quantities,  as  to  render  its  extraction  unprofitable. 

Dieffenbach    was    the  first,    who    satisfactorily    proved    the 


1  See:  Noggerath,  in  Karsten's  Arch.  vol.  VII.  p.  143;  Dreves,  in 
Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1841,  p.  553;  Gutberlet,  in  same,  1854,  p.  15;  and 
1857,  pp.  513,  and  672-,  v.  Dechen,  in  same,  1856,  p.  81;  Dieffenbach, 
in  same,  1854,  p.  3-24. 


198  GOLD-DEPOSITS  IN 

original  occurrence  of  the  gold;  while  Gutberlet  has  attempted 
to  give  a  very  singular  explanation.  As  Dieftenbach's  description 
is  very  interesting,  at  least  scientifically,  I  extract  from  it  the 
following  abridgment. 

The  Eisenberg  near  Goldhausen  is  formed  of  siliceous  and 
clay-slates.  The  first  is  thinly  stratified,  much  folded,  fissured, 
and  dislocated.  Earthy  or  stalagmitic  copper  ores  occur  in  its 
fissures,  especially  malachite,  azurite,  chrysocolla,  and  earthy  red 
copper  (tile  ore).  The  siliceous  slate  is  much  decomposed  around 
these  ores,  is  soft,  and  impregnated  with  carbonate  of  lime ;  the 
clefts  are  often  covered  with  incrustations  of  calc.  spar,  dolomite, 
or  spathic  iron;  which  are  at  times  crystallized.  The  brown 
fragments  of  the  siliceous  slate,  which  are  in  many  places  covered 
with  earthy  copper  ores,  almost  have  the  appearance  of  a  cellular 
limestone,  and  effervesce  in  acid,  although  a  kernel  of  siliceous 
slate  remains.  Such  fragments  are  the  richest  in  the  percentage 
of  metal.  In  other  places  the  siliceous  slate  forms  quartz  or 
hornstone-like  ferruginous  masses,  of  a  reddish,  yellowish,  or 
even  grayish  color;  which  are  traversed  by  quartz  veins.  Thin 
clay  strata  of  a  ferruginous  red  or  brown  color  occur,  here  and 
there,  between  the  strata  of  siliceous  slate.  In  other  places 
large  cavities  in  the  slate  are  filled  with  melaconite,  which  can 
be  obtained  in  large  quantities.  The  siliceous  slate  has  a  very 
cellular  appearance,  especially  near  the  deposits  of  melaconite; 
from  which  it  is  probable,  that  the  latter,  as  well  as  the 
copper  salts,  and  the  peroxide  of  iron,  were  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites.  The  gold  oc- 
curs partly  in  the  clefts  of  the  quartzose  siliceous  slate  in 
thin  dendritic  incrustations;  or,  (and  this  is  the  most  common 
occurrence,)  it  encrusts  the  very  small  rhombohedrons  of  spathic 
iron,  which  are  found  on  the  limestone  incrustations  of  the  clefts ; 
these  consequently  have  the  appearance  of  gold  crystals.  The 
gold  is  here  evidently  of  more  recent  formation.  Over  these 
occasionally  occur  small  rhombohedrons  of  calc.  spar  with  rounded 
edges.  The  incrustation  of  gold  is  at  times  so  thin,  that  the 
crystals  have  a  dull  brownish-red  color.  From  attempts  at 
amalgamating,  it  has  been  found,  that  the  entire  rock,  especially 
the  red  clay%  contains  gold. 

This  gold-occurrence  tends  to  show,  that  the  copper  ores 
are  of  secondary  formation,  during  which  process  the  gold  was 
separated.  Dieffenbach  was  unable  to  find  any  traces  of  veins 


THE  RHINE-DISTRICT.  199 

in  the  siliceous  slate,  although  greenstones  occur  at  a  distance 
of  about  two  miles.  As  Dieffenbach  was  not  permitted  to  make 
a  more  careful  examination  of  the  Eisenberg,  he  was  unable 
to  determine,  whether  the  siliceous  slate  was  at  a  former  period 
covered  by  the  copper  slates,  which  are  still  found  in  place  on 
the  sides  of  the  mountain,  and  whose  metalliferous  stratum 
surrounds  the  mines  at  Goddelsheim;  and,  whether  similar 
relations  exist,  as  'at  Stadtberg,  where  siliceous  slates,  fissured 
in  a  precisely  similar  manner,  are  still  covered  by  the  Zech- 
stein  formation.  It  is  at  least  not  improbable;  and  perhaps  the 
large  amount  of  lime  in  the  siliceous  slate  comes  from  the  rocks 
of  the  Zechstein.  Here  and  there,  perhaps,  in  the  fissures  of 
the  slate,  occur  fragments  of  the  more  recent  formation,  which 
have,  in  cabinet  specimens,  a  very  striking  resemblance  to  the 
metalliferous  magnesian  limestone. 

The  siliceous  slates,  of  the  Subcarboniferous  formations,  are 
frequently  metalliferous  at  the  localities  mentioned,  containing 
pyrolusite,  iron-  and  copper-pyrites.  Widely  extended  strata  of 
the  same  are  indeed  nothing  else  than  white  or  reddish  rho- 
donite, which  when  exposed  to  the  air  turns  as  black  as  coal, 
since  it  becomes  encrusted  by  a  very  thin  layer  of  manganite. 
A  portion  of  these  strata  is  altered  into  manganite  and  pyro- 
lusite, while  a  larger  portion  has  been  converted  into  psilomelane. 
In  other  cases  the  pyrolusite  has  been  more  purely  concentrated 
in.  the  planes  of  stratification,  or  it  fills  fissures  obliquely 
traversing  the  siliceous,  or  even  the  clay-slate.  But  these  rocks 
every  where  contain  traces  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  so  that 
it  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable,  that  the  siliceous  slates  will 
prove  to  be  the  original  locality,  where  the  gold  of  this  region  was 
deposited. 

In  the  sands  of  the  Goldbach, 1  a  branch  of  the  Moselle, 
gold  has  only  been  found,  which  originated  from  quartzveins  in 
the  clay-slate  of  this  region.  The  amount  of  gold  is  so  small,  as 
to  render  its  exploitation  unprofitable. 

•  'See:  Noggerath's  Rheinland-Westphalen,  vol.  1.  p.  141. 


200  PALATINATE 

VI.     THE  PALATINATE. 

QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS. ' 

§  124.  Ores  of  mercury  are  found,  in  the  eastern  portion 
of  the  Saarbriick  coal-basin,  in  lodes,  and  as  impregnations;  in 
the  rocks  of  the  Carboniferous  formation,  in  porphyry,  melaphyr, 
and  amygdaloid. 

Von  Dechen  has  given  such  an  excellent  synopsis  of  his 
description  of  these  deposits  on  the  Potz  Mountain,  at  Rathsweiler, 
Erzweiler,  Baumholder,  Wolfstein,  Katzenbach,  Obermoschel, 
Bingart,  Kreuznach,  Weinsheim,  Munsterappel,  Morsfeld,  Nack, 
Spitzenberg,  and  Kirchheim-Bolanden,  that  I  shall  confine  myself 
to  extracts  from  the  same. 

The  quicksilver  ores  of  this  district  occur  in  lodes,  and  as 
impregnations  which  have  penetrated  from  these,  in  the  strata 
of  the  Carboniferous  formation,  and  such  igneous  rocks  as  tra- 
verse them.  These  lodes  are  found,  at  the  Potz  Mountain,  in 
Carboniferous  sandstone,  and  argillaceous  shale;  at  Morsfeld, 
in  melaphyre-conglomerate,  claystone-conglomerate,  and  clay- 
stone;  at  Rathsweiler,  Erzweiler,  and  Baumholder,  in  melaphyre 
and  amygdaloid,  frequently  much  split  up  into  leaders;  on  the 
Konigsberg  (Kings  Mountain)  near  Wolfsberg,  in  quartz  porphyry ; 
on  the  Lemberg  (Lem  Mountain),  as  irregular  branches,  and 
fissures,  in  quartz  porphyry.  They  are  at  times  accompanied 
by  claystones  and  hornstones  of  the  carboniferous  formation, 
not  found  in  this  region;  thus,  at  Landsberg,  Rosswald,  Stahl- 
berg,  and  Kellerberg.  These  horn-  and  clay- stones  pass  into  com- 
mon argillaceous  shale,  and  sandstone.  Since  they  only  retain 
their  peculiar  character  near  the  lodes,  they  may  have  been 
transformed  by  some  peculiar  process,  which  came  from  the  veins  • 
still  fragments  of  the  shale  and  sandstone  are  occasionally  found 
in  them. 


lSee:  v.  Oeynhausen,  in  Noggerath's  Rheinland-Westphalen, 
vol.  I.  p.  256;  Burkart,  in  same,  vol.  IV.  p.  185;  v.  Dechen,  in  Karsten's 
Arch.  1848,  vol.  XXII.  p.  375;  Giimbel,  die  Quecksilbererze  in  dem Kohlen- 
gebirge  der  Pfalz. 


QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS.  201 

No  particular  connection  has  yet  been  discovered  between 
the  veins  and  melaphyres,  although  they  frequently  come  in 
contact. 

The  lodes  traversing  the  claystones  and  hornstones  are  metal- 
liferous, only  where  these  form  the  country-rock,  being  destitute 
of  ores  in  the  shales  and  sandstones  they  penetrate.  The  lodes, 
which  traverse  the  common  rocks  of  the  Carboniferous  formation, 
contain  ores  only  in  sandstone  and  conglomerate,  and  are 
destitute  of  the  same  in  the  shales.  The  veins  are  accom- 
panied by  numerous  branches,  and  leaders,  which  also  contain 
ores,  as  well  in  the  common  rocks  of  the  Carboniferous,  as 
in  the  claystones  and  hornstones  (Potz  Mountain,  Stahlberg, 
Landsberg). 

When  the  sandstone  (in  part  conglomerate),  claystone,  and 
hornstone,  form  the  walls  of  the  veins,  they  are  impregnated 
for  some  distance;  while  the  common  argillaceous  is  not  thus 
impregnated.  A  single  exception  to  this  last  is  at  Miinsterappel, 
where  somewhat  of  cinnabar  occurs  on  impressions  of  fish  in  the 
shales. 

This  impregnation  occurs  in  both  walls  of  the  fissures, 
appearing  to  be  controled  by  the  rock-fissures,  and  cracks :  it 
extends  to  a  distance  of  several  fathoms  from  the  lodes.  Sandstone- 
strata,  impregnated  with  ores,  have  even  been  found,  which  have 
no  apparent  connection  with  any  veins;  thus,  on  the  (Forst- 
berg)  Forest-Mountain  near  Miinsterappel,  and  at  Waldgrehweiler. 
Quicksilver  ores  have  also  been  found,  in  the  jointings  of  porphy- 
ries, without  any  apparent  connection  with  true  veins;  thus 
on  the  Lem  Mountain. 

The  quicksilver  lodes  of  this  district  form  groups,  but  not 
distinctly  separable,  several  lodes  occurring  at  times  alongside 
of  and  behind  one  another,  and  having  a  common  direction  of 
strike. 

The  majority  of  the  ores,  both  in  the  veins  and  country- 
rock,  are  only  found  to  a  moderate  depth;  they  have  not  been 
followed  to  a  greater  depth  than  120  fathoms,  but  the  decrease 
with  the  depth  is  very  perceptible.  This  decrease  is  at  times 
combined  with  a  more  gentle  dip  of  the  lodes. 

The  gang  of  the  veins  is  principally  clay,  in  which  the 
ores  occur  disseminated.  By  far  the  most  frequent  of  these  is 
cinnabar  in  small  threads,  branches,  or  geodes,  more  rarely  in 
bands,  or  combs;  also,  native  mercury,  amalgam,  and  calomel. 


202  PALATINATE  QUICKSILVER-LODES. 

Mercuriferous  tetraliedrite  .is  only  found  in  the  Sehwarz  lode 
on  the  Landsberg.  Of  other  ores  are  found,  although  mostly 
rare;  iron  pyrites  (in  part  argentiferous),  limonite,  compact  he- 
matite, specular  iron,  psilomelane,  galena,  native  silver,  tetrahed- 
rite,  copper  pyrites,  malachite,  azurite,  chrysocolla,  stibnite, 
pyrolusite,  spathic  iron,  calc.  spar,  heavy  spar,  quartz,  hornstone, 
red  and  yellow  ferruginous  quartz,  chalcedony,  and  asphaltum. 
These  vein-stones  generally  form  only  threads,  or  crystalline 
incrustations  of  geodes  and  the  sides  of  clefts.  Gumbel  observed 
the  following  successions: 

1.  Hornstone— heavy  spar— iron  pyrites— cinnabar— native  mercury. 

2.  Hornstone— semi-opal — quartz—  cinnabar—  asphaltum. 

3.  Hornstone— fluor  spar — calc.  spar— quartz -iron  pyrites. 

4.  Iron  pyrites— cinnabar — heavy  spar— quartz. 

In  the  district,  containing  quicksilver  lodes,  but  few  others 
are  .found.  Copper  lodes  occur  northerly  of  Baumholder;  near 
Berschweiler,  Keichenbach,  Frauenberg,  and  Hammerstein;  con- 
taining copper  pyrites,  native  copper,  copper  glance,  and 
malachite.  Similar  ones  occur,  in  melaphyre,  on  the  Lem 
Mountain,  and  the  Redder  Mountain  near  Niederhausen.  The 
occurrence  of  tetrahedrite,  copper  pyrites,  and  galena,  on  the 
Landsberg,  appears  to  stand  in  intimate  connection  with  the 
quicksilver  ores. 

The  general  character  of  these  quicksilver  lodes,  and  the 
fact  that  the  ores  are  almost  only  found  at  a  moderate  depth, 
distributed  in  the  numerous  fissures  of  the  rock;  would  seem 
to  prove,  that  most  of  the  ores,  especially  those  of  mercury, 
have  penetrated  into  the  fissures  by  a  process  of  sublimation; 
and  that  a  tolerably  extended  district  was  subjected  for  a 
considerable  period  to  these  sublimations,  in  such  a  manner, 
that  the  same  penetrated,  wherever  a  possibility  existed  for 
their  doing  so,  and  were  deposited  at  a  certain  level  (by  a 
certain  temperature),  having  some  choice  as  to  the  rocks  which 
they  selected. 


BLACK  FOREST.  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION.  203 

VII.  THE  BLACK  FOREST. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  125.  The  Black  Forest  rises  somewhat  steeply,  above 
the  plane  of  the  Rhine  valley,  to  a  height  of  about  2000  feet 
(being  3000  above  the  sea,  on  the  Feldberg  4600  feet).  Towards 
the  East  it  gradually  descends  to  the  plateau  of  the  Swabian 
sedimentary  formations.  It  consists  principally  of  granite,  and 
gneiss;  which  frequently  alternate  with,  and  at  times  pass  into 
one  another,  so  that  a  line  can  hardly  be  drawn  between  the 
two.  For  although  the  granite  forms  at  times  distinct  and 
clearly  defined  dikes  in  the  gneiss,  exactly  similar  granite 
dikes  occur  in  the  granite  itself.  Both  of  these  rocks  are  com- 
paratively seldom  traversed  by  quartz  porphyries,  and  still  more 
rarely  by  greenstones  and  serpentines.  Daub  states,  that  the 
quartz  porphyries  lie  nearly  parallel  to  two  belts  of  lodes,  which, 
commencing  in  the  southerly  mountainous  region,  cross  each 
other  near  Baden-Baden,  at  least  according  to  their  directions. 

A  small  region  of  clay-slate,  probably  belonging  to  the 
Silurian  Age,  comes  into  such  intimate  connection  with  the  gneiss 
near  Todtenau,  that  at  their  contact  they  often  imperceptibly 
pass  into  each  other.  Only  slight  remains  of  the  Carboniferous 
formation  occur,  in  part  with  unconformable  strata,  in  the  Black 
Forest;  thus,  at  Schramberg,  and  at  Offenburg,  where  seams  of 
anthracite  are  also  found.  The  Rothliegend.es  (red  beds)  is  only 
extensively  developed  in  the  -  northern  portion  of  the  district, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Baden-Baden,  where  it  lies  in  thick 
strata  directly  over  the  crystalline  rocks,  but  has  been  partially 
again  destroyed;  it  gradually  disappears  towards  the  South.  In 
the  southern  portion  the  Buntsandstein  (variegated  sandstone) 
coming  from  the  East,  extends,  with  its  thick  strata,  on  to  the 
granite  heights  of  the  Black  Forest,  and  covers  these,  in  the 
form  of  isolated  caps,  between  the  indentations  of  the  valleys, 
having  its  strata  slightly  tilted  towards  East:  On  the  western 
edge  of  the  mountains,  which  descend  steeply  towards  the  Rhine 
Valley,  whole  successions  of  sedimentary  rocks  occur  tilted  on 
end;  they  belong  to  the  Jurassic  and  Triassic  periods. 

Lodes   containing  silver,    lead,    copper,    cobalt,   nickel,   and 


204  LIMONITE,  PEA-IRON,  SMITHSONITE,  DEPOSITS. 

antimony  ores  in  heavy  spar,  with  somewhat  of  fluor  spar,  quartz, 
and  carbonates  of  lime,  are  frequent;  but  the  majority  are  very 
poor,  only  containing  rich  .pockets,  or  streaks,  at  wide  intervals; 
and  hence  cannot  be  worked  with  profit.  Daub  states,  that  the 
percentage  of  silver  in  the  galena,  which  averages  4  oz.  to  the 
hundredweight,  decreases,  the  more  recent  the  age  of  the  country- 
rock  traversed;  the  veins  themselves  belong  to  the  age  of  the 
Jurassic  formation.  These  lodes  are  also  said  to  owe  their  origin  to 
the  porphyries,  which  they  always  intersect,  when  they  come  in 
contact  with  them ;  but  in  these  they  are  narrower,  and  poorer 
in  ores,  than  in  granite  or  gneiss.  In  spite  of  their  supposed 
division  into  two  belts,  their  directions  of  strike  are  very  variable : 
of  100  lodes,  31  strike  N.— S.,  46  SE.— NW.,  12  E.— W.,  and 
11  SW. — NE.  These  lodes  somewhat  resemble  the  argentiferous 
barytic  veins  of  the  Erzgebirge,  and  to  a  great  degree  those  of 
the  Rhine  district,  containing  only  quartz  and  copper  ores. 

A  second,  less  extensive,  group  are  the  limonite  lodes,  at 
times  containing  manganese  ores,  and  frequently  considerable 
heavy  spar;  I  pass  them  over  as  unimportant. 

Very  important  and  interesting  deposits  of  pea  iron  ore  are 
found  on  the  western,  outer  edge  of  the  mountains,  especially  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Kandern. 

I  must  also  take  this  opportunity  of  mentioning  the  smith- 
sonite  deposits  of  Wiesloch  in  Baden,  and  the  gold  alluvium  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Rhine. 

LODES  OF  THE  KINZIG  VALLEY. ' 

§  126.  The  Kinzig  Valley,  with  its  ramifications,  is  mostly 
formed  of  granite,  and  gneiss;  while  Buntsandstein  lies  only  on 
the  mountain-tops.  The  granite  and  gneiss  are  but  rarely  tra- 
versed by  porphyries,  which  last  do  not  here  have  any  direct 
connection  with  the  lodes. 

The  granite  and  gneiss  in  this  valley  are  traversed  by 
numerous  lodes;  whose  vein-stones  are  heavy  spar,  brown  spar, 


1  See:  Braun,  in  Annal.  d!  mines,  1843.  vol.  XVIII.  p.  115;  Marignac, 
in  same,  1840,  vol.  XV.  p.  153;  Leonhard,  Beitrage  z.  mineral,  u  geognost. 
Kenntniss  d.  Grossherzogth.  Baden,  1854,  III.  p.  98;  Sandberger,  in  Leon- 
hard's  Jahrb.  f.  Mineralog.  1865,  p.  584;  also  Sandberger,  Beitrage  zur 
Statistik  u.  innere  Verwaltung  d.  Grossherzogthums  Baden,  1862. 


KINZIG-VALLEY  LODES.  205 

calc.  spar,  and  quartz ;  while  the  predominating  ores  alternately 
contain  silver  and  lead,  or  else  cobalt,  nickel  or  copper.  They 
occur  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  various  kinds  of  lodes  cannot 
well  be  separated  into  distinct  groups,  and  in  fact  form  trans- 
itions one  into  another;  while  at  times  all  the  various  kinds  of 
ores  occur  in  a  single  vein.  Notwithstanding  the  large*  number 
of  lodes,  that  have  gradually  been  discovered,  only  a  small 
number,  and  even  these  but  locally,  can  be  advantageously  ex- 
ploited. Mining  has  consequently  never  prospered  in  this  region, 
although  very  rich  ores  have  occasionally  been  found.  It  appears, 
that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ore  was  always  wanting,  even 
though  of  a  poorer  quality,  to  give  a  sufficient  guarantee  for 
the  future.  Rich  ores,  occurring  at  considerable  intervals,  can 
but  seldom  sustain  vein-mining  for  any  length  of  time.  A  few 
cases  will  farther  illustrate  the  general  remarks. 

The  Wenzel  mine,  in  the  Wolfbach  district,  gave  large 
dividends  for  a  long  succession  of  years  in  the  preceding  cen- 
tury. The  Wenzel  lode,  which  descended  in  a  zigzag  form, 
contained,  with  a  breadth  of  6  inches  to  2  feet;  heavy  spar, 
brown  spar,  calc.  spar,  and  fluor  spar  with  galena,  copper  pyrites, 
spathic  iron,  argentiferous  tetrahedrite,  ruby  silver,  dyscrasite, 
silver  glance,  and  native  silver.  The  dyscrasite  occurred,  in 
masses,  by  the  hundredweight;  and  Selb  saw,  in  1787,  a  mass 
of  native  silver,  weighing  75  pounds,  and  surrounded  by  silver 
glance,  and  ruby  silver. 

The  Alter  St.  Joseph  mine,  in  the  Wittich  district,  was 
mined,  in  the  commencement  of  the  preceding  century,  for  native 
silver,  silver  glance,  and  smaltine :  the  rare  wittichite  also  occur- 
red here. 

The  Sophie  mine,  in  the  same  district,  was  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  the  whole  Kinzig  Valley,  and  also  deserves 
especial  notice  from  a  geological  point  of  view.  The  lode  itself 
consisted  of  heavy  spar  (predominating),  fluor  spar  and  brown 
spar  (spathic  iron?)  with  smaltine,  silver  glance,  ruby  silver, 
native  silver,  and  native  bismuth,  bismuthine  (partly  cupriferous), 
realgar,  and  copper  nickel.  By  oxidation  of  these,  there  were 
formed  near  the  surface;  earthy  cobalt,  erythrine,  annabergite, 
pharmacolith,  and  uranite.  Most  curious  were  -  the  great  and 
extended  impregnations  in  the  granite  forming  the  wall-rock. 
Kapf  has  described  an  interesting  case.  About  35  fathoms 
below  the  surface  a  branch  of  heavy  spar,  but  a  few  inches 


206  KINZIG-VALLEY  LODES. 

broad,  containing  native  silver,  was  followed  in  the  hanging- 
wall  of  the,  otherwise  barren,  lode.  After  it  had  been  followed 
for  a  few  inches,  the  branch  wedged^out,  and  the  formerly  white 
arid  very  firm  granite  was  found  changed  to  a  reddish-brown 
and  less  firm  condition,  in  which  threads  of  native  silver  could 
be  seen.  On  this  account  the  work  was  prosecuted  in  the 
reddish-brown  granite  in  a  neighboring  hollow,  and  discovered, 
after  digging  for  a  few  fathoms,  a  broad  leader  of  silver,  which 
continued  so  long  as  the  granite  retained  this  color  and  softness. 
In  addition  to  this  leader,  the  entire  wedge  of  granite  was  so 
impregnated  with  silver,  that  it  was  removed  and  dressed. 
A  hundredweight  of  dressed  ore  gave  10 — 13  pounds  of  silver. 
This  is  a  very  decided  case  of  the  influence  of  the  country-rock ; 
which  here  consists  both  in  the  favorable  character  of  the  matrix 
of  the  lodes,  and  in  impregnations. 

Other  similar  lodes  are  known  in  this  district,  in  some  of 
which  copper  ores  pccurred.  Braun  states,  that  these  lodes  also 
penetrate  into  the  Bunt  sand  stein,  and  mentions  one  belonging 
to  the  Gute-Gottes  mine,  which  had  granite  as  foot-wall,  and 
Buntsandstein  as  the  hanging-wall. 

The  Friedrich-Christian  mine  in  the  Schapbach  district  ex- 
ploited until  recently  a  lode,  1—14  feet  broad,  in  dark,  fine 
granular  gneiss.  The  lode  consists  principally  of  fluor  spar  and 
heavy  spar,  the  last  at  times  forming  pockets  in  the  first,  and 
occurring  in  a  sandy  condition.  In  this  lode  are  found,  in 
pockets  or  indistinctly  combed;  quartz,  calc.  spar,  brown  spar, 
galena,  •  copper  pyrites,  and  bismuthic  silver  (Schapbachite). 
Numerous  decomposed  fragments  of  the  country-rock  occur  in 
the  lode.  At  the  Leopold,  formerly  Prosper,  mine  occur  native 
silver,  native  copper,  red  copper,  and  copper  glance,  in  quartz 
and  heavy  spar. 

Many  mines  occur  scattered,  on  similar  lodes,  in  the  Kinzig 
Valley.  Daub,  as  before  mentioned,  states  that  similar  lodes, 
only  with  a  less  percentage  of  ores,  which  decrease  in  propor- 
tion to  the  more  recent  formation  of  the  rocks  traversed,  occur 
in  the  formations  overlying  the  gneiss  and  granite ;  namely,  clay- 
slate,  Carboniferous  sandstone,  Buntsandstein,  Muschelkalk-,  and 
even  into  the  Jura,  but  in  the  last  their  only  matrix  is  heavy  spar. 


SOUTHERLY  BLACK-FOREST  LODES.  207 

LODES  IN  THE  SOUTHERLY  PORTION  '  OF  THE 
BLACK  FOREST. 

§  127.  Granite  and  gneiss  predominate  here  also,  and  are 
accompanied  by  rocks  of  the  Silurian  age,  gradually  passing  into 
gneiss,  which  are  traversed  by  lodes  of  the  same  character,  as 
those  in  the  Kinzig  Valley.  Remains  of  the  Buntsandstein  for- 
mation occur  in  the  heights. 

The  neighborhood  of  Sulzburg  appears  to  be  especially  rich 
in  lodes.  The  Riester  mine  was  exploited  on  a  lode  l1,^  feet 
broad,  containing  argentiferous  galena  in  heavy  spar  and  quartz. 
At  the  Himrnelslehre,  tetrahedrite  and  blende  were  found  in  ad- 
dition to  the  preceding.  A  cobalt  mine  furnished  cobalt  ores, 
galena,  iron  pyrites,  and  mispickel,  together  with  heavy  spar  and 
hornstone.  At  the  Amalia,  quartz  occurred  with  copper  ores; 
at  the  Lamberts'weg,  galena  and  copper  pyrites;  in  the  Schwei- 
zergrund  (clay-slate  district),  stibnite,  blende,  and  spathic  iron. 
The  most  interesting  mine  of  all  is  the  Haus  Baden  (and  Carl) 
mine  nearBadenweiler;  the  lode  here  exploited,  at  times  2  fathoms 
broad,  is  a  contact-vein  between  granite  and  Buntsandstein; 
but  Selb  states,  it  is  separated  from  the  granite  by  a  porphyry 
mass,  7 — 8  fathoms  thick,  itself  containing  galena,  heavy  spar, 
and  fluor  spar.  The  gang  of  the  lode  is  heavy  spar  (predomi- 
nant), fluor  spar,  and  quartz;  which  contain  argentiferous 
galena,  copper  pyrites,  and  copper  glance;  these  are  frequently 
altered  near  the  outcrop  into  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  mimetene, 
wulfenite,  malachite,  and  azurite. 

The  lodes  of  the  Miinster  Valley  are  very  similar  to  those 
around  Sulzburg.  They  traverse  the  gneiss,  occurring  here  in 
four  different  varieties,  as  also  the  dikes  of  quartz  porphyry 
occurring  in  it. 

The  Schindler  lode  strikes  nearly  N.— S.  and  dips  70°— 90° 
East  or  West,  being  but  seldom  as  slight  as  50°.  Its  width 
encreases  from  5  inches  to,  exceptionally,  5  feet.  The  predomi- 


1  See:  Selb,  in  Leonhard's  Taschenbuch,  1815,  p.  320;  Leonhard, 
Beitrage  z.  mineral,  u.  geogn.  Kenntniss  d.  Grossh.  Baden,  1854,  III.  p.  105  ; 
Daub,  in  same,  1853,  I.  p.  115,  and. II.  p.  106,  as  extracts  from  Leonhard's 
Jahrb.  1851,  and  Karsten's  Arch.  1846;  Fournet,  in  same,  II.  p.  94  (on 
the  formation  of  crystals  in  the  geodes  of  Teufelsgrund  lode). 


208  PISOLITHIC,  OR  PEA-IRON,  AT  KANDERN. 

nating  vein-stones  are  heavy  spar,  and  fluor  spar;  towards  the 
selvages  also  quartz,  calc.  spar,  and  brown  spar ;  the  ores  occur- 
ring are  argentiferous  galena  (chiefly  occurring  with  the  fluor 
spar,  less  frequently  with  the  heavy  spar),  blende,  and  pyrites. 
The  arrangement  of  these  minerals  is  but  indistinctly  symmet- 
rical. At  times  numerous  horses  of  gneiss  occur.  Greodes,  fre- 
quently 15  feet  long,  occur  mostly  in  the  middle  of  the  lode, 
while  nssures  traverse  it  in  an  oblique  direction.  The  Teufels- 
grund  lode  strikes  WNW.— ESE.,  dips  80°— 90°,  but  seldom 
only  45°,  in  NW.  Its  medium  breadth  is  15  inches,  its  extreme 
breadth  45  inches.  Its  matrix  is  the  same,  as  that  of  the 
Schindler  lode;  but  there  occur  additionally,  arsenic,  native  sil- 
ver, ruby  silver,  and  cerusite.  It  also  contains  horses,  and 
geodes,  and  is  traversed  obliquely  by  nssures.  Other  lodes  in 
the  neighborhood  also  contain  copper  ores. 

Similar  lodes  recur  in  the  Hofsgrund,  on  the  Erzkasten, 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Todtenau.  At  St.  Blasien  nickel- 
ores  have  been  found  in  serpentine. 

Daub  has  attempted  to  group  the  most  of  the  lodes  here 
mentioned  into  two  zones;  of  which  the  one  (the  Schindler  zone) 
has  a  length  of  75  miles,  extending  from  Wiesenthal  near  Hofen, 
through  St.  Ulrich,  Prinzenbach,  Baths  of  Sulzbach,  to  Neu- 
weiler  near  Steinbach;  while  the  second  (the  Bernhard  zone) 
is  quite  as  long,  commencing  at  Grorwil  in  the  lower  portion  of 
the  Alb  Valley,  and  passing  through  St.  Blasien,  Hornberg, 
Hausach,  and  Petersthal,  to  Baden-Baden. 

The  southerly  and  higher  portions  of  both  these  groups  con- 
tain, according  to  Daub,  ores  and  vein-stones,  while  the  northerly 
and  lower  portions  have  on  the  contrary  given  rise  to  thermal 
springs.  He  also  supposes  the  existence  of  a  near  relation  be- 
tween the  quartz  porphyries  and  the  lodes  of  the  Black  Forest. 

THE  PISOLITHIC  IRON  DEPOSIT  *  AT  KANDERN. 

§  128.  Extensive  deposits  of  pisolithic  iron  ore  are  found 
in  the  Jura  formation  around  Kandern,  Stockach,  Mohringen, 
and  Jestetten.  Similar  ones  occur  somewhat  northerly  in  the 
Musclielkalk  also,  at  Dietlingen,  Stein,  and  Gondelsheim  near 
Pforzheim,  also  in  the  Baier  Valley  near  Schatthausen. 

1  See:   Hug,  in  Leonhard's  Beitrage  z.  mineral,  u.  geogn.  Kenntniss  d. 
Grossh.  Baden,  I.  p.  19;  Walchner,  in  same,  p.  104  (from  the  2nd  edit,  of 


KANDERN,  OR  'ORE-MOUNTAIN'  DEPOSITS.  209 

The  most  important,  and  longest  worked  of  these  is  that  of 
Kandern.  The  ore  occurs  here  in  a  clayey  sandy  deposit,  its 
thickness  varies  from  one  to  one  hundred  feet;  which  mostly 
occurs  over  the  coral  rag  of  the  Jura  formation.  This  deposit, 
the  so-called  'Ore-Mountain',  crops  partly  out  to  the  surface, 
is  partly  covered  by  Diluvial  deposits  (Loess),  but  is  principally 
overlaid  by  a  tertiary  limestone  conglomerate,  the  so-called 
48teingang\  About  forty  mines  are  worked  around  Kandern, 
&nd  thirty  eight  in  the  Kleingau;  this  district  has  been  exploited 
for  about  1000  years.  Walchner  describes  the  deposit  of  Moss- 
kirch  nearly  as  follows.  It  lies  on  the  upper  Jura  limestone, 
resting  against  the  base  of  a  hill.  The  single  layers  of  the 
deposit,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  are  the  fdllowing: 

1.  Arable  soil; 

2.  Sand,  several  inches  thick; 

3.  Pisolithic  ore,   several  inches  thick,  mixed  with  sand,   boulders,  and 
sharks'  teeth; 

4.  Sand,  2  inches  thick; 

5.  Chief  ore-deposit,   3'/a  feet  thick,  mixed  with  boulders,   snail-shells, 
sharks'  teeth,  bones  of  tertiary  animals,  and  fossils  of  the  Jura  formation; 

6.  Fissile  sandstone,   with   somewhat  of  ore,   and  a  little   limestone,   4 
inches  thick; 

7.  Sand,  2  feet ; 

8.  Fissile  sandstone,  tolerably  firm,  4  inches; 

9.  Sand,  a  few  inches ; 

10.  Limestone  conglomerate,  with  disseminated  ores; 

11.  Pebbles,  varying  in  size,  from  that  of  an  apple  to  that  of  a  man's 
head,  mostly  consisting   of  white  upper  Jura  limestone,  mingled  with  sand, 
flints,  and  hornstones. 

The  boulders,  particles  of  ore,  and  animal  remains,  are 
firmly  cemented  together  by  the  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron. 
The  boulders  are  principally  quartz,  accompanied  by  white  mica 
Concretions  of  flints  occur  at  times,  similar  to  those  so  frequently 
found  in  the  pisolithic  iron  deposits  of  the  Jura;  while  angular 
or  rounded  fragments,  of  Molasse  sandstone,  and  granite,  are 
by  no  means  rare.  The  fossils  belong  partly  to  the  Jura,  partly 
to  the  Molasse  formation. 

Hug,  who  has  described  these  deposits  very  completely,  is 


his  Geology,  p.  843),  and  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1832,  p.  433;  Leonhard, 
in  same,  III.  p.  118;  Merian,  in  same,  I.  p.  96  He  considers  the  iron 
deposit  to  belong  to  the  Jura  formation.  (This  may  have  belonged  to  such, 
but  through  partial  erosion  tertiary  strata  were  formed.) 

14 


210  REIN-ERZ  AND  BOHN-ERZ. 

unfortunately  not  always  clear,  owing  perhaps  to  the  complex 
condition  of  the  matter. 

The  miners  in  this  region  distinguish  two  kinds  of  ore,  so- 
called  'Reinerz'  (pure  ore)  and  'Bohnerz'  (ptisolithic,  or  pea-ore). 
The  Reinerz  is  a  lamellar,  compact,  or  fibrous  ironstone;  which 
occurs,  either  disseminated,  or  in  nodular  concretions.  The  no- 
dules and  globules  occur,  either  scattered  or  together,  in  nests, 
beds,  or  segregations.  These  nodules '  but  seldom  attain  a  dia- 
meter of  2  feet,  they  have  an  earthy,  yellow,  or  brownish-red 
incrustation.  When  broken  open,  they  are  found  to  be  either 
composed  of  concentric  layers,  or  radially  fibrous,  or  compact, 
or  even  porous.  Their  interior  is  nearly  always  hollow,  or 
filled  with  a  kernel  of  clay  and  sand.  The  hollow  interior  con- 
tains incrustations  of  hematite,  fibrous  limonite,  or  crystalliza- 
tions of  calc.  spar,  brown  spar  or  spathic  iron.  Even  fossils 
of  the  upper  strata  of  the  Jura  formation  are  occasionally  found 
in  these  nodules  of  clay  ironstone,  viz.  spines  of  the  Cidaris 
family. 

The  Bohnerz  also  forms  connected  nests,  or  beds;  but  occurs 
also  occasionally  with  the  ' Reiner z.  The  single  globules,  or 
grains,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  walnutr 
are  always  formed  of  concentric  layers,  more  or  less  firmly  ce- 
mented together  by  ferruginous  clay.  Those  found  at  Alting 
mostly  have  an  olive-green  color,  while  those  from  Augen  are 
yellowish  or  reddish-brown. 

Jasper  occurs  with  both  varieties  of  ore.  It  is  always  gray 
in  the  nests  of  Reinerz,  gray  or  red  with  the  Bohnerz.  The 
jasper  occurs  in  the  most  varied  forms;  globiferous,  elliptical, 
wound  in  spirals;  etc.  varying  from  an  inch  to  a  foot  in  dia- 
meter. The  surface  of  these  nodules  is  always  covered  by  a 
thin  white  or  greenish  crust.  In  the  interior  they  generally 
possess  variegated,  gray,  yellow,  brown  and  red  colors,  ar- 
ranged in  concentric  layers  parallel  to  the  outer  surface.  They 
often  contain  cavities,  which  are  covered  with  crystals  of  calc. 
spar,  gypsum,  or  quartz.  They  frequently  also  contain  fossils- 
of  the  Jura  and,  according  to  Hug,  even  Nummulites  (?). 

This  deposit  is  one,  whose  separate  members;  Reiner  z  no- 
dules, Bohnerz,  and  jasper;  evidently  belong  to  the  Jurassic 
period,  but  were  deposited  in  their  present  position  during  the 
Tertiary  age,  as  shown  by  the  bones,  sharks'  teeth,  and  boul- 
ders of  Molasse  sandstone,  occurring  with  them.  The  nodules 


DEPOSITS  AT  WIESLOCH.  211 

of  ore,  and  jasper,  cannot  be  boulders ;  as  otherwise  their  inner 
structure  would  not  coincide  so  strikingly  with  their  outer 
rounded  form.  The  problem  is  certainly  a  difficult  one  to  solve. 


SMITHSONITE   DEPOSITS  l  AT  WIESLOCH  IN  BADEN. 

§  129.  The  Maschelkalk  at  Wiesloch  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing members: 

1.  Dolomitic  banks,  traversed  by  veins  of  brown  spar; 

2.  Gray  cellular  limestone,  with  Ceratites  nodosus] 

3.  Two  Encrinite  layers,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  stems  of 

Encrinus,  with  an  intermediate  layer  of  compact  limestone; 

4.  Dolomite,  with  Buccinum  turbilinumi 

5.  Limestone. 

The  Smithsonite  deposits  occur  in  the  upper  members  of 
this  series.  According  to  old  records,  mines  of  argentiferous 
galena  were  worked,  in  the  range  of  hills  between  Nussloch  and 
Wiesloch,  as  early  as  the  llth  century,  numerous  remains  of 
which  still  exist.  The  smithsonite,  combined  with  the  galena, 
was  at  that  time  partly  won,  but  not  being  recognised  as  an 
ore,  was  used  to  fill  up  exhausted  workings,  and  thrown 
away  at  the  mouths  of  the  shafts.  Its  existence  has  been  but 
recently  known,  and  has  given  rise  to  important  mining  opera- 
tions. The  ores  are  principally  found  in  two  layers,  where  the 
Encrinite  layers  join  the  compact  limestone.  They  fill  irregu- 
lar enlargements  of  vertical  fissures,  which  intersect  the  strata, 
as  shown  in  the  following  ideal  wood-cut. 

The  smithsonite  is  mostly  gray,  crystalline,  and  compact, 
colored  red  and  brown  by  iron  and  manganese;  no  calamine 
occurs  here.  Hoffinger  says:  'An  impregnation  by  exchange 
of  bases  may  have  essentially  contributed  to  the  formation  of 
these  deposits ;  which  is  confirmed  by  the  occurrence  of  numerous 
fossils  converted  into  smithsonite,  and  pseudomorphs  of  the  same 
for  crystals  of  calc.  spar.  The  compact  fossiliferous  limestone 


1  See:  Leon  hard's  Beitrage  z.  mineralog.  u.  geognos.  Kenntn.  des 
Grossh.  Baden,  I.  p.  70  (Holzmann,),  p.  75  (Hoffinger),  II.  p.  Ill  (Rohatzsch), 
III.  p.  122  (Leonhard);  Holzmann,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1852,  p.  907; 
Car  nail,  in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellsch.  1853,  vol.  V.  p.  5;  Walch- 
ner,  in  same,  1851,  p.  359;  Clauss,  in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  i860,  p. 
495;  and  in  26th  Jahresbericht  d.  Mannheiiner  Vereins  f.  Naturkunde,  I860 
p.  36;  also  Ludwig,  in  his  'Journey  through  the  Urals',  1862. 

14* 


212 


GOLD-DEPOSITS  IN 


a.  Grayish-blue  limestone,  14  feet; 

b.  Encrinite  bed,  3  feet; 

c.  Compact,  dark  blue,  non-fossiliferous  limestone, 

12  to  25  feet; 

d.  Encrinite  bed,  3  feet; 

e.  Compact  limestone,  4  feet; 

f.  Blue,  fissile  limestone,  3  feet; 

g.  Hard,    gray    limestone,    30   feet,    beneath    which   is 

dolomite,    34   feet,    also    containing   traces    of 
smithsonite  in  pockets. 

The  shaded  portions   represent  the  pockets  of  ore 
connected  by  vertical  fissures. 

has  offered  more  resistance  to  this  transformation,  than  the  po- 
rous Encrinite  limestone.' 

The  vertical  fissures,  but  a  few  lines  broad,  are  filled  with 
ferruginous  clay.  Limonite  and  galena  occur,  irregularly  com- 
bined with  the  smithsonite,  as  in  Belgium,  and  Upper  Silesia. 

Similar  deposits  occur  at  Bruchsal,  Durlacli,  and  Grotz- 
ingen;  in  which  places  galena  was  also  formerly  exploited. 


GOLD  DEPOSITS  *  IN  THE  RHINE  VALLEY. 

§  130.     In   all   probability    the   ancient    Gauls    washed-out 
gold   from   the    sands    of    the    Rhine.     In   the    Middle    Ages    a 

1See:  Daubree,  in  Bullet,  de  la  societe  geol.  1846,  vol.  III.  p.  458, 
and  in  Compte  rendu.  vol.  XXII.  p.  639;  Dufrenoy,  in  Compt.  rend.  1849, 
p.  193;  Leonhard,  in  his  Beitrage  z.  miner,  u.  geogn.  Kenntn.  d.  Grossh. 
Baden,  III.  p.  129. 


THE  RHINE  VALLEY.  213 

very  active  gold-washing  was  carried  on,  between  Mannheim 
and  Bale.  At  the  present  time  about  400  persons  are  occasion- 
ally engaged  in  gold-washing  in  the  Grand-duchy  of  Baden. 

The  gold  is  found  in  the  masses  of  boulders  and  debris  of 
the  Rhine  Valley,  chiefly  where  the  bed  and  banks  of  the 
stream  consist  of  a  mixture  of  boulders,  pebbles,  and  sand. 
Grains  of  ilmenite,  and  rose-colored  quartz,  are  the  chief  mine- 
rals accompanying  it.  The  percentage  of  ilmenite  in  the  sand  is 
said  to  be  about  equal  to  that  of  the  gold.  The  gold  does  not 
occur  in  nuggets,  and  grains,  as  elsewhere ;  but  always  in  very 
fine  rounded,  massive  scales,  never  exceeding  a  millimeter  in 
diameter.  The  scales  are  larger,  between  Bale  and  Breisach, 
than  farther  down  the  stream..  The  gold  of  the  Rhine  contains 
93,4  per  cent  of  gold  and  6,6  per  cent  of  silver.  The  entire 
bed  of  the  river  is  auriferous,  but  the  sand  is,  only  in  certain 
localities,  rich  enough  to  be  washed  with  profit.  Such  are 
generally  found,  where  the  river  has  washed  away  the  banks, 
or  islands,  and  consequently  subjected  the  sand  to  a  repeated 
concentration.  The  sand  washed-away  is  re-deposited,  as  a 
sandbank,  at  some  distance,  that  portion  richest  in  gold  lying 
up  stream.  The  richest  sand  generally  occurs  between  larger 
boulders  and  at  slight  depths.  The  gold  localities  are  worked, 
after  every  flood,  and  are  found  so  much  the  richer,  the  more 
gradually  the  water  has  fallen. 

The  gold-washings  commence  below  Bale,  near  Istein  and 
Altbreisach;  but  the  richest  localities  are  between  Kehl  and 
Dachslanden,  especially  opposite  the  village  of  Helmlingen. 
Some  washings  also  occur  below  Philippsburg,  but  their  produc- 
tiveness is  exceedingly  small.  The  separate  localities  do  not, 
according  to  Daubree,  extend  over  an  area  of  more  than  200 
to  300  square  metres,  and  are  not  more  than  20  centimeters 
thick.  The  average  percentage  of  gold  in  the  sands  of  the 
Rhine,  in  Siberia,  and  in  Chili,  appear  to  be  in  the  ratio  of 
1  :  20  :  74.  In  Siberia  a  sand  cannot  be  profitably  washed, 
containing  less  than  0,00001  gold,  while  on  the  Rhine  a  sand 
7  times  poorer  than  this  is  washed  to  advantage.  One  cubic 
meter  of  Rhine-sand  contains  about  0,0146  grammes  of  gold. 

Rengger  states,  that  the  gold  of  the  Rhine  appears  to 
come  from  the  Aar,  the  Reuss,  the  great  and  little  Emmen,  and 
the  Lutter.  These  rivers  evidently  obtain  the  same  from  the 
Molasse  strata,  and  not  from  the  original  deposits.  These  last 


214 


SUABIAN,  AND  FRANCONIAN,   JURA, 


are  probably  to  be  looked  for  among  the  crystalline  rocks  of 
the  Alps.  In  this  way  the  Rhine-gold  has  been  subjected  to  a 
repeated  concentration;  which,  commencing  with  the  period  when 
the  Molasse  strata  were  deposited;  has  continued  to  the  present 
time. 

Dufrenoy  has  made  the  following  comparison  between  the 
different  gold  alluvium  deposits.  According  to  which,  are  found, 
in  the  gold  sands  of 


California. 

South 
America 

Urals. 

Rhine. 

60 

34 

23 

2 

Magnetite  ; 

16 

15 

50 

3 

Ilmenite,  specular 

iron  and 

9 

20 

3 

? 

Zircon  ; 

[manganese  ; 

14 

25 

14 

90 

Quartz  ; 

'  :<?:t-V 

1 

— 

: 

Corundum  ; 

— 

— 

10 

— 

Chrysoberyl  ; 

0,3 

5 

0,00001 

traces. 

Gold    (in   part  with    quartz   and 

iron  pyrites). 

VIII.     THE  SUAB1AN  AND    FRANCON1AN 

JURA. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  131.  I  consider,  as  belonging  to  this  district;  the  broad 
chain,  which  commences  by  Schaffhausen  on  the  Rhine,  and 
continues  through  Wiirtemberg,  and  Bavaria,  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Staffelsteiii.  Its  highest  point  is  called  the  SuabianAlp:  this 
gradually  rises  from  the  South  to  a  height  of  4000  feet  above 
the  sea,  while  its  eastern  and  northern  continuation,  the  Fran- 
conian  Jura,  forms  .a  broad  plateau,  only  about  1000  feet  high, 
here  and  there  intersected  by  river-valleys. 

This  chain  is  principally  composed  of  members  of  the  Jura 
group,  overlying  one  another  in  regular  succession.  Igneous  rocks 
(basalts  arid  phonoliths)  occur  but  to  a  very  subordinate  degree, 
and  have  no  essential  part  either  in  its  exterior  or  interior 
formation. 


GEOLOGICAL    FORMATION.  215 

The  members  of  the  Jura  group  in  this  district,  commencing 
with  the  upper  strata,  are  the  following: 


I 


1.  White  or  light  yellow,  thinly  stratified  compact   Jura  limestone; 
that  found  in  the  County  of  Pappenheim  is  used  as  lithographic  stone ; 

2.  Bluish  clay,  containing  Pentacrinites ; 

3.  Limestone  and  dolomite,  very  thick,  forming  cliffs,  and  containing 
numerous  cavities; 

4.  Sponge  bed: 

5.  Oolithic  limestone,  with  clay; 

6.  Bluish  clay,  containing  numerous  corals,  and  Radiates; 

7.  Impressa  limestone  of  Quenstedt:  alternating  with  clay,  and  contain- 
ing numerous  Terebratula,  and  Ammonites: 


8.  Ornaten  Clay  of  Quenstedt:  brown  clay,  and  iron  oolith,  containing 
many  Ammonites; 

9.  Ostreen  limestone  of  Quenstedt:  marly  limestone,  and  clay,  with 
numerous  oysters ;  . 

10.  Blue  limestone ; 

11.  Yellow  and  brown  s'andstone,  with  iron  ores; 

12.  Opalinus  clay  of  Quenstedt;  containing  many  Ammonites: 


13.  Jurensis  marl  of  Quenstedt; 

14.  Posidonia  clay,  dark  bituminous  marl-slate,  full  of  Posidonias; 

15.  Amaltheen  clay  of  Quenstedt,  with  numerous  Ammonites; 

16.  Davoi  limestone  of  Quenstedt;  dark  bituminous  Lias  limestone; 

17.  Nummismalis  marl  of  Quenstedt:  with  numerous  Terebratels ; 

18.  Rarikestaten  bank  of  Quenstedt; 

19.  Stone  banks  of  compact  marl-stone; 

20.  Turneri  clay  of  Quenstedt:  clay,  and  bituminous  marl-slates; 

21.  Astarten  limestone  of  Quenstedt:  dark  bituminous  limestone; 

22.  Malmstein  and  Thalassiten  sandstone  of  Quenstedt; 

23.  Psilonotus  bank  of  Quenstedt. 

Below  this  commences  the  Keuper  formation.  The  principal 
ore-deposits  are  those  of  iron,  of  which  two  in  particular  deserve 
mention.  One  consists  of  parallel  beds  of  ironstone,  found  in 
the  Brown  Jura ;  the  other  of  surface-deposits  of  oolithic  limonite, 
which  have  often  penetrated,  for  a  considerable  distance,  into 
fissures  and  cavities  of  the  White  Jura.  Iron-ore-deposits  have 
also  been  found  in  lower  divisions  of  the  Jura  (at  Amberg  and 
Ratisbon)  on  the  eastern  borders  of  the  district. 


216 


IRON-DEPOSITS. 


THE  IKON-DEPOSITS. 

§  132.  The  Brown  Jura  contains,  in  its  whole  extent  in 
Southwestern  Germany,  parallel  bedsVof  ironstone.  These  have 
been  exploited  for  a  long  time  at  Aalen  and  Wasseraltingenr 
where  they  crop  out  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Suabian  Alp, 
More  recently  the  prolongations  of  these  beds  have  been  found 
extending,  with  but  slight  modifications,  through  the  whole  of 
Bavaria,  at  the  northern,  western,  and  even  northeastern,  limits 
of  these  strata;  and  have  already  begun  to  be  worked.  Their 
horizontal  extent  is  therefore  immense. 

Their  bedding  in  Wiirtemberg  has  been  very  accurately 
examined  and  described  by  Count  v.  Mandelsloh.  It  is  the 
following: 

Thickness 
in  feet. 


1.  Calcareous  iron  oolith 40 

2.  Gray,  sandy  limestone,  with   nodules   of  iron  ore,   and 

remains  of  Fucoids 35 

3.  Grayish-black  bituminous  slate 20 

4.  Bluish-gray  limestone    .  ,. 8 

5.  Soft  yellowish  sandstone  .    .;  .^-.  .  ,t .:-   •  ;.'7if    •    • 

6.  Gray,  sandy  slate    .     .   ..;   v:   .r'.;.'V:Lv>  -;*>•,,—  •; 

7.  Soft  yellowish  sandstone -,,.J.    *    .    .  10 

8    Gray  sandy  slate „%,,..    .    .  5 

9.  Granular  clay  ironstone >...'........  1 

10.  Gray  sandy  slate 

11.  Clay  ironstone  (exploited  at  Wasseralfingen)      ... 

12.  Gray  sandy  slate 16 

13.  Soft  yellow  sandstone •„ 1 

14.  Clay  ironstone 1 

15.  Alternating  strata   of  slate  and  sandstone,  as  between 

4  and  9 31 

16.  Clay  ironstone 2 

17.  Alternating  strata  of  sandy  slate  with  gray  and  reddish 

sandstone '..-. "  ";  -  .  52 

18.  Clay  ironstone  (exploited  at  Aalen)  .    !:.'."  .v. ;  ..v..  6 

19.  Gray  sandy  slate     ....  ~.  ->'  .^  .     ;   >    4.  ;    . 

20.  Grayish-black  clayey  sandstone 12 

21.  Lias-slate,  alternating  with  layers  of  marl  and  limestone. 


^ee:  Count  Mandelsloh,  Sur  la  constitution  geologique  de  PAlpe  de 
Wiirtemberg,  1834  (also,  a  German  edition);  Voith,  in  v.  Moll's  Neuen 
Jahrb.  d.  Berg-  u.  Hiittenkunde,  1824,  vol.  V.  p.  1.  He  describes  the  con- 
tinuation of  these  deposits  in  the  Upper  Palatinate. 


BOHEMIAN  FOREST.  217 

The  calcareous  iron  oolith  (1)  alternates  with  slaty  marls, 
and  is  full  of  oolithic  grains  of  limonite  about  the  size  of  a 
millet.  The  bed  2  is  similar,  which  contains  larger  globules; 
by  whose  destruction  secondary  oolithic  deposits  might  be 
formed. 

The  ferruginous  strata,  at  the  same  time,  frequently  con- 
tain numerous  fossils  changed  into  limonite.  It  is  possible, 
that  the  material,  forming  the  neighboring  tertiary  deposits,  came 
from  these. 


The  upper  thick  strata  of  limestone,  or  dolomite,  of  the 
Suabian  Alp  l  contain,  both  in  fissures,  hollows,  and  funnel-shaped 
cavities,  as  also  in  slight  depressions  of  the  surface,  a  quantity 
of  irregular  deposits  of  oolithic  iron  ore.  These  are  exploited 
not  only  in  Suabia,  but  also  in  the  County  of  Pappenheim 
and  its  neighborhood.  The  iron  ore  occurs  in  the  fissures  and 
cavities,  partly  alone,  or  only  mixed  with  clay,  partly  with 
lignite,  fragments  of  limestone,  and  all  manner  of  such  like 
additions;  which  all  indicate  that  these  deposits  have  been 
washed  together  by  water. 


IX.     THE  BOHEMIAN   FOEEST  AND 
BOHEMIA. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  133.  Under  the  above  title  I  comprise  the  Bavarian  and 
Bohemian  Forest,  the  mountains  between  Bohemia  and  Moravia, 
and  the  portion  of  inner  Bohemia  which  principally  consists  of 
old  plutonic  crystalline  and  Silurian  rocks.  That  portion  of 
Northern  Bohemia  adjoining  the  Riesengebirge  will  be  described 
with  it. 

No  where,  in  the  whole  of  Germany,  do  the  old  crystalline 
massive  and  schistose  rocks;  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica-schist; 
occur  so  extensively  and  continuously,  as  in  this  region.  No 


1  See:  Jager,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1853,  p.  377. 


.  218  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

where  is,  on  this  account;  an  exact,  and  at  the  same  time  synop- 
tical, geological  description  more  difficult,  than  here;  since  only 
the  lithological  condition  of  many  Crocks,  passing  into  one 
another,,  can  be  used  for  their  distinction  and  classification; 
where  organic  remains  are  entirely  wanting,  and  the  borders  of 
the  rock-masses  are  often*  very  indistinct. 

In  a  large  basin-shaped  depression  of  these  crystalline  rocks, 
whose  principal  axis  (i.  e.  of  the  basin)  extends  from  Prag  to 
Pilsen,  occur  very  extensive  Silurian  formations,  regularly 
stratified,  and  conforming  to  the  depression.  These  are  repeatedly 
broken  through  by  greenstones,  and  are  locally  covered  by 
strata  of  the  Carboniferous  group. 

The  number  of  ore-deposits  occurring  is  very  small,  and 
their  distribution  a  scattered  one,  in  comparison  with  the  great 
extent  of  this  region,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  ancient  rocks, 
the  more  striking  as  contrasted  with  the  neighboring  Erz- 
gebirge. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  the  lodes  in  Bohemia,  occurring  in 
several  districts  entirely  separated  from  each  other,  have  a 
N. — S.  strike.  This  fact,  in  which  I  do  not  attempt  to  find 
any  general  law,  does  not  well  agree  with  Riviere's  hypothesis, 
that  the  lodes  in  Europe,  containing  blende,  have  a  predominant 
strike  from  ENE.-  WSW. 

I  shall  describe  the  principal  ore-deposits  occurring  in  this 
region  as  follows: 

i.  on  the  Bavarian  side, 

1.  Bodenmais ; 

.2.  Erbendorf. 
ii.  in  Bohemia, 

3.  Schlackenwald,  tin-deposits  in  granite  and  gneiss ; 

4.  Przibrara,  lead  and  silver  lodes  in  Silurian  rocks; 

5.  Mies,  lead-lodes  in  clay-slate; 

6.  Horzowitz,  ores  of  iron  and  mercury  in  clay-slate ; 

7.  .Glashiitte  (Radnitz)  iron-deposits  in  Silurian  rocks ; 

8.  Adamsthal  and  Rudolstadt,  silver-lodes  in  gneiss; 

9.  Kuttenberg,  silver-lodes  in  gneiss; 

10.  Copper-lodes  in  Bothliegendes  near  Bohmischbrod. 


BODENMAIS. 

§  134.     The  Bavarian  Forest  can,    neither  topographically, 
nor  geologically,    be    separated    from   the  Bohemian  Forest;   it 


BODENMAIS.  219 

only  forms  the  southeastern  portion  of  this  last,  belonging  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria. 

The  district  is  composed  chiefly  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica- 
schist;  while  granulite,  hornblende  rocks,  diorite,  serpentine, 
quartz  rock,  and  granular  limestone,  or  dolomite,  occur  to  a 
more  subordinate  extent. 

Of  special  geological  interest  in  this  district  is  a  thick  quartz 
bed,  which  can  be  followed  from  Bruck  to  Thierlstein,  about 
35  miles,  as  it  overtops  with  its  rocky  pointed  surface  the  ad- 
joining, more  destructible  rocks.  This  rock,  known  under  the 
name  of  Pfahl,  which  strikes  NW.  — SE.  tolerably  parallel  to 
the  low  mountains,  was  long  considered  to  be  the  outcrop  of  a 
broad  lode.  But  it  is  stated,  from  recent  investigations,  to  possess 
a  bedlike  nature. 

Winneberger  l  has  classified  the  granite  of  this  region,  as : 
gneissic  granite,  porphyritic  granite,  and  more  recent  granite. 

Considerable  deposits  of  iron  pyrites  and  pyrrhotine  occur 
at  Unterried,  on  the  Silberberg  near  Bodenmais,  and  on  the  Red 
Koth  near  Zwiesel;  the  occurrences  of  ore  at  Klautzenbach, 
Lirdberg,  and  on  the  Rachel,  appear  to  be  connected  with  these, 
since  they  lie  nearly  in  one  line  of  strike. 

The  Silberberg  near  Bodenmais  consists  principally  of  gneiss, 
which  towards  the  South  passes  into  granite.  The  ore-deposits, 
which  Rust  asserts  to  be  true  beds,  have  a  most  irregular  strike 
and  dip  in  gneiss.  They  generally  strike,  as  this  does,  NW.— SE. 
and  dip  35° — 50°  in  NE.  Two  deposits  are  known.  The  lower 
of  these  is  about  6  feet  wide,  and  occasionally  widens  into  a  few 
larger  hollows,  which  are  upwards  of  7  feet  long  and  almost  as  broad. 
This  deposit  consists  of  iron  pyrites ;  with  which  frequently  occur 
pyrrhotine,  and  blende;  more  rarely  magnetite,  and  somewhat  of  ga- 
lena. Besides  these,  greenish  feldspar  generally  accompanies  the  ore. 

The  second  and  principal  bed  occurs  60  feet  northwesterly 
of  the  other:  it  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  20  feet  in  breadth. 
It  consists  principally  of  pyrrhotine;  associated  with  which  are 
pyrites,  blende,  magnetite,  and  galena.  The  last  contains  72 
grammes  silver  to  the  kilogramme.  These  sulphurets  are  generally 
decomposed,  and  altered  to  limonite,  at  the  outcroppings  of  both 
the  beds. 


1  See:  Winneberger,  Beschreibung  des  bairischen  Waldgebirges,  1851, 
pp.  62,  and  97;  Hausmann,  in  Gottinger  gel.  Nachrichteu,  1853,  p.  33,  and 
in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1853,  p.  283. 


220  ERBENDORF. 

Hausmann ;  who  considers,  in  common  with  Rust,  that  this 
is  a  bed  in  gneiss;  while  I  am  inclined  to  consider  it  to  be  an 
irregularly  bedded  vein;  enumerates  the  following  additional 
minerals  as  occurring;  iolith,  actinolith,  garnet,  and  a  pyroxene 
mineral.  While  Winneberger  mentions  the  following  minerals 
as  occurring  on  the  Silberberg;  quartz,  amethyst,  chalcedony, 
fibrolith,  red  and  brown  garnet,  iolith,  heulandite,  feldspar, 
kreittonite,  serpentine,  mica,  pinite,  talc,  cyanite,  actinolith,  calc. 
spar,  aragonite,  gypsum,  chrysocolla,  copper  pyrites,  galena, 
magnetite,  limonite,  copperas,  pyrrhotine,  iron  pyrites,  vivianite, 
stilpnosiderite,  spherosiderite,  thraulith,  blende,  sordavalith,  ficinite, 
and  a  sulphate  of  alumina. 

From  the  descriptions  it  appears,  that  the  ore-deposits  of 
the  Silberberg  are  very  like  the  bedded  veins  occurring  in  the 
mica-schist  around  Schwarzenberg,  already  described  in  §  85; 
but  that  they  contain  less  amphibole,  and  do  not  so  much 
resemble  greenstones. 

Of  a  similar  character,  and  in  part  probably  continuations 
of  these  deposits,  are  several  other  ore-deposits  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Bodenmais  and  Zwiesel ;  which  have  for  the  most  part 
long  been  abandoned,  and  are  therefore  less  known.  Thus  at 
Maisried,  where  auriferous  silver  has  been  obtained,  and  at 
Lamm,  where  copper,  silver,  and  alum  were  obtained,  and  in 
the  rubbish  at  the  mine-mouth,  are  found  calc.  spar,  fluor  spar, 
quartz,  copper  pyrites,  galena,  blende,  chrysocolia,  and  ruby 
silver. 

ERBENDORF. 

§  135.  Erbendorf  lies  at  the  southwesterly  base  of  the 
Bohemian  Forest,  where  the  crystalline  schists  of  this  last  are 
overlaid  by  the  Carboniferous  'and  more  recent  formations.  The 
lodes  at  Erbendorf  occur  in  gneiss;  they  are  five  in  number, 
of  which  but  two  are  now  exploited.  They  contain  quartz,  calc. 
spar,  and  heavy  spar,  with  galena,  blende,  and  copper  pyrites. 

G iimb el1  states  that  a  similar  vein-formation,  but  con- 
taining hornstone  and  fluor  spar,  occurs  at  Schwarzenfeld, 
Weiding,  and  Altfalter.  He  also  states,  that  the  fluor  spar  veins 


1  See:  G  iimb  el,  im  Correspondenz-Blatt  des  zoolog.  mineralogischen  Ver- 
eins,  at  Ratisbon,  1854,  p.  20. 


SCHLACKENWALD.  221 

of  Welsenberg,  which  continue,  in  the  form  of  hornstone-veins, 
through  the  Freuden  Mountain  to  Hirschau,  the  fluor  spar  and 
heavy  spar  in  the  porphyry  of  Pingarten  and  Bodenwohr,  and 
that  of  Bach,  known  for  its  beautiful  crystals  of  fluor  spar,  all 
belong  to  this  formation. 


SCHLACKENWALD  NEAR  CARLSBAD. 

§  136.  The  district  around  Schlackenwald l  consists  of 
gneiss,  which  is  traversed  by  granite.  Numerous  dikes  branch 
out,  from  the  principal  mass  of  the  Hohenstein  granite,  into  the 
gneiss,  which  have  a  peculiar  composition.  Jantsch  distinguishes 
a  fine  granular,  quartzose,  stanniferous  granite,  containing  but 
little  mica,  from  the  common  variety.  He  says,  that  the  tin  ore 
occurs  principally  at  the  contact  of  the  granite  and  gneiss,  as 
can  best  be  seen  in  the  large  Klinger  Stockwerk-cavity,  on  the 
edge  of  the  Hohenstein  granite,  and  in  the  Kaspar-Pflugen  mine. 

He  found  the  granite  dikes  in  the  gneiss,  consisting  of 
coarse  granular  quartz,  and  feldspar  with  steatite,  fluor  spar, 
apatite,  wolfram,  molybdenite,  cassiterite,  iron  pyrites,  copper 
pyrites,  and  mispickel.  According  to  Sternberger,  the  tin-ore  is 
principally  found  at  the  selvages  of  these  veins;  which  consist 
of  quartz,  and  are  2 — 12  inches  broad.  The  same  minerals,  as 
occur  in  the  veins,  are  also  found  in  the  fine  granular  stanni- 
ferous granite,  only  more  finely  and  rarely  distributed.  A  stan- 
niferous greisen,  consisting  of  a  talcose  micaceous  quartz-rock, 
sometimes  occurs  alongside  of  the  veins:  Sternberger  found  the 
ores  concentrated  in  pockets. 

The  regular  lodes  of  tin  ore,  of  which  the  best  is  worked  at 
Schonfeld  in  the  hanging-wall  of  the  granite,  strike  ENE.— WSW. 
and  dip  in  NW.  They  cut  the  strata  of  gneiss  very  distinctly, 
and  are  intersected  and  faulted  by  cross  fissures,  striking  near 
N.— S.,  which  contain  traces  of  silver  and  cobalt  ores. 

Gliickselig  describes  the  following  minerals,  as  having 
occurred  in  the  tin-ore  deposits  of  Schlackenwald : 


1  Jantsch,  in Zeitschr.  des  montauistischen  Vereins  im  Erzgebirge,  1856, 
Nos.  7,  8,  9;  Sternberger,  in  osterreichischen  Zeitschr.  f.  Berg- u.  Hiitten- 
wesen,  1857,  p.  62;  Gliickselig,  im  amtlichen  Bericht  d.  Versamralung  deut- 
scher  Naturforscher  u.  Aerzte  zu  Wien:  Vienna,  1858,  p.  66. 


222  PRZIBRAM 

1.  Cassiterite,  always  in  twin  forms  : 

2.  Quartz,  at  times  as  cap  quartz; 
Topaz,  in  greisen; 
Physalite,  quite  common;  - 

5.  Beryl,  rare; 

6.  Fluor  spar,  always  crystallized  in  geodes; 

7.  Apatite,  crystallized; 

8.  Phosphorite,  reddish,  not  rare ; 

9.  Gypsum,  sitting  on  phosphorite; 

10.  Calc.  spar,  granular,  rare; 

11.  Scheelite,  in  fine  crystals; 

12.  Spathic  iron,  in  rhombohedrons ; 

13.  Orthoclase,  rare  in  greisen; 

14.  Lithomarge,  probably  a  product  of  decomposition  of  the  orthoclase; 

15.  Carpholith; 

16.  Triplite; 

17.  Mica,  several  varieties,  in  part  lepidolith; 

18.  Wolfram,  common  in  small  crystals,  also  tungstite ; 

19.  Iron  pyrites,  raie; 

20.  Mispickel,  common; 

21.  Scorodite,  rare; 

22.  Blende,  in  fine  large  crystals  near  Schonfeld; 

23.  Molybdenite,  common; 

24.  Bismuthine;- 

25.  Emplectite: 

26.  Copper  pyrites,  very  common; 

27.  Erubescite,  rare; 

28.  Digenite; 

29.  Azurite,   malachite,    euchroite,   olivenite,   tile-ore   and  native  copper, 
probably  from  the  decomposition  of  the  preceding  minerals: 

30.  Lampadite,  formerly  found; 

31.  Pitchblende,  found  but  once; 

32.  Chalcolith; 

33.  Smaltine, 


34.  Erythrine, 

35.  Millerite, 


rare,   and  probably  found   only   in    the 
cross-fissures. 


36.  Silver  and  lead  ores, 

PRZIBRAM. 

§.  137.     The  neighborhood  of  Przibram l  consists  of  Silurian 
strata,  bounded   by  granite,    and    traversed   by   dikes   of  green- 

1  See:  Vogelgesang,  in  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  vol.  I.  p.  305;  Li  lien- 
bach,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1858,  p.  184;  Reuss,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb. 
1860,  pp.  578,  and  712;  Babaneck,  in  Sitzungsber.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanst. 
1864,  p.  6:  and  in  osterreich.  Zeitsch.  f.  Berg-  u.  Hiittenwesen,  1864,  pp.  194, 
and  205;  Faller,  Uebersicht  des  Silber-  u.  Bleibergbaues  bei  Przibram,  in 
Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Jahrb.  d.  k.  k.  Bergacademien,  1864,  vol.  XIII;  Grimm, 
in  same,  1865.  vol.  XV. 


STRATA  AND  LODES.  223 

stone.  The  Silurian  rocks  consist  of  sandstone,  quartzite,  and 
slate.  The  last  is  separated  from  the  two  first  by  a  clay-fissure, 
which  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  strike  of  the  strata;  it  seems  to 
have  been  caused  by  a  large  fault.  The  lodes  were  for  a  long 
time  supposed  to  exist  only  in  the  sandstone  and  quartzite, 
where  they  are  constantly  accompanied  by  greenstone  dikes, 
which  are  also  cut  off  by  the  clay-fissure. 

It  was  long  supposed,  that  the  clay-slates  contain  only 
traces  of  veins  and  ores ;  but  Babaneck  discovered  in  1864,  that 
the  lodes  continued  in  the  slates,  preserving  the  same  mineral 
character,  and  were  as  rich  in  ores,  as  in  the  other  rocks. 

The  lodes  form,  in  common  with  the  greenstones,  a  large 
belt,  striking  N. — S.,  which  obliquely  intersects  the  Silurian  strata. 
The  majority  of  the  lodes  dip  in  West,  from  which  there  are 
four  exceptions. 

In  the  Anna  mine  thirteen  lodes  have  been  found,  in  the 
Adalberti  eight,  and  in  the  Dokolnow  four;  but  some  of  these 
may  really  be  but  different  portions  of  one  vein.  Their  breadth 
is  very  changeable,  varying  between  1  inch  and  14  feet;  be- 
sides which  the  lodes  are  much  bent  in  their  course.  Their 
matrix  resembles  much  that  of  the  pyritous  lead-formation  in 
Freiberg,  but  differs  in  containing  no  mispickel,  in  whose  place 
'are  found  considerable  spathic  iron  and  antimony  ores.  The 
vein-stones  are  principally;  spathic  iron,  calc.  spar  (in  the  geodes 
in  the  middle  of  the  vein),  brown  spar,  quartz,  and  rarely  heavy 
spar.  The  ores  that  occur  are;  iron  pyrites,  brown,  and  more 
rarely  red,  blende  (containing  up  to  400  grammes  of  silver  in 
a  kilogramme),  galena  (containing  165  to  800  grammes  of  sil- 
ver), tetrahedrite  (partly  very  rich  in  silver),  ruby  silver,  native 
silver,  limonite,  gothite,  stibnite,  and  very  rarely  copper  pyrites, 
stephanite,  polybasite,  and  greenockite.  The  ores  are  much 
decomposed,  from  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  60— 70  fathoms; 
they  have  a  gossan  distinguished  by  the  predominating  limo- 
nite, with  which  are  mixed  much  decomposed  wall-rock,  calc. 
§par,  quartz,  little  galena,  and  more  pyromorphite  and  cerusite. 
Pitchblende  and  vanadinite  (?)  occur  as  great  rarities  in  the 
gossan.  The  amount  of  iron  in  the  upper  workings  is  at  times 
so  great,  that  they  can  be  worked  as  iron  veins;  and  it  would 
appear,  as  if  a  larger  percentage  of  iron,  perhaps  as  spathic 
iron,  had  originally  existed  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  veins, 
than  at  greater  depths. 


224  MIES. 

The  texture  of  the  lodes  is  an  irregular  granular  one ;  and 
they  are  firmly  attached  to  the  wall-rock;  still  the  selvages  are 
often  characterized  by  threads  of  galena  or  blende.  The 
Schefczin  lode  is  the  only  one  whicn  shows  a  distinct  symme- 
try of  the  layers  ;  at  the  selvages  occur  spathic  iron,  and  brown 
spar;  next  to  these  galena,  copper  pyrites,  blende,  and  tetra- 
hedrite;  in  the  middle  and  generally  crystallized  in  geodes, 
quartz,  calc.  spar,  and  heavy  spar. 

The  ores  are  generally,  at  least  in  the  sandstone  and 
quartzite,  quite  equally  distributed. 

The  relationship  of  the  Przibram  lodes  to  the  greenstone 
dikes  is  very  interesting.  As  a  rule,  they  not  only  coincide 
in  their  extension  and  direction,  but  the  lodes  often  occur  for 
considerable  distances  as  true  contact-lodes  between  the  green- 
stones and  Silurian  rocks.  They  are  then  frequently  much 
narrower,  being  compressed  by  the  greenstones,  but  they  remain 
qualitatively  the  same.  They  also  send  leaders  into  the  green- 
stones, or  traverse  these.  A  considerable  influence,  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  lodes,  must  be  ascribed  to  the  somewhat  older 
greenstones;  since  they  were  the  direct  cause  of  the  fissures, 
and  have  thus  given  the  first  impulse  to  the  formation  of 
the  veins. 

MIES. 

§  138.  The  district  around  Mies  l  is  composed  of  Silurian 
clay-slate,  which  in  a  more  southerly  direction,  near  Kladrau, 
is  limited,  and  even  broken  through,  by  granite.  This  clay- 
slate  is  traversed  by  numerous  lead-veins  striking  .N.—  S.,  the 
number  discovered  already  exceeds  60.  A  small  number  of 
the  lodes  strike  NE.— SW.  The  most  important  of  these,  the 
Frischgluckauf  lode,  averages  a  fathom  in  breadth,  but  splits 
into  numerous  branches,  which  at  times  again  unite,  and  then 
attain  a  breadth,  with  the  horses  they  enclose,  of  seven  fathoms. 
These  branches  are  generally  the  richest,  and  at  times  contain 
masses  of  compact  galena  1 — 3  feet  broad. 


1  See:  Hellmich,  in  oesterr.  Zeitschr.  f.  Berg-u.  Hiittenw.  1855,  p.  267; 
Von  Hauerand  Fotterle,  Uebersicht  der  Bergbaue,  1855,  p.  23;  Rocker, 
'The  ore-deposits  of  Mies',  in  Sitzungsbericht  der  geolog.  Reichsanstalt, 

1867,  No.  7.  p.  137. 


HORZOWITZ.  RADNITZ.  225 

The  general  matrix  of  the  lodes  is  composed  of  quartz, 
fragments  of  slate,  galena,  a  little  blende,  iron  pyrites,  and 
heavy  spar.  From  the  decomposition  of  these  have  been  formed 
considerable  quantities  of  cerusite  and  pyromorphite.  Large 
geodes  have  been  found  in  the  lodes,  at  times  exceeding 
three  cubic  fathoms  in  area.  Their  walls  are  incrustated  with 
crystals  of  galena,  over  which  occur  crystals  of  quartz  or  crys- 
talline cerusite;  and  in  them  are  found  fragments  of  galena 
encrusted  with  quartz.  It  is  curious,  that  these  lodes  are  often 
intersected,  and  split  up,  by  so-called  alum-slate  beds,  J/2  inch 
to  2  fathoms  broad;  which  must  themselves  of  course  be  the 
matrices  of  fissures.  These,  as  well  as  the  lodes,  are  also  in- 
tersected by  fissures  1 — 2  fathoms  broad,  containing  fragments 
of  rock,  sand,  clay,  limestone,  and  calc.  spar. 

HORZOWITZ. 

§  139.  The  neighborhood  of  Horzowitz  [  (Horowicz),  nor- 
therly of  Przibram  and  westerly  of  Beraun,  belongs  to  the  Silu- 
rian epoch.  Oolithic  hematite  beds,  1 — 4  fathoms  thick,  and  con- 
taining upwards  of  50  per  cent  of  iron,  occur  in  the  quartzose 
clay,  and  siliceous  slates.  The  same  are  exploited  in  numerous 
localities,  and  several  of  them  are  remarkable  for  being  tra- 
versed in  various  directions  by  numerous  perpendicular  fissures 
containing  cinnabar.  Rosenbaum  states,  that  these  fissures  ex- 
tend, only  14  to  35  feet  beyond  the  beds,  into  the  clay-slate. 
These  fissures  occasionally  attain  a  breadth  of  one  foot;  their 
matrix  is  chiefly  heavy  spar,  in  which  cinnabar  occurs  disse- 
minated, and  in  dendritic  forms,  with  iron  pyrites.  Only  traces 
of  cinnobar  are  found  in  the  iron  bed  itself;  massive  iron  py- 
rites is  frequently  its  precursor. 

MAGNETITE  IN  THE  LORDSHIP  OF  RADNITZ. 

§  140.  A  perpendicular  vein  of  magnetite,  30  feet  broad, 
crops  almost  out  to  the  surface,  at  the  junction  of  the  Silurian 


lSee:  Noggerath,  Ausflug  nach  Bohmen,  1839,  p.  384;  Lipold,  in 
Jahrb.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanstalt,  1863,  p.  147;  Rosenbaum,  Bergbaukunde, 
1789,  vol.  II.  p.  200. 

15 


226  ADAMSTADT,  AND  RUDOLSTADT. 

and    Azoic   slates,   northerly   of  the   village    of   Glashiitten  ]    in 
the  Lordship  of  Radnitz. 

The  magnetic  iron-ore-is  enclosed,  towards  the  surface,  by 
limonite,  and  hematite,  with  layers  of  slate ;  and  is  generally 
so  intimately  combined  with  the  clay-slate,  that  it  might  be 
called  a  clay-magnetite.  It  is  a  very  remarkable  fact,  that 
this  ore,  near  the  surface,  attracts  and  is  polar;  at  a  depth  of 
14  feet,  it  only  repels;  and  at  a  depth  of  30  feet,  is  no  longer 
magnetic.  From  this  it  would  appear,  as  if  the  magnetic  force 
had  first  been  excited  by  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere. 


ADAMSTADT  AND  RUDOLSTADT  2  IN 
SOUTHERN  BOHEMIA,  NORTHEASTERLY  OF  BUDWEIS. 

§  141.  Gneiss  is  the  predominant  rock  in  this  region, 
which  passes  into  mica-schist,  hornblende-schist,  and  granulite; 
it  is  also  traversed  by  granite  dikes.  A  group  of  lodes  tra- 
verses these  rocks  in  the  direction  N. — S.,  the  separate  mem- 
bers of  which  are  partly  lodes,  partly  only  quartz  and  clay 
veins  or  fissures.  The  principal  lodes  are  the  Lazar  and 
Widersinnige. 

The  Lazar  lode  is  1 — 4  feet  broad,  strikes  nearly  N.  — S. 
and  dips  75  °  in  West.  Its  matrix  consists  of  a  quartzose  mag- 
nesian  limestone;  which  is  compact,  in  the  most  quartzose  por- 
tions; and  crystalline  granular,  where  it  contains  less  silica. 
This  mass  is  frequently  much  decomposed,  and  penetrated,  by 
a  kaolin  substance  at  the  selvages,  occasionally  in  the  middle. 
This  principal  gang  contains,  in  layers,  or  irregularly  distri- 
buted, argentiferous  blende,  argentiferous  galena,  and  iron  py- 
rites. Blende  and  galena  are  intimately  combined ;  the  last 
frequently  enclosing  the  first.  Such  combinations  frequently 
occur  as  angular  fragments  in  the  matrix.  Crystallizations  also 
of  galena,  quartz,  brown  spar,  and  filiform  native  silver,  are 
found  in  geodes.  The  veinstone  next  to  the  ores  is  the  richest 
in  silica,  being  often  composed  almost  entirely  of  quartz. 


^ee:  Micksch,  in  Corresp.  Blatt  d.  zool.  mineral.  Verein  of  Ratisbon, 
1847,  p.  39. 

2  See:  Jokely,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanstalt,  1854,  p.  107,  and  in 
Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1856.  p.  717. 


KUTTENBERG.  227 

The  Widersirmige  lode  averages  three  fathoms  in  breadth, 
strikes  also  nearly  N.— S.  and  dips  45°  in  E.  It  traverses  and 
faults  the  Lazar.  Its  matrix  is  chiefly  quartz  with  fragments 
of  the  wall-rock  (gneiss,  and  granite,  often  much  decomposed). 
It  thus  varies  from  the  matrix  of  the  Lazar,  and  much  resembles 
the  Braunsdorf  lodes  near  Freiberg.  In  the  veinstone  occur 
argentiferous  galena,  argentiferous  blende,  and  iron  pyrites,  the 
last  partly  altered  to  limonite. 

The  succession  of  minerals  in  both  the  lodes  is: 

1.  The  principal  matrix, 

2.  blende  and  galena, 

3.  iron  pyrites, 

4.  quartz  in  geodes, 

5   brown  spar  in  geodes. 

The  unequal  influence  of  the  country-rock  on  the  distri- 
bution of  the  ores  is  here  very  perceptible.  The  lodes  are  the 
richest,  where  the  gneiss  contains  only  subordinate  strata  of 
mica-schist;  while  the  same  are  much  poorer,  where  the  gneiss 
and  mica-schist  alternate  regularly  with  one  another,  or  where 
the  latter  predominates. 

KUTTENBERG. 

§  142.  The  gneiss,  which  is  the  principal  rock  at  Kutten- 
berg,1  passes  into  garnetiferous  granulite  towards  Petschkau. 
Diorite  occurs  to  a  subordinate  degree,  not  being  distinctly  de- 
fined at  its  limits;  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  the  gneiss  is 
altered,  its  quartz  being  finely  granular,  its  feld-spar  more  crys- 
talline, and  its  mica  darker  colored.  At  the  same  time  the 
diorite  appears  to  pass  over  into  a  kind  of  aphanite.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  a  few  serpentine  veins,  5 — 7  fathoms  broad,  tra- 
verse the  gneiss,  which  near  these  becomes  chloritic.  The 
gneiss  itself  occurs  in  two  varieties;  one  of  which  is  charac- 
terized by  light  gray  quartz,  yellowish,  often  compact  feldspar, 
and  white  or  light  gray  mica;  which  are  uniformly  mixed,  or 
distributed  in  layers.  The  other,  a  very  hard  variety,  has 


'See:  Grimm,  in  Kraus'  Jahrb.  f.  den  Berg-  u.  Huttenmann,  1849, 
p.  58.  Wy  soky  states,  that  the  old  mines  at  Kuttenberg  have  by  no  means 
the  depth  formerly  ascribed  to  them.  The  deepest  shaft  only  attained  a 
depth  of  346  fathoms. 

15* 


228  EOTHLIEGENDES  COPPER-ORES  NEAR 

dark  crystalline  quartz,  dark  feldspar,  and  brown  chloritic  mica 
passing  into  hornblende  (?).  Grimm  calls  this  last  'dioritic  gneiss '; 
it  acts  in  the  same  manner  towards  the  lodes,  as  the  green- 
stone and  serpentine. 

The  lodes,  which  traverse  this  region,  form  a  network  con- 
taining numerous  rich  points  of  intersection.  Their  veinstones 
are  feldspar,  quartz,  and  calc.  spar,  in  which  are  found  iron 
pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  galena,  and  blende  fall  argentiferous), 
with  silver  ores  proper. 

These  lodes  contain  ores,  principally  in  the  lighter  variety 
of  gneiss,  and  in  granulite.  They  are  very  poor  in  the  dioritic 
gneiss,  greenstone,  and  serpentine;  this  unfavorable  influence 
can  be  noticed  to  a  distance  of  20 — 30  feet  from  these  rocks. 
Within  the  same  the  veins  lose  their  distinct  selvages,  and  the 
matrix  is  firmly  joined  to  the  wall-rock.  The  fissures  become 
narrower,  so  that  frequently  but  a  small  cleft  remains.  The 
combed  texture  of  the  lodes  disappears;  galena,  and  silver  ores, 
no  longer  occur;  and  frequently  only  iron  pyrites,  and  blende, 
are  left;  this  deportment  is  very  constant. 


COPPER  ORES  IN  THE  EOTHLIEGENDES  NEAR 
BOEHMISCHBROD. 

§  143.  According  to  Reuss  *  the  Rothliegendes,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Bohmischbrod  and  Schwarzkosteletz,  forms  two 
subdivisions  not  distinctly  divided  from  one  another. 

The  upper,  most  extensive,  and  thickest,  consists  of  red- 
dish-brown, micaceous,  distinctly  stratified  hardened  clay,  pass- 
ing into  argillaceous  sandstone,  alternating  with  greenish  strata. 
The  lower  consists  chiefly  of  coarse  conglomerates,  containing 
boulders  of  quartz,  and  gneissic  granite. 

Slight  secretions  of  malachite  were  observed  in  1851,  in  a 
reddish  gray  conglomeritic  sandstone  of  the  lower  subdivision, 
at  the  mill  of  Chrast  near  Schwarzkosteletz.  Trenches  and 
workings,  induced  by  this  discovery,  have  shown,  that  these 
sandstones,  with  boulders  of  quartz,  gneiss,  and  granite,  are 


^ee:  Reuss,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanstalt,  1852,  p.  96;  in  Sitzungs- 
bericht  d.  Wiener  Akademie  d.  Wissenschaften,  XXV.  p.  557;  in  Leon- 
hard's  Jahrb.  1859,  p.  81;  Berggeist,  1860,  No.  88. 


BOEHMISCHBROD,  AND   SCHWARZKOSTELETZ.  229 

penetrated  in  irregular  zones  by  copper  ores.  These  consist  of 
malachite,  azurite  (always  as  incrustation  on  the  first),  ferrugi- 
nous and  manganiferous  melaconite,  without  any  traces  of  py- 
rites. The  sandstone  is  often  entirely  impregnated  by  these 
ores,  they  penetrate  into  all  the  fissures,  even  into  those  of  the 
boulders,  and  locally  form  the. cementing  medium  for  the  grains  of 
quartz  and  feldspar  composing  the  sandstone.  In  the  intervals, 
between  the  zones,  but  traces  of  ores  are  found;  while  in  the 
red  clay,  above  the  sandstone,  they  are  entirely  wanting. 

Reuss  has  regarded  the Rothliegendes  ofBohmischbrod,  Schwarz- 
kosteletz,  and  other  localities  in  Bohemia,  to  be  an  equiva- 
lent of  the  Weissliegendes  of  the  Zechstein  formation;  since  the 
remains  of  fish  and  plants  are  found  in  both  (without  any 
special  statements  as  to  which  species),  and  copper  ores 
occur.  I  can  only  remark,  that  at  Hohenelbe  (§  145),  where 
the  Rothliegendes  is  developed  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  of 
Bohmischbrod,  the  organic  remains  found  entirely  agree  with 
those  of  the  lower  subdivision  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  and 
not  with  those  of  the  Zechstein  formation. 

Especially  the  Walchia  pinnata^  which  occurs  here,  is  ge- 
nerally regarded  as  most  characteristic  for  the  lower  Rothlie- 
gendes. It  is  self-evident,  that  the  occurrence  of  copper-ore 
impregnations,  consequently  subsequent  formations,  cannot  be 
regarded  as  proofs  of  the  contemporaneous  deposit  of  the  strata. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Zechstein  formation  is  entirely  wanting 
in  Bohemia. 


Numerous  ore-deposits  occur  in  Bohemia,  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned, but  of  far  less  importance  and  interest  than  those  mentioned.  I  would 
refer  those  persons,  desirous  of  fuller  details  and  historical  information 
concerning  such  deposits,  to  Count  Sternberg's  'History  of  Bohemian  Mining' ; 
Von  Lichtenfels,  '  Essay  towards  a  History  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Min- 
ing'; Yon  Hauer's  and  Fotterle's  'Review  of  Mining  in  the  Austrian 
Monarchy';  and  to  the  'Jahrbuch  der  geologischen  Reichsanstalt'. 


230       RIESENGEBIRGE.  GEOLOGICAL   FORMATION. 


X.    THE  RIESEN0EBIRGE. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  144.  The  central  portion  of  the  Riesengebirge  (Giant- 
Mountains)  consists  of  a  large  granite  district  surrounded  by  crys- 
talline schists,  which;  towards  the  outer  portions  of  these 
mountains,  pass  into  clay-slates.  The  granite  forms  dikes  in 
the  schists,  which  are  otherwise  but  little  broken  through  by  igneous 
rock;  and  perhaps  as  a  consequence  of  this,  contain  but  few  lodes. 
This  predominantly  crystalline  district  is  outwardly  surrounded 
by  the  Carboniferous  and  Rothliegendes  formations;  which 
last  is  northerly  overlaid  by  Zechstein,  Buntsandstein,  and 
Muschelkalk -,  while  to  the  South  it  is  covered  by  Quader- 
sandstein. 

The  Riesengebirge,  whose  highest  peak,  of  mica-schist, 
attains  a  height  of  4900  feet  above  the  sea,  is  joined  to  the 
East  by  the  Waldenburg-Glatz  coal-basin;  which  is  broken 
through  by  various  porphyries  and  melaphyres,  like  the 
southerly  Rothliegendes.  Following  this  are  the  Sudeten  Moun- 
tains, which,  in  the  Altvater  peak,  attain  a  height  of  4600  feet 
above  the  sea. 

Crystalline  rocks  predominate  in  the  higher  portions  of  this 
last  mountain-chain;  namely,  granite,  gneiss,  mica-schist,  etc. 
Towards  the  East,  their  gentle  slope  consists  almost  entirely 
of  Devonian  strata,  combined  with  somewhat  of  Mountain- 
limestone. 


COPPER  ORES  IN  THE  ROTHLIEGENDES  OF 

NORTHERN  BOHEMIA,  *  AND  IN  THE  CRYSTALLINE 

SCHISTS  AT  ROCHLITZ. 

§  145.     The  Rothliegendes,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hohen- 
elbe    and  Starkenbach,  where    lying    on   the   crystalline    schists 


^ee:  Forth,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1857,  p.  347;  Herter,  in  same, 
1858,  p.  831;  Zippe,  in  same,  1860,  p.  612;  Gurlt,  in  Berg-  und  hiitteum. 
Zeitimg,  1859,  p.  35;  Polak,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanstalt,  1858,  p.  243; 
Herter  and  Forth,  in  same,  1859,  p.  10. 


COPPER  ORES  IN  N.  BOHEMIA,  AND  AT  ROCHLITZ.        231 

(clay-slate  and  mica-schist)  forming  the  base  of  the  Kiesen- 
gebirge,  is  tolerably  steep.  It  consists,  commencing  at  the  top, 
of  the  following  subdivisions: 

1.  Speckled  sandstone  with  silicified  plants; 

2.  Argillaceous  sandstone  with  Calamites; 

3.  Bituminous  shale  (BrandscMefer)  with  numerous  remains  of  plants 
and  fish,  in  which  is  somewhat  of  copper  ore; 

4.  Argillaceous  shale  and  marl; 

5   Argillaceous  sandstone,  like  2 ; 

6.  Red  argillaceous  shale  with  copper  ores; 

7.  Sandstone,  with  copper  ores,  at  Starkenbach; 

8.  Bituminous  shale,  with  copper  ores; 

9.  Sandstone; 

10.  Conglomerate  with  copper  ores,  lying  on  crystalline  schists. 

This  succession  is  not  always  constant,  at  the  various  locali- 
ties; and  the  copper  ores  only  occur  locally  in  the  strata. 
Their  peculiar  distribution  rendered  it  impossible  to  exploit  them 
profitably.  Nevertheless  it  is  of  geological  interest,  like  that 
already  mentioned  in  the  interior  of  Bohemia. 

It  was  found  by  trenching,  that  here,  as  in  the  Eoih- 
liegendes  at  Bohmischbrod,  principally  the  sandstone,  and  also 
the  conglomerate,  the  marl,  and  the  bituminous  slate,  contained 
the  ore  in  different  localities  between  the  Elbe  and  the  Iser. 
The  ores  are  essentially  malachite,  azurite,  and  chrysocolla; 
only  slight  traces  of  sulphurets  are  found  near  bituminous 
portions.  Besides  these,  pockets  of  native  copper,  malachite, 
and  copper  glance,  are  frequent  in  the  numerous  melaphyres  of 
this  neighborhood. 

According  to  Forth,  the  whole  occurrence  of  these  copper 
ores  has  the  character  of  an  infiltration,  and  appears  to  be 
dependent,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  pockets  in  conglo- 
merate and  melaphyre,  on  the  presence  of  organic  substances. 
The  sandstone  No.  7,  which  is  quite  rich  in  the  carbonised 
remains  of  plants,  contains  the  largest  quantity  of  ores.  The 
most  of  these  accur  surrounding  the  threads  of  coal,  and  trunks 
of  trees,  whose  bark  is  carbonised.  The  bituminous  shales,  and 
the  marls  immediately  adjoining  these,  appear  to  be  next  richest 
in  ores.  All  the  other  strata  appear  to  contain  merely  traces 
of  ores.  The  influence  of  organic  remains  was  very  distinctly 
seen  in  an  old  shaft  near  Starkenbach,  which  had  caved  in. 
Bones,  probably  of  animals  who  fell  into  the  shaft,  were  found 


232       COPPER-ORES  IN  EOTHLIEGENDES  OF  N.  BOHEMIA, 

beneath  the  rubbish  entirely  impregnated   with  malachite;  while 
the  rubbish  itself  contained  no  traces  of  ore. 

Forth  mentions  the  following  facts,  as  favorable    to    a    for- 
mation by  infiltration: 

1.  The  percentage  of  copper  is  always  greater  in  the  friable  portions  of 
the  sandstone,  than  in  the  firm  portions ; 

2.  All  cracks  are  filled  with  ores; 

3.  Traces  of  ore  are  never  found  in  fresh  cross-fractures  of  the  shalesr 
but  only  in  the  cleavage-fissures  and  fine  cracks; 

4.  The   percentage   of  ore   is    the   greatest,  in  all  these  strata,  at  the- 
outcrop ;  and  diminishes  with  the  depth ;  the  impregnation  must  consequently 
have  taken  place  from  above ; 

5.  The  principal    concentration  of  the  ores  around  organic  remains,   in 
immediate    contact    with    which    copper-sulphurets    have    occasionally   been 
formed. 

0.  Polak  stated  subsequently,  that  the  coal  and  strata 
enclosing  it;  argillaceous  shales,  bituminous  slates,  etc.  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Radowenz,  southeasterly  of  Trautenau,  contain 
somewhat  of  malachite,  azurite,  tetrahedrite,  and  copper  glance. 
Forth  states,  that  the  original  copper  deposits  must  be  looked  for 
in  the  older  rocks  of  the  Riesengebirge.  There  are  several  localities 
in  these  mountains,  where  considerable  copper-deposits  exist.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  is  worked  by  the  Ribnitz  copper-mine. 
This  mine  exploits  a  siliceous  argillaceous  deposit,  at  times  resembling 
hornstone,  3—4  fathoms  broad,  at  the  junction  of  the  clay-slate  and 
the  conglomerate  of  the  RotTiliegendes.  This  deposit  averages 
3 — 5  per  cent  of  copper.  The  copper  is  obtained,  partly  in  the 
mass  of  the  deposit  as  copper  glance,  partly  as  malachite  and 
hydrous  silicate  filling  all  the  fissures  and  cracks.  This  deposit 
occurs,  as  stated,  at  the  junction  of  the  Rothliegendes,  but  is  still 
entirely  in  the  clay-slate,  and  parallel  to  its  cleavage. 

Nests  and  disseminations  of  copper-ores  occur  in  various 
places  near  the  larger  deposits.  This  occurrence  of  copper 
appears  to  be  especially  combined  with  an  augitic  rock  (malacolith), 
which  frequently  occurs  within  segregation's  of  crystalline  lime- 
stone; for  example,  near  Hiittenbach,  and  Ober-Rochlitz.  At 
these  localities,  Gurlt  states,  that  copper,  zinc,  lead  and  iron 
ores  occur  in  banks  of  malacolith,  which  alternate  with  lime- 
stone. 

Herter  and  Forth  have  described  these  curious  deposits 
nearly  as  follows:  'The  predominating  rocks  near  Rochlitz  are 
mica-schist,  passing  into  quartz-schist  containing  beds  of  clay- 


AND  IN  CRYSTALLINE  SCHISTS  AT  ROCHLITZ.  233 

slate  and  granular  limestone.  The  granular  limestone  forms 
very  irregular  beds,  having  almost  the  appearance  of  segre- 
gations. In  this  occur,  as  still  more  subordinate  layers,  and 
also  of  a  somewhat  irregular  and  lenticular  shape,  metalliferous 
beds  and  pockets  of  malacolith.  The,  at  times  fibrous,  malacolith 
forms  alternate  layers  with  talc-schist  and  limestone,  which  have 
the  appearance  of  a  lime-talc  schist.  Talc  and  feldspar  occur 
implanted  in  the  malacolith,  the  last  also  crystallized  in  calc. 
spar.  Cyanite  occurs  as  a  rarity  in  the  cracks  of  the  mala- 
colith. 

The  ores;  which  especially  occur  combined  with  the  malacolith, 
are  sulphurets  of  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  iron.  They  are  distri- 
buted, finely  disseminated,  over  large  areas,  and  form  fine  threads 
and  fillings  of  fissures.  The  blende  alone,  occasionally  forms 
more  compact  concretions.  The  whole  occurrence  resem- 
bles that  of  the  Kongsberg  Fallbands.  At  one  locality,  where 
the  Huttenbach  flows  into  the  Iser,  a  concentration  of  the  ores 
was  observed,  and  the  following  minerals  found;  copper  glance, 
erubescite,  tetrahedrite,  copper  pyrites,  stibnite  (rare),  native 
silver  (very  rare),  galena,  blende,  and  iron  pyrites.  The 
majority  of  these  ores  contain  silver,  the  blende  up  to  28  grammes, 
the  galena  100  to  280  grammes,  the  copper-ores  up  to 
1666  grammes,  in  100  kilogrammes.' 

At  another  locality,  alongside  of  the  road  leading  to 
Starkenbach,  the  metalliferous  malacolith  occurs  in  very  thick 
beds  at  the  limits  of  the  limestone.  From  these  beds 
extend,  for  a  considerable  distance,  into  the  country-rock, 
ore-impregnations;  which  partly  penetrate  the  mass  of  the  rock, 
partly  occur  collected  in  fissures.  The  impregnating  ores  are 
mostly  hydrous  silicates,  less  frequently  carbonates  and  oxides, 
very  rarely  sulphurets.  According  to  Reuss,  the  deposits  of 
malacolith  are  traversed  by  irregular  quartz-veins,  which  contain 
considerable  masses  of  erubescite,  copper  pyrites,  malachite,  tet- 
rahedrite, etc.  Reuss  is  of  the  opinion,  that  the  ores  in  the 
malacolith  come  from  such  quartz  veins. 

Herter  and  Forth  found  altogether  the  following  minerals  in 
the  Rochlitz  ore-deposits;  a  hydrous  silicate  of  copper,  bol, 
allophane,  neolith,  malachite,  azurite,  melaconite,  tile  ore,  a  still 
undetermined  antimony  mineral,  stibnite,  tetrahedrite,  cerusite, 
pyromorphite,  minium,  anglesite,  calamine,  native  silver,  galena, 


234  SUCCESSION  OF  ROCKS  AT 

erubescite,  copper  pyrites,  copper  glance,  earthy  copper,  quartz, 
calc-spar,  and  gypsum.  Many  of  the  copper  minerals  contain 
antimonic  acid. 


There  is  an  unmistakable  analogy  between  the  ore-impreg- 
nations first  described  in  Rothliegendes  at  the  .base  of  the 
Riesengebirge,  also  those  at  Bohmischbrod,  and  the  copper-ore 
impregnations  described  by  Murchison,  in  the  grits  of  the  lower 
Permian,  at  the  western  base  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  Even  the 
geological  age  of  the  impregnated  rocks  in  these  three  localities, 
appears  nearly  coincident.  But  it  would  be  rather  bold,  to 
attempt  from  this  to  infer  any  nearer  connection  between  the 
deposits  in  Bohemia  and  Russia.  We  must  consider,  that  these 
impregnations  have  occurred  at  places  very  far  apart,  only 
locally,  and  evidently  long  subsequent  to  the  formation  of  the 
rocks.  How  much  later,  we  do  not  know;  but  there  is  no  po- 
sitive ground  for  supposing,  that  the  impregnations  took  place 
contemporaneously.  Their  contemporaneous  occurrence  could 
only  be  accidental,  as  it  is  an  accident  that  they  are  found  in 
parallel  strata. 


KUPFERBERG  IN  SILESIA. 

§  146.  Websky  states  the  following  to  be  the  succession 
of  rocks,  occurring  around  Kupferberg,  l  commencing  with  the 
lowest : 

1.  Granite,  belonging  to  the  principal  mass  of  the  Riesengebirge; 

2.  Dichroit   gneiss,    only   at   one   locality    (the  Ochsenkopfj,   perhaps  as 
contact-formation,  between  mica-schist  and  granite  ; 

3.  Lower  diorite  slate,  frequently  called  hornblende  schist;  a  mixture  of 
hornblende  and  oligoclase,  often  with  somewhat  of  mica,  and  fine  particles 
of  iron  pyrites,  pyrrhotine,  and  copper  pyrites;  also  lenticular   pockets   of 
a  mixture   of   quartz  and  oligoclase; 

4.  Lower  Dolomite,  embedded  in  the  lower  diorite  slate; 

5.  Mica-schist,  but  little  developed; 

6.  Quartz-schist,  frequently  containing  feldspar,  but  little  developed; 

7.  Upper  diorite  slate,  exactly  like  3; 


1  See:  Websky,  in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellsch.  1853,  p.  373; 
Manes,  in  Anna!  des  mines,  1825,  vol.  XI.  p    19. 


KUPFERBERG  IN  SILESIA.  235 

ft.  Green-slate,  gradually  passing  into  the  upper  diorite  slate:  this  is 
a  compact  mixture  of  a  mineral  resembling  asbestos,  and  feldspar;  it  is  fre- 
quently accompanied  by  talc  and  fine  plates  of  chlorite,  having  a  silky  lustre, 
and  linear  parallelism.  It  encloses  pockets  of  dolomite,  quartz,  and  oligoclase; 
and  is  traversed  by  numerous  fissures  filled  with  thin  needles  of  tremolith, 
quartz,  plates  of  mica,  and  specular  iron,  crystals  of  albite,  pistacite,  or  dolo- 
mite: near  Kohnau  this  slate  contains  a  succession  of  talc-schist  segre- 
gations, with  lenticular  masses  of  quartz,  and  nearly  15  per  cent  of  iron  py- 
rites, which  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  vitriol; 

9.  Clay-slate,  merely  a  local  modification  of  the  green-slate; 

10.  Upper  dolomite,  and  limestone,  embedded  in  the  green-slate;  for 
example,  on  the  Bleiberg. 

These  rocks  are  generally  tilted  on  end,  and  stand  nearly 
perpendicular  alongside  of  each  other.  Websky  even  thinks, 
that  the  recurrence  of  similar  rocks  may  have  been  caused  by 
foldings,  the  upper  portions  of  which  have  been  removed  by 
denudation.  They  are  intersected  by  various  kinds  of  igneous 
rocks :  in  the  neighborhood  of  granite,  by  granite  dikes ;  near 
Kupferberg,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Bleiberg,  by  dikes  of  quartz 
porphyry:  the  clay-slate,  by  a  gray;  much  decomposed  por- 
phyry-dike northwardly  of  Buchwald,  and  by  an  uralite  rock, 
which  is  very  subordinate  among  the  cliffs  of  the  Rohrig  Mountain. 

The  lodes  of  this  district  are  found  principally  in  the  lower 
diorite  slate  near  the  dikes  of  porphyry;  they  are  also  found  in 
the  green-slate,  mica-schist  and  clay- slate.  The  granite  cuts  them 
off.  Their  average  breadth  is  2  — 3  inches,  but  seldom  15  inches, 
and  very  exceptionally  7  feet.  They  can  be  classified,  according 
to  their  matrices,  into 

1.  copper  lodes, 

2.  lead  lodes,  and 

3.  heavy  spar  veins 

The  copper  lodes  occur  almost  exclusively  in  the  diorite 
slate,  but  can  be  divided  into  four  groups  according  to  their 
strike  and  matrix: 

1.  Lodes  striking  NW. — SE.  and  consequently  parallel  to 
that  of  the  country-rock,  but  dipping  in  an  opposite  direction 
towards  S.  They  are  the  oldest,  being  even  older  than  the 
dikes  of  red  porphyry,  but  more  recent  than  those  of  granite : 
the  ores  occurring  in  the  Schwarz  Adler,  Frohe  Erwartung, 
Erwiinschte  Zukunft,  and  other  lodes,  are;  copper  pyrites,  iron 
pyrites,  pyrrhetine,  mispickel,  erubescite,  tetrahedrite,  and  copper 
glance;  with  numerous  minerals  formed  by  the  decomposition 
of  these.  Their  gang  consists  of  a  frequently  much  decom- 


236  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LODES. 

posed    chloritic    or    amphibolic    rock,  with    friable    quartz     and 
specular    iron. 

The   Einigkeit   lode    varies   from  this,  its  matrix  possessing 
a  fourfold  character: 

a.  a  compact  mass  of  actinolith,   tremolith,   or   hedenbergite, 
mixed  with  compact  or  crystallized  prase  or  quartz,  and  a  chlor- 
itic mineral,  in  which  matrix  occur;  magnetite,  pyrrhotine,  iron 
pyrites,    copper   pyrites,   and    erubescite:  it    is    possible,    that    a 
portion   of  this   matrix   was  formed   by   alteration  from  lievrite, 
traces    of  which    still    occur; 

b.  a  compact  or  granular  mass,  consisting  of  a  dark  colored 
mineral,  in  which  fine  particles  of  pyrites  are  disseminated; 

c.  a  branch   of    yellow    ferruginous    quartz,   with   plates  of 
specular    iron ; 

d.  Quartz   firmly   fastened   to   the  wallrock,   occurring  only 
at  junctions. 

2.  Lodes  striking  N. — S.  They  appear  to  contain  but  little 
ore,  among  others  nickel  and  cobalt  minerals:  six  are  known  to 
exist  near  Kupferberg,  but   have   hardly   been    even   examined; 
they  traverse  the  slate,  and  before   mentioned  lodes,    at   a    con- 
siderable angle. 

3.  Lodes  striking  NNW.— SSE.  They  occur  scattered  through 
the  whole  district;  ten  of  them  are  known,  the  most   character- 
istic of  which  is  the  Neue-Adler:    its  matrix,  from  the  selvages 
towards  the  middle,  is  first  a  thin  incrustation    of  drusy  quartz, 
this  is  followed  by  massive  copper  pyrites  with  mispickel,   then 
not  rarely  by   a  white  or   flesh-colored  feldspar:    the  succession 
is  closed  by  calc-spar,  fluor  spar,  and  brown  spar.     Consequently 
a    symmetrical    arrangement     of    the     layers;    and    containing 
feldspar ! 

4.  Lodes   striking   E. — W.     They  form  the  most  developed 
group,    especially    between    those     of    group     1.       Sixteen     of 
these    are    known,    of    which    one    appears    at    the    same    time 
to  be  the  principal  faulting  fissure.    Their  principal  vein-stone  is 
quartz,    with    fragments    of   the  country-rock.     Calc-spar  occurs 
but  rarely   in   the  geodes    of   quartz.      Of   the   ores  found,  the 
older  are ;  copper  glance,  erubescite,  copper  pyrites,  and  blende, 
occurring    in    pockets  surrounded  by  quartz  and  hornstone ;  more 
recent  are  tetrahedrite,  and  copper  pyrites  in  geodes. 

The  lead-lodes  occur  exclusively  in  the  green-slates   of   the 
Bleiberg  (Lead  Mountain),  and  form   a  belt  entirely  apart  from 


REMARKS,   AND   CONCLUSIONS.  237 

the  copper-lodes:  they  are  no  longer  worked;  but  from  the 
remains  of  former  mining  it  may  be  concluded,  that  they  were 
nearly  conformable  to  the  strike  and  dip  of  the  slates;  also, 
that  their  vein-stone  was  quartz,  in  which  occurred  pockets  of 
galena,  and  copper  pyrites,  with  the  minerals  formed  by  their 
decomposition:  the  galena  is  argentiferous. 

The  veins  of  heavy  spar,  like  those  of  Freiberg,  are  the 
most  recent  in  this  vein-district.  They  occur,  as  independent 
lodes,  only  in  the  Rudolstadt  group,  where  they  strike 
NW. —  SE.  parallel  to  the  porphyry-dikes,  traversing  the  diorite- 
slate.  The  heavy  spar  occurs  sporadically  in  other  veins,  as 
the  most  recent  formation.  The  most  common  matrix  of  these 
lodes  is  heavy  spar,  fluor  spar,  and  quartz,  with  somewhat  of 
galena  and  copper  pyrites.  On  the  other  hand  a  variety  of 
beautiful  minerals  were  found  combined  with  heavy  spar  (spora- 
dical) in  the  Alt-Adler  lode,  at  a  depth  of  125  fathoms;  viz. 
calc-spar,  native  silver,  copper  pyrites,  erubescite,  silver  glance, 
stromeyerite,  argentiferous  copper  glance,  tetrahedrite,  polybasite, 
smaltine,  proustite,  chloanthite,  copper  nickel,  harmotome, 
heulandite,  and  brown  spar. 

In  addition  to  this  abridgment  of  Websky's  observations, 
some  of  his  general  remarks,  on  the  lodes  of  the  Kupferberg 
district,  may  be  added: 

1  The  copper-lodes  often  show  slight  changes  in  their  direction 
of  strike;  and  each  such  change  appears  to  be  connected  with 
an  apparent  forking  of  the  lodes:  these  forks  are  evidently 
the  result  of  two  somewhat  varying  directions  of  strike. 

The  lodes  intersecting  one  another  frequently  produce  faults, 
which  appear  to  be  sometimes  also  caused  by  sideward  dis- 
locations. 

The  ores  are  by  no  means  equally  distributed  through  the 
lodes,  but  are,  as  is  common,  locally  concentrated  in  the  veins/ 

In  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  ores,  the  following  were 
the  apparent  conclusions  arrived  at  from  observations : 

1.  In  each   separate   group   of  lodes,   the   ore  is  principally 
concentrated  in  the  central  region. 

2.  The  quartz-schist  and  mica-schist  have  always  proved,  as 
wall-rock,  unfavorable  to  the  deposit  of  ores. 

3.  The  junctions  of  two  groups  of  lodes  have  shown    them- 
selves,   especially    under    the    town    of  Kupferberg,    where   the 
copper  groups   Nos.  1  and  4  meet;  to   be  generally  rich  points: 


238  EISENKOPPE.  VOIGTSDORF,  QUERBACH. 

this  however   cannot  be  always  recognised  for  the    special  junc- 
tion of  two  lodes. 

4.  No  certain  results  could  be  obtained,  as  to  variations  in 
richness  at  different  depths,  from  the -works  now  open. 

5.  The  influences  of  air  and  water  have  considerably  chan- 
ged the  original  condition   of  the  outcrop,   and  have  given  rise 
to  numerous  products  of  decomposition.     The   country-rock   has 
been   frequently  much    changed   by    the    same    causes.     On  the 
copper-lodes;    there    have    been    formed ;   tile   ore,    red    copper, 
native  copper,  malachite,  chrysocolla,  covelline,  azurite,  phosphoro- 
chalcite,  chalcophyllite,  volborthite,  wulfenite,  etc. 

EISENKOPPE  NEAR  ALTENBERG. 

§  147.  On  the  Eisenkoppe l  Mountain  near  Altenberg, 
northerly  of  Kupferberg,  occurs  a  contact-lode.  It  is  found 
between  porphyry  and  clay-slate,  strikes  E. — W.,  dips  towards 
N.  and  is  2 — 3  feet  broad.  The  porphyry  generally  forms  the 
foot-wall,  and  the  clay-slate  the  hanging-wall  of  the  same.  But 
the  lode  sometimes  leaves  the  line  of  contact,  and  is  found 
entirely  in  the  porphyry,  or  altogether  in  the  clay-slate*,  it  also 
sends  leaders  into  these.  From  this  it  would  appear,  that  the  junction 
of  the  rocks  was  more  easily  fractured,  than  the  rocks  themselves. 

The  lode  consists  principally  of  quartz,  in  which  are  found 
iron  pyrites,  galena,  somewhat  of  tetrahedrite,  and  stibnite.  It 
generally  possesses  very  distinct  selvages,  which  sometimes  dis- 
appear in  the  side  of  the  porphyry. 

VOIGTSDORF— QUERBACH. 

§  148.  The  mica-schist,  which  is  embedded  in  gneiss  on 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Riesengebirge,  surrounds,  at  Voigtsdorf 
near  Warmbrunn,  according  to  Manes, 2  a  broad  zone  (or  a  bed) 
containing  numerous  veins  of  garnet,  quartz,  and  calc.  spar; 
and  a  very  broad  bed  of  tin  and  cobalt  ores.  This  zone, 
5 — 17  feet  broad,  which  is  in  turn  composed  of  several  single 
layers,  consists  of  quartz  or  mica-schist,  containing  iron  pyrites, 
pyrrhotine,  mispickei,  specular  iron,  galena,  blende,  smaltine, 
and  cassiterite.  Cobalt  and  tin  are  the  metals,  which  were 
obtained  from  these  minerals.  The  cobalt-ore  occurs  in  two 

1  See:  Manes,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1825,  vol.  XI.  p.  19. 

2  Manes,  in  Annal.  des  mines,  1825,  vol.  XI.  p.  15. 


SCHM1EDEBERG. 


239 


ways:  in  part  perceptibly  crystallized  on  quartz,  or  impregnating 
this;  in  part  imperceptible,  mixed  in  extremely  fine  particles  with 
the  schist,  garnet  or  pyrites. 

The  cassiterite  is  as  a  rule  imperceptible,  being  mingled 
with  the  slate,  or  garnet,  or  even  combined  with  the  sulphuret 
of  iron. 

The  distribution  of  the  ores,  with  regard  to  their  direction 
of  strike,  is  a  very  unequal  one.  Near  Giehren  considerable 
tin,  and  but  little  cobalt  was  found;  while  at  Querbach  there 
was  considerable  cobalt,  and  but  little  tin. 

Websky  1  states,  that  the  principal  ore  was  a  cobaltiferous 
mispickel,  with  which  were  found  epidote,  and  an  automolith, 
resembling  the  Swedish  variety. 

IRON  ORE  DEPOSITS  NEAR  SCHMIEDEBERG. 

§  149.  There  occurs  at  Schmiedeberg  2  a  small  zone, 
between  gneiss,  passing  into  mica-schist,  and  granite;  which  is 
formed  by  the  transitions  of  gneiss,  mica-schist,  and  hornblende- 
schist  ;  and  contains  numerous  deposits  of  magnetite.  These  iron 
deposits  were  already  worked  in  the  15th  century,  then  long 
abandoned,  and  have  recently  again  been  taken  up. 

This  metalliferous  zone  consists  properly  of  rocks  forming 
subordinate  layers  in  the  gneiss;  these  are  hornblende-schist, 
garnet-rock,  magnetic  iron,  granular  limestone,  quartz,  serpentine, 
chlorite-schist,  and  mica-schist. 


Granite.  Granitic  gneiss. 

a.  Greenstone,  probably  corresponding  to  the 
hornblende-schist  of  Wedding. 


1  Websky,  in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellsch.  1851,  p.  12. 

2  See:  Cordelia,  in  Berg-  und  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1858,  p.  21;  Wedding, 
in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geol.  Gesellschaft,  1859,  p.  399. 


240  SCHMIEDEBERG    IRON-ORE-DE POSITS. 

Cordelia  states  the  bedding  of  the  rocks  to  be;  as  shown 
in  the  preceding  woodcut;  which  differs  somewhat  from  the  later, 
and  here  principally  followed,  description  of  Wedding. 

Ten  paying  deposits  of  magnetite"'  are  known  to  exist,  be- 
sides which  there  is  a  number  of  thin  layers,  or  lenses. 

The  term  bed  is  in  general  correct,  for  these  magnetite 
deposits ;  since  they  are  subordinate  layers  parallel  'to  the  outer 
rocks.  But  each  of  these  beds  consists  of  a  number  of  larger 
and  smaller  lenses,  at  times  14  feet  thick;  which  are  indeed 
mostly  joined,  but  frequently  only  by  small  threads  of  the  ore. 
These  changes  occur  principally,  where  the  strata  are  much 
folded.  The  thickness  of  the  beds  is  extremely  variable.  The 
magnetic  iron  occurs  but  seldom  pure,  being  generally  mixed 
with  and  contaminated  by  a  number  of  other  minerals,  which 
at  times  nearly  altogether  supplant  it.  Wedding  says:  'The 
four  lower  beds  are  distinguished  by  a  richness  in  chlorite;  the 
chlorite  frequently  penetrating  through  the  entire  mass  of  ore: 
it  occurs  in  the  seventh  bed,  principally  in  the  floor,  in  con- 
siderable layers,  chiefly  where  folds  occur.  This  mineral  also 
occurs,  as  a  layer,  in  the  garnet-rock.  Innumerable  crystals  of 
iron  pyrites  occur  in  the  chlorite  of  the  seventh  bed.  While 
calc.  spar  is  not  very  abundant  in  the  lower  beds,  it  frequently 
traverses  the  ore  of  the  seventh  bed,  in  veins,  generally  having 
epidote  at  its  selvages;  while  garnet  and  tremolith  occur  disse- 
minated through  it.  Where  the  ore  ceases,  fibrous  hornblende 
occurs,  as  a  substitute,  intimately  combined  with  pyrrhotine,  and 
iron  pyrites.  The  hornblende  is  distinguished  by  its  beautiful 
radiate  structure. 

The  variety  of  minerals  is  much  encreased  in  the  upper 
beds,  where  the  iron  ore  has  a  much  coarser  texture.  In  one 
of  these  hornblende  and  garnet  predominate ;  the  first  is  dark 
green  or  black,  always  radiated  (actinolith) ;  the  garnet  is  mas- 
sive, green,  and  traversed  by  veins  of  red  garnet,  the  last  often 
crystallized.  These  crystals  are  generally  trapezohedrons,  having 
the  faces  much  striated ;  they  are  of  a  brownish-red  or  red  color, 
being  frequently  in  the  last  case  transparent. 

Iron  pyrites  frequently  occurs,  massive,  and  in  crystals. 
The  epidote  is  mostly  crystalline  or  crystallized,  always  having 
distinct  cleavage-planes:  its  crystals  are  simple,  and  have  much 
striated  faces.  The  finest  crystals  of  epidote  occur  in  the  veins 
of  calc.  spar,  which  repeatedly  traverse  the  green  garnet.  Black 


GABLAU.  241 

mica  is  scarce,  occurring  in  thin  curved  plates.  One  of  the  beds, 
which  has  been  reached  by  a  cross-cut,  appears,  in  addition  to 
similar  ores,  and  a  like  quantity  of  garnet,  to  contain  more 
hornblende  than  the  bed  just  mentioned. 

The  upper  bed  contains  coarse  granular  ore,  which  is  at 
times  somewhat  foliaceous.  Where  the  calc-spar  veins  occur, 
it  is  always  more  or  less  distinctly  crystallized.  The  particles 
of  iron  ore  have  a  very  brilliant  lustre  at  the  selvages.  Calc- 
spar  is  the  principal  mineral  in  this,  and  so  completely  supplants 
the  ore  at  times,  that  the  last  frequently  occurs,  only  as  particles 
in  the  former,  having  a  great  tendency  to  crystallization.  Iron 
pyrites  is  very  common  in  cubes  within  the  calc-spar,  still  more 
frequent  is  pyrrhotine.  Chlorite  occurs  but  rarely,  in  threads, 
or  disseminated  through  the  ore ;  it  is  more  common  in  the  calc- 
spar;  which  also  contains  red  garnet,  in  veins,  and  as  crystals. 
Green  garnet  forms  veins  at  times  in  the  massive  ore.  Actinolith 
is  here  much  rarer  than  in  the  lower  beds. 

All  the  iron  ores  are  very  magnetic,  but  generally  only 
possess  simple  magnetism.  But  few  specimens  are  polar,  even 
after  being  long  exposed  to  the  air.  This  may  be  explained 
by  the  numerous  breaks  caused  by  the  distribution  of  foreign 
minerals.  Smaller  fragments,  which  are  not  polar,  become  so 
immediately,  if  brought,  but  for  an  instant,  in  contact  with  a 
magnet.' 

All  the  rocks  parallel  to,  and  alternating  with  each  other, 
are  frequently  traversed,  and  in  part  faulted,  by  fissures  and 
dikes.  The  last  consist  partly  of  a  granite  very  rich  in  ortho- 
clase,  partly  of  a  very  micaceous  crystalline  limestone  containing 
serpentine.  Their  breadth  is  very  variable.  The  granite  veins 
have  mostly  a  gentle  dip. 

The  magnetite  is  frequently  altered,  near  the  surface,  into 
hematite,  and  specular  iron  of  a  dark  color ;  which  were  the 
principal  minerals  exploited  in  former  times. 

GABLAU1  WESTERLY  OF  WALDENBURG. 

§  150.  Lead  and  argentiferous  lodes  occur  here  in  clay- 
slate,  which  has  been  broken  through  by  quartz-porphyry  in  the 
neighboring  Sattel  Forest.  Four  of  these  have  been  recently 


1  See:  Mil  Her,  in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1856,  p.  211. 

16 


242  ZUCKMANTEL. 

examined,  and  work  commenced  on  them.  They  are  mostly 
double  lodes;  of  which  one  portion  consists  of  compact  heavy 
spar  with  tetrahedrite,  copper  pyrites,  brownish  blende,  and  more 
rarely  fluor  spar,  quartz,  calc-spar^  radiated  marcasite,  and 
polybasite  (?).  The  other  portion  is  characterised  by  granular 
quartz,  with  iron  pyrites,  galena,  blende,  and  copper  pyrites. 
They  consequently  resemble  the  Reinsberger-Gluok  lode  near 
Freiberg. 

The  Fridolin  lode  strikes  nearly  N.  -  8.  and  dips  80°  in  E. 
The  breadth  of  the  double  lode  varies,  between  1  inch  and  7  feet. 
The  two  portions  separate  at  times,  and  then  form  a  quartz  and 
a  barytic  lode.  A  junction  with  the  Bernhard  lode  was  found 
very  rich  in  tetrahedrite. 

The  Bernhard  lode  strikes  NW.— SE.  and  dips  70°  in  S. 
It  also  is  a  double  lode,  but  generally  only  2 — 8  inches  broad. 
The  barytic  portion  occasionally  intersects  the  quartz  portion, 
passing  from  the  hanging-  to  the  foot-wall,  and  the  reverse. 
The  quartz  portion  completely  wedges-out  at  times,  which  cir- 
cumstance is  generally  combined  with  an  empoverishment  of  the 
barytic  portion,  for  which  it  was  a  favorable  wall-rock.  The 
quartz  portion  also  occasionally  receives  tetrahedrite  by  the 
union.  The  country-rock  itself  is  frequently  much  impregnated 
with  iron  pyrites,  and  tetrahedrite.  A  soft  and  conglomerate-like 
nature  of  the  same  appears  to  have  had  locally  a  very  favorable 
influence  on  the  contents  of  the  lode.  Certain  narrow  clay- 
fissures,  between  the  nearly  horizontal  strata,  throw  the  lode, 
for  distances  of  4  to  22  inches.  Where  the  Bernhard  lode  forms 
junctions  with  the  Fridolin,  it  is  split  up  into  small  threads 
containing  calc-spar  and  tetrahedrite. 

The  Caroline  lode  was  found  richest  in  tetrahedrite  near 
small  intersecting  veins  of  quartz  and  heavy  spar. 

ZUCKMANTEL. 

§  151.  The  Hackel l  Mountain  at  Zuckmantel,  northwesterly 
of  Jagernhof,  consists  of  mica-schist,  passing  into  chlorite,  and 


1  See:  Oeynhausen,  Geognost.  Beschreibung  v.  Oberschlesien,  1822, 
p.  54;  Honiger,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanst.  1856,  vol..  III.  p.  91,  and 
in  Kraus'  Jahrb.  fur  d.  Berg-  u.  Hiittenmann,  1849,  p.  138;  L.  W.  in  same, 
1852,  p.  125;  Glocker,  in  Poggendorf's  Annalen,  1853,  vol.  88,  p.  297. 


UPPER  SILESIA.  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION.      243 

quartz-schists,  with  subordinate  strata  of  limestone.  The  same 
attains  a  height  of  2840  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  covered  with 
the  rubbish  from  former  mining  operations.  A  large  portion  of 
the  workings  is  open,  and  forms  immense  areas,  in  which  sul- 
phates frequently  occur.  The  sides  of  the  rocks,  in  the  open 
quarries,  are  often  covered  to  a  thickness  of  half  an  inch  with 
sulphates. 

The  deposit,  which  gave  occasion  to  these  mining  workings, 
is  a  quartzose  mica,  or  quartz-schist,  impregnated  with  ores. 
The  impregnated  zone  attains  a  breadth  of  '3 — 7  feet,  strikes 
NW.—  SE.  and  dips  60°— 70°  in  NE.  The  disseminated  ores 
are;  auriferous  pyrites  (iron  pyrites,  marcasite,  pyrrhotine,  mis- 
pickel,  copper  pyrites),  blende,  auriferous  and  argentiferous 
galena;  more  rarely,  hematite,  and  magnetite.  Other  minerals 
occurring  with  these  ores  are;  hornblende,  asbestos,  actinolith, 
tremolith,  feldspar,  serpentine,  epidote,  garnet,  calc-spar,  brown 
spar,  and  somewhat  of  stilpnomelane.  Other  impregnated  zones, 
of  less  breadth  and  extent,  occur  in  the  hanging-  and  foot-wall 
of  the  principal  impregnation. 

This  deposit  resembles  in  many  respects  that  of  Reichen- 
stein  (which  is  consequently  omitted  in  the  translation),  but 
shows  also  considerable  similarity  to  the  Fallbands  in  the  Scan- 
dinavian mica-schists;  it  is  also  very  like  the  Schwarzehberg 
deposits  in  its  mineral  composition.  Its  contents  do  not  appear 
to  be  sufficient  for  any  extensive  mining  operations. 


XL     THE  ELEVATED  PLATEAU  OF 
UPPER  SILESIA. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  152.  This  elevated,  but  almost  level,  plateau,  bordering 
to  the  East  on  Russian  Poland,  is  covered  superficially  by  dilu- 
vial deposits.  Under  these  occur  the  following  formations,  with 
generally  but  slight  undulations: 

16* 


244  CLAY-IRONSTONE  OF  CARBONIFEROUS, 

1.  Tertiary  Strata; 

2.  Cretaceous  Strata; 

3.  Jura  Strata; 

4.  Keuper,  with  beds  of  clay-ironstone; 

5.  MuschelJcalk  (fossiliferous  limestone),  accompanied  by 
deposits  of  zinc,  lead,  and  iron,  ores; 

6.  Buntsandstein ; 

7.  Carboniferous  formation,  containing  beds  of  spherosiderite. 
Since  these  formations  extend  into  Poland,  in  "part  containing 

similar  ore-deposits,  I  will  describe  both  together,  without  regard 
to  political  boundaries;  the  more  so,  as  this  portion  of  the  Rus- 
sian Empire  contains  otherwise  no  deposits  worth  mentioning. 
The  large  extent  of  country  enclosed  between  the  Carpathian 
Mountains,  the  Urals,  and  the  Finnish  Mountains,  forms  a  remark- 
ably sterile  field  for  our  observation;  it  is  almost  equally 
wanting  in  mountains,  crystalline  rocks,  and  ore-deposits. 

The  elevated  plateau  of  Upper  Silesia  contains  the  following 
ore-deposits,  worth  noticing: 

1.  Ironstones  in  the  Carboniferous  formation; 

2.  Ironstones  in  the  Keuper  formation; 

3.  Smithsonite,  galena,  and  iron-ore,  deposits  in  the 
district  of  the  Muschelkalk. 

CLAY-IRONSTONE  OF  THE  CARBONIFEROUS 
FORMATION. 

§  153.  Beds  of  clay-ironstone  (spherosiderite)  are  tolerably 
common  in  the  Carboniferous1  strata  of  Upper  Silesia,  and 
Poland ;  they  occur  principally  in  those  localities,  where  numerous 
and  thin  coal  seams  alternate  with  argillaceous  shales.  This 
clay-ironstone  appears  to  be  confined  to  the  upper  strata  of  the 
Carboniferous,  and  near  thin  coal-seams.  It  is  entirely  wanting, 
where  thick  coal-beds  occur.  It  is  to  be  accepted,  as  a  prac- 
tical rule,  that  these  ironstones  generally  occur  in  the  foot-wall 
of  thin  seams,  and  in  the  hanging- wall  of  broad  coal-beds. 
Still  this  rule  has  many  exceptions. 

The  ironstones  are  either  found  singly,  scattered  as  nodules 
and  ellipsoids  in  the  argillaceous  shales ;  or  they  form  regular  beds, 
which  are  mostly  composed  of  separate  nodules  or  ellipsoids 
united  in  layers.  They  contain  30 — 35  per  cent  of  iron,  and 
melt  easily. 

1  See:  Von  Oeynhausen,  Geogn.  Beschr.  v.  Oberschlesien,  1822,  pp.  120, 
150,  and  164;  Cotta,  in  Berg-  u.  hiitten*.  Zeitung,"  1860,  p.  122. 


AND  OF  THE  KEUPER,  FORMATION.  245 

Entirely  similar  spherosiderite  beds  recur  in  the  adjacent 
portions  of  Poland.  At  Por^bka  near  Dombrowa  I  observed 
such  a  layer,  1 — 3  feet  thick,  in  the  hanging-wall  of  the  prin- 
cipal coal-bed,  24  feet  thick.  The  spherosiderite  contains  the 
distinct  remains  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Carboniferous  Age, 
and  lies  19 — 20  feet  below  the  surface,  being  covered  by  the 
following  strata: 

1.  Soil,  ya  foot; 

2.  Red  plastic  clay,  3—4  feet; 

3.  Black  carbonaceous  clay,  3—4  feet; 

4.  Argillaceous  shale,  with  impure  seams  of  coal,  2  feet; 

5.  Gray  marl,  10—12  feet; 

6.  Argillaceous  shale,  l/^  foot; 

7.  Spherosiderite,  1—3  feet; 

8.  Argillaceous  shale. 

CLAY-IRONSTONE1   OF  THE  KEUPER  FORMATION. 

§  154.  The  Keuper  formation,  whose  strata  were  formerly 
supposed  to  belong  to  the  Jura,  occupies  a  considerable  area 
in  the  northern  portion  of  Silesia  (northeasterly  of  Malapane), 
and  in  the  adjoining  portion  of  Poland.  Its  strata  commencing 
with  the  upper  ones  are: 

1.  Limestone  of  Lublinitz; 

2.  Variegated  clay; 

3.  Gray  clay,  and  sand;   in  which   occurs 
clay-ironstone,  corresponding  to  the  Keuper. 

The  clay,  alternating  with  strata  of  sand  or  sandstone,  con- 
tains the  deposits  of  ironstone  in  a  gray  and  unctuous  variety, 
partly  as  scattered,  nodules,  partly  as  coherent  strata,  or  beds. 
A  complete  transition  takes  place  between  these  two  manners 
of  occurrence.  While  on  the  one  side,  the  ironstone-beds  are 
traversed  by  clay,  in  such  a.  manner  separated,  and  altogether 
so  intermissive,  that  they  consist  as  it  were  of  separate  masses, 
having  the  most  variable  extent  and  thickness;  so  on  the  other 
hand,  the  largest  nodules  are  combined  into  beds,  which  are 
united  by  a  light  gray  ferruginous  clay.  This  clay  contains 
carbonate  of  iron. 


1  See:  Von  Car  nail,  in  Kalender  f.  d.  Oberschlesischen  Bergmann, 
1847,  p.  1;  Von  Oeynhausen,  Geogn.  Beschr.  v.  Oberschlesien,  p.  364,  and 
in  Karsten's  Arch.  1832,  vol.  IV.  p.  350;  Pusch,  Geognost.  Beschreibung 
von  Polen,  1833. 


246  KEUPER-FORMATION  DEPOSITS. 

These  deposits  consist,  partly  of  argillaceous  spherosiderite, 
partly  of  argillaceous  limonite;  which  are  both  called  clay-iron- 
stone. It  is  possible,  that  the  latter  .has  been  formed  by  altera- 
tion from  the  former.  Argillaceous  hematite,  or  red  clay-iron- 
stone, occurs  to  a  subordinate  degree. 

The  spherosiderite  proper  contains,  on  account  of  its  impuri- 
ties, only  45  per  cent  of  iron.  The  largest  nodules  attain  a 
diameter  of  1  !/a  feet.  These  always  contain  a  purer,  more  mas- 
sive kernel,  than  their  outer  crust,  consisting  of  concentric  layers. 
Ammonites  occasionally  occur  in  the  kernels,  or  they  have  a 
honeycombed  appearance  (septaria).  Small  crystals  of  spathic 
iron,  blende,  and  galena,  occur  in  the  fissures.  The  smaller 
masses  are  less  regular  than  the  large  ones,  being  merely 
rounded  nodules;  they  are  also  enclosed  in  gray,  ferruginous 
clay,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  touch  one  another.  Such 
nodules  occur  in  the  hanging- wall,  for  3 — 4  fathoms  beyond  the 
bed  proper. 

Argillaceous  spherosiderite,  with  25  —  30  per  cent  of  iron, 
forms  somewhat  more  compact  beds,  1 — 20  inches  in  thickness, 
but  traversed  by  numerous  cross-fissures,  which  attain  their 
greatest  breadth  in  the  middle  of  the  strata.  They  often  wedge 
suddenly  out,  or  cease  very  suddenly  in  the  clay,  without 
having  been  dislocated.  They  are  also  accompanied  by  scattered 
nodules  of  ore. 

Siliceous  spherosiderite  is  the  term  applied  to  the  quartzose 
varieties  of  this  ironstone.  They  are  also  compact,  but  some- 
what harder  than  the  others.  They  afford  at  the  most  30  per 
cent  of  iron.  In  many,  a  mixture  of  sand  can  be  recognised, 
from  their  decomposition;  and  these  then  pass  into  true  sphero- 
siderite sandstones.  These  beds  are  15—20  inches  thick. 

The  limonite  also  occurs  in  three  modifications;  as  nodular, 
argillaceous,  and  sandy  limonite. 

The  first  forms  concentric  nodules,  3—12  inches  thick,  fre- 
quently hollow,  and  containing  stalactites  of  limonite,  or  with 
a  kernel  of  spherosiderite,  or  even  with  sand  in  their  interior. 
They  occur,  commonly,  scattered  in  the  sand. 

The  argillaceous  limonite,  with  20 — 30  per  cent  of  iron, 
forms  beds  a  few  inches  to  3  feet  thick;  it  is  however  often 
rendered  impure,  and  unfit  to  smelt,  from  mixtures  of  clay 
and  sand. 


MUSCHELKALK  FORMATION  DEPOSITS.  247 

The  blackish-brown  sandy  limonite  is  not  smelted,  there 
being  no  lack  of  better  ores. 

The  red  clay-ironstone,  a  mixture  of  hematite  and  clay, 
forms  earthy,  compact,  or  even  somewhat  slaty  beds,  1  inch  to 
2*/2  fathoms  thick.  It  is  generally  very  poor,  from  the  large 
mixtures  of  clay. 

Similar  deposits  to  these  occur  in  many  localities  of  the 
adjoining  portion  of  Poland. 

SMITHSONITE,  GALENA,  AND  LIMONITE  DEPOSITS 
IN   THE  MUSCHELKALK  FORMATION. l 

§  155.  The  fossiliferous  limestone  formation  of  Upper  Silesia 
and  Poland  consists,  commencing  with  the  uppermost,  of  the  fol- 
lowing strata: 

1.  Limestone  of  Opatowitz,  but  little  extended,   and  without  relation  to 
the  ore-deposits; 

2.  Dolomite,  and  magnesian  limestone,  widely  extended,  and  principally 
connected  with  the  ore  deposits; 

3.  Floor  limestone,  corresponding  to  the  lower  Muschelkalk,  or  Wellen- 
kalk,  of  western  Germany. 

The  ore-deposits,  which  appear  combined  with  this  forma- 
tion, occur  in  part  separated  from  one  another,  but  are  all 
evidently  most  intimately  connected,  have  probably  one  origin, 
and  are  found  at  times  associated  together  for  considerable 
distances. 

The  smithsonite  deposits  are  found  principally  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  dolomite  and  the  Floor  limestone,  but  occasionally 
occur  altogether  in  the  dolomite. 

The  lead-ores  occur  altogether  in  the  dolomite,  or  intimately 
combined  with  the  smithsonite,  or  in  pockets  of  the  overlying 
tertiary  strata,  as  if  washed  together. 

The  limonite,  the  most  common,  is  combined  with  the  smith- 
sonite, or  as  large  pockets  embedded  in  depressions  of  the  dolo- 
mite or  Floor  limestone. 


1  See:  Von  Oeynhausen,  Geogn.  Beschr.  v.  Oberschlesien,  pp.  203. 
205;  Pusch,  Geogn.  Beschr.  v.  Polen,  1833,  vol.  I.  p.  225;  Carnall,  in 
Bergmannischen  Taschenbuch  f.  Oberschlesien,  1844,  p.  100,  and  Zeitschr. 
d.  deutsch.  geolog.  Gesellsch.,  1850,  p.  177;  Krug  von  Nidda,  in  same, 
1850,  p.  206,  and  postscript  to  same  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.,  1851,  p.  710; 
Rivot  and  Lejeune,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1843,  vol.  XIII.  p.  271. 


248        SMITHSONITE,  GALENA,  AND  LIMONITE,  DEPOSITS 

All  these  deposits  are  very  common  in  the  neighborhoods 
of  Tarnowitz,  Beuthen,  Bendzin  and  Olkusz,  the  iron  ore  also 
near  Twardowice. 

The  manner  of  occurrence  at  Bendzin  in  Upper  Silesia  is  the 
following. 

The  dolomite  forms  basin-shaped  deposits  in  gentle  depres- 
sions of  the  Floor  limestone.  Since  these  are  the  thickest  in 
the  middle  of  their  area,  their  shape  may  generally  be  assumed 
to  be  lenticular.  Krug  von  Nidda  represents  them  as  being  like 
that  in  the  accompanying  woodcut,  and  says  respecting  them: 


c 


'The  borders  of  the  lenses,  the  angles  (c)  between  the  do- 
lomite (a)  and  the  Floor  limestone  (&),  consist  partly  of  the 
richest  zinc-ore  and  limonite  deposits,  partly  of  tertiary  strata: 
the  ores  partly  penetrate  the  mass  of  the  dolomite.' 

But,  as  already  mentioned,  all  the  ores  do  not  occur  in  com- 
bination with  the  dolomite;  and  precisely  those,  which  are  not 
combined  with  it,  serve  as  key  to  their  comprehension.  Near 
Eadzionkau,  two  miles  distant  from  the  dolomite,  where  white 
smithsonite  and  limonite  occur  together,  the  bedding  is  as  shown 
in  the  woodcut. 


a.  Floor  limestone,    b.   Bed  of  white    smithsonite,    30  inches  to  14  feet.     c.  Roof 
of  Clay.   d.  Limonite.    e.  Yellow  clay.  f.  Tertiary  sand  and  clay.  g.   Surface  soil. 


IN  THE  MUSCHELKALK  FORMATION. 


249 


The  strata  of  the  Floor  limestone,  which  generally  lie 
horizontally,  frequently  have  their  upper  surface  not  parallel  to 
the  strata;  and  it  appears  as  if  eaten  by  acids,  so  that  fossils, 
and  some  harder  ledges  of  the  strata,  are  prominent.  The 
separate  layers  6,  c,  are  very  inconstant,  nearly  every  one  of 
them  locally  disappearing,  or  becoming  very  thick;  from  which 
circumstance  an  irregularity  in  thefr  formation  arises.  This  irregu- 
larity becomes  much  more  distinct  from  the  presence  of  nume- 
rous cylindrical  pipes  filled  by  the  same  materials,  and  which 
Krug  von  Nidda  considers  to  be  the  pipes  of  springs,  which 
have  had  a  close  relation  with  the  formation  of  the  ores. 

One  of  these  tubular  pipes  was  well  opened  at  the  Severin 
Zinc-mine  at  Bobrek,  and  appeared,  as  seen  in  the  woodcut. 


a.  Floor  limestone. 

b.  Zinc   ore. 


c.  Roofing  clay. 

d.  Sand  with  boulders. 


Fissures  occur  quite  frequently  alongside  of  these  pipes, 
which -continue  for  quite  a  long  way  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
Floor  limestone.  The  majority  of  limonite  deposits,  near  Naklo 
and  Radzionkau,  occur  in  such  fissures.  The  smithsonite  is  then 
generally  wanting. 


250        SMITHSONITE,  GALENA,  AND  LIMONITE,  DEPOSITS 

One  of  the  most  important  smithsonite  deposits  is  that  of 
Scharlei,  at  present  exploited  by  several  mines  and  quarries. 
Its  geological  character  can  best  be  understood  from  the  accom- 
panying woodcut.  £ 


111 


Sr 


T.  Tertiary    clay    and  sand;  D.  Dolomite;   S.  Floor  limestone; 
b.  S.  Buntsandstein;  St.  F.  Carboniferous  formation. 

Since  galena  also  occurs  here,  with  smithsonite;  and  in  ter- 
tiary clay;  all  the  various  kinds  of  ores,  mentioned  in  this  pa- 
ragraph, are  represented  in  this  section,  though  not  all  the  va- 
rious manners  of  occurrence. 

A  vertical  section  of  the  quarry  at  Scharlei;  which  is  about 
18  fathoms  deep,  and  290  fathoms  long,  has  nearly  the  follow- 
ing profile. 


S.  Floor  limestone,  with  irregular,  undulating  surface. 

W.  Beds  of  white  calamine,  a  few  inches  thick,  which  do  not  extend  regu- 
larly, and  are  generally  separated,  by  a  thin  layer  of  clay,  from 

r.  G.  the  red  smithsonite,  which  is  colored,  yellow  or  red,  by  much  peroxide 
of  iron,  and  at  times  encloses  irregular  masses  of  Dolomite  (D) ;  which  are  not 
sharply  defined,  and  appear  to  be  impregnated  by  considerable  peroxide,  of  iron, 
and  smithsonite.  They  are  also  traversed,  like  the  beds  of  red  smithsonite,  5  to 
6  fathoms  thick,  by  irregular  strings  of  galena  a  few  inches  broad.  This  depo- 
sit of  smithsonite  appears  to  extend  in  a  wedgelike  form:  at  least  it  is  much  thin- 
ner, in  this  direction,  in  the  underground  workings;  and  it  is,  therefore,  supposed 
that  it  will  soon  wedge-out,  so  that  then  the  roof 


IN  THE  MUSCHELKALK  FORMATION.  251 

D.  of  Dolomite  will  lie  immediately  on  the  floor  limestone,  as  shown  in 
the  preceding  section.  This  Dolomite  is  much  impregnated  by  peroxide  of  iron,  and 
smithsonite,  immediately  over  the  ore-deposit,  and  occasionally  contains  strings 
of  galena. 

T.  Tertiary  clay  and  sand,  overlaid  at  the  surface  by  alluvium.  In  this 
clay  lie  scattered  pockets  of 

X  galena  in  small  fragments,  formerly  exploited  by  small  shafts.  This  ga- 
lena has  been  evidently  swept  together  in  secondary  deposits. 

This  immense  quarry  at  Scharlei  shows  the  most  common, 
I  might  almost  say  normal,  bedding  of  the  zinc-deposits  in 
this  region.  At  the  bottom,  a  very  thin  layer  of  calamine; 
over  this,  red  smithsonite,  very  thick  and  irregular,  hardly  pos- 
sible to  separate  distinctly  from  the  dolomite,  and  penetrated  by 
lead  ores.  In  some  of  the  mines  West  of  Beuthen,  limonite 
occurs  over  the  smithsonite,  between  it  and  the  dolomite;  it 
also  occurs  independently  in  irregular  depressions  of  the  Floor 
limestone  and  dolomite,  covered  by  somewhat  of  tertiary  clay 
and  sand,  beneath  which  it  is  exploited  in  innumerable  localities. 
The  galena-deposits  occur,  somewhat  more  apart,  in  the 
dolomite  of  the  same  district.  They  consist  of  strata  of  this 
rock  locally  penetrated  by  galena;  since  the  strata  do  not  con- 
tain the  lead-ore  throughout  their  whole  extent,  but  locally 
alone,  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  beds  proper,  but  rather  as 
recumbent  segegrations,  or  impregnations.  Krug  von  Nidda 
says :  i  The  galena  deposit  of  the  Friedrich's  mine,  which  has 
been  exploited  over  a  large  area,  occurs  in  one  of  the  lower 
layers  of  the  dolomite,  at  a  height  of  3 — 10  feet  above  the 
Floor  limestone.  As  this  layer  consists  of  a  hard  or  soft  do- 
lomite, or  a  ferruginous  clay,  the  miners  distinguish  a  hard-, 
soft-,  and  clay-ore  layer.  The  hard-ore  layer  is  undoubtedly 
the  original  one,  from  which  the  two  others  were  formed  by 
the  action  of  air  and  water.  On  this  account  the  hard-ore  lay- 
ers are  found  most  frequently  in  the  deepest,  the  soft-  and  clay- 
ore  layers  in  the  upper  workings,  which  are  more  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  elements.'  One  of  the  most  instructive  points 
is  the  long-wall-working  near  the  Hamster-shaft,  by  which 
three  layers  of  the  dolomite  are  exploited;  viz.  the  metalliferous 
layer,  and  those  immediately  above  and  below  it,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  requisite  room  for  working. 

The  upper  layer  (a)  in  the  following  woodcut  consists  of  a  rough, 
gray,  irregularly  fissured  dolomite  of  considerable  firmness;  the 
ore-layer  (£),  of  an  argillaceous  dolomite,  colored  dark  gray  by 
bitumen,  which  contains  the  galena,  partly  and  chiefly  in  the 


252        SMITHSONITE,  GALENA,  AND  LIMONITE,  DEPOSITS 


a.  Dolomite." 

b.  Bituminous  dolomite,  containing  galena. 

c.  Argillaceous  dolomite. 

neighborhood  of  the  upper  fissure  of  stratification,  partly  in 
subordinate  fissures,  partly  disseminated.  The  lower  layer  (c) 
consists  of  an  argillaceous,  but  non-bituminous  dolomite,  which 
is  an  admirable  material  for  cement. 

Pusch  classified  the  occurrence  of  ore  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Olkusz  in  Poland,  as  follows: 

1.  A  chief  bed  of  smithsonite,  and  a  principal  galena-deposit  lying  im- 
mediately over  it. 

2.  Smithsonite,  and  iron-ore    deposits  in  basin-  and   kettle-shaped   de- 
pressions of  the  foot-rock. 

3.  Very  irregular  smithsonite  and  galena-deposits,   in   the  brown,  drusy 
hanging-rock  (dolomite). 

4.  Youngest  lead-ore  formation,   in  dolomite,    or   in  the   white,    sandy, 
hanging-rock. 

Pusch  states,  that  3,  and  4,  do  not  occur  in  Silesia.  Since 
the  smithsonite  was  formerly  not  worked,  the  same  is  m>w  ex- 
tracted from  old  mines,  formerly  exploited  for  lead,  where  it  is 
found,  generally  1 — 3  feet  thick. 

Similar  deposits  are  exploited  in  the  district  around  Kra- 
kau,  especially  at  Lgota. 

These  examples  will  suffice  to  explain,  to  some  extent,  the 
still  more  undetermined  masses,  resembling  segregations,  of  the 
whole  district. 


IN  THE  MUSCHELKALK  FORMATION.  253 

Krug  von  Nidda  says:  'From  the  succession  of  the  plum- 
biferous  roofing  clay  and  limonite,  overlying  the  smithsonite, 
one  might  be  led  to  arrange  these  ore-formations  into  a  group 
corresponding  to  their  relative  Age ;  so  that  the  smithsonite 
would  be  the  oldest,  the  lead-ore  in  the  middle,  and  the  limo- 
nite  the  most  recently  formed.  Such  a  succession,  with  regard 
to  their  age,  is  not;  however,  verified  by  facts;  they  must  all 
be  regarded  as  contemporaneously  formed  aggregations  of  ores, 
which  have  separated,  in  regard  to  extent,  according  to  their 
nature,  and  under  the  influence  of  the  wall-rock.  Still  this 
separation  has  remained  so  incomplete,  that  there  is  no  iron-ore 
of  these  deposits,  which  does  not  contain  more  or  less  zinc 
and  lead,  and  no  zinc-ore  which  does  not  also  contain  iron  and 
lead.  With  regard  to  the  smithsonite  and  lead-ore,  there  is  no 
doubt,  that  they  have  penetrated  into  the  surrounding  plastic 
clay,  and  have  procured  themselves  space  for  the  formation  of 
geod^s,  crystals,  and  concretions.  The  clay,  lying  immediately 
on  the  floor-rock,  served  for  the  accumulation  of  the  smithson- 
ite; since,  without  a  doubt,  the  finely  distributed  carbonate  of 
lime  in  this  marl  caused  the  separation  of  the  carbonate  of  zinc 
from  aqueous  solutions.  This  action  is  unmistakable  on  the 
original  masses  and  strata  of  the  Floor  limestone,  which  are 
altered  into  smithsonite.  The  silicate  of  zinc  is  easily  explained, 
by  the  action  of  dissolved  silicic  acid  on  the  carbonate  of  zinc ; 
that  the  former  mineral  springs,  however,  which  have  caused 
the  ore-deposits  in  question,  contained  considerable  silicic  acid 
in  solution,  is  proved  by  the  formation  of  flints  and  hornstones, 
the  frequent  silicification  of  masses  of  clay,  which  are  changed 
into  hard  rocks  resembling  hornstone,  and  the  frequent  occur- 
rence of  halloysite  in  pure,  milk-white  and  opaline  secretions, 
filling  fissures  and  forming  concretions.  The  lead-ore  was  dis- 
solved in  water,  as  chloride  of  lead,  and  altered  into  carbonate 
of  lead  by  the  action  of  some  carbonic  acid  salt,  probably  car- 
bonate of  lead. 

The  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  is,  without  a  doubt,  a  de- 
posit from  springs,  which  like  many  of  the  still  active  springs 
rich  in  carbonic  acid,  contained  carbonate  of  iron  in  solution, 
which  was  precipitated  as  hydrated  peroxide,  by  the  action  of 
the  atmospheric  air/ 

Krug  von  Nidda  thus  considers  all  the  ore-deposits  of  Up- 
per Silesia  to  be  deposits  from  springs,  which  were  precipitated 


254  CAUSES,  MECHANICAL  AND  CHEMICAL,  OF  ORE-FORMATION. 

by  the  reducing  influence  of  the  adjoining  wall-rock.  He  says, 
however,  that  the  circumstances  causing  their  formation  were, 
partly  of  a  chemical,  partly  of  a  mechanical  nature. 

To  the  mechanical  causes,  aidi«g  the  formation  of  ores, 
are  to  be  assigned  the  flat  basins  which  are  filled  with  dolo- 
mite, the  impervious  clay-strata,  which  occur  at  the  contact  of 
the  dolomite  and  Floor  limestone,  and  the  numerous  fissures  in 
the  dolomite.  To  the  chemical  causes  belong  the  amount  of 
carbonaceous,  bituminous  substances  in  the  lower  layers  of  the 
dolomite,  and  the  chemical  composition  of  the  dolomite  itself 
(the  combination  of  carbonate  of  lime  with  other  carbonates, 
principally  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  iron). 

An  unbiased  examination  of  the  manner,  in  which  the  ores 
of  Upper  Silesia  are  embedded  in  the  dolomite,  can  leave  no 
doubt,  that  they  are  more  recent  than  the  dolomite  itself;  con- 
sequently they  must  ha^e  penetrated  subsequently  to  its  for- 
mation ;  and  that  they  stand  in  undoubted  connection  with  the 
above-noticed  metallic  deposits,  which  have  been  recognised,  as 
productions  of,  and  deposits  from  mineral  springs.  Such  a  con- 
nection may  have  also  occurred,  where  it  cannot  be  directly 
proved,  and  all  traces  of  it  subsequently  destroyed  by  changes 
in  the  surface. 

The  large  springs,  containing  salts  of  zinc,  lead,  and  iron, 
flowed  into  flat  basins  filled  with  dolomite,  were  collected  by 
the  projecting  walls  of  dolomite,  and  penetrated  into  the  nu- 
merous fissures  of  the  rock,  without  losing  themselves  in  the 
Floor  limestone,  which  is  separated  from  the  dolomite  by  strata 
impervious  to  water.  The  bituminous  lower  layers  of  the  dolo- 
mite exerted  a  reducing  influence  on  the  metallic  sulphates, 
carried  to  these  by  the  aqueous  solutions,  and  as  a  consequence 
galena,  iron  pyrites,  and  blende,  were  formed.  These  have 
been  found,  over  11  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  47  fathoms,  in 
a  borehole  on  the  Gritz  Mountain  near  Miechowitz. 


BOG-IRON   ORE,  NEAR  COTTBUS,  etc.  255 


XII.  THE  NORTH  GERMAN  PLAINS. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  156.  The  surface  of  the  North  German  plains  is  princi- 
pally composed  of  alluvial  and  diluvial  deposits.  Older  rocks 
and  formations  crop-out  but  rarely  beneath  these,  and  where  they 
do  so;  contain  no  ore-deposits  worth  mentioning.  We  have, 
therefore,  here  to  do  with  the  most  recent  deposits  of  the  earth's 
crust,  which  contain  some  deposits  of  bog-iron  ore. 


COTTBUS. 

§  157.  Deposits  of  bog-iron  ore  are  found  in  all  the  depres- 
sions of  the  surface  throughout  the  lower  Lausitz,  but  especially 
around  Cottbus.1  They  never  occur  on  the  gentle,  dry  eleva- 
tions, but  only  in  the,  mostly,  moist  depressions,  where  their  for- 
mation is  still  going  on  in  places.  They  generally  form  the 
upper  stratum  of  the  soil,  or  are  covered  by  a  layer  of  earth, 
which  is  then  very  barren  of  vegetation.  More  recent  strata 
overlie  them  but  very  rarely;  the  thickness  of  these  deposits 
varies  from  10 — 36  inches. 

They  do  not  form  continued  strata,  extending  over  large 
areas,  but  numerous,  small  deposits  separated  from  one  another, 
300—450  feet  long  and  15—90  broad. 

They  commonly  occur  in  peat-bogs,  beneath  brown,  ferru- 
ginous grass-turf;  more  rarely  in  sandy  soil,  or  beneath  sandy 
peat.  A  fine  moist  quicksand,  commonly,  lies  beneath  the  iron- 
ore  ;  at  times,  however,  a  fine  sandy  clay ;  more  rarely,  a  firm 
clayey  bottom. 

Where  the  bog-iron  ore  occurs  purer  and  thicker,  as  in  the 
Busch  Meadow  near  Peitz,  it  shows  a  kind  of  stratification 
caused  by  dissimilar  beds.  Elsewhere  it  only  forms  scattered 
nodules,  or  loose  grains;  or  is  mixed,  as  sand-ore,  with  consid- 
erable quantities  of  quartz-sand;  and  even  passes  from  this  into 
a  quartz  conglomerate,  with  a  cementing  medium  of  hardened 
hydrate  of  iron.  Vivianite  occurs  now  and  then. 

The  formation  of  bog-iron  ore,  where  it  is  still  going  on, 
is  very  instructive.  It  is  formed  by  deposits  from  water,  which 


See:  Freiesleben.  Geognostische  Arbeiten,  vol.  VI.  p.  216. 


256          N.  GERMAN    PLAINS.     GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

frequently  contains  very  small  quantities  of  iron  dissolved  in 
it.  The  long  continuation  of  the  process  of  deposit,  here,  com- 
pletely, replaces  a  greater  energy  of  action;  and  it  is  probably 
the  same  in  the  formation  of -many  other  ore-deposits. 

The  iron-content  of  the  water  evidently  originates  in  the 
rocks  from  which  the  springs  rise,  even  the  most  sparing  and 
finely  disseminated  iron-contents  of  the  rocks  are  gradually  dis- 
solved and  carried  away  by  the  water.  When  this  water 
reaches  low  and  marshy  land,  stagnating  under  circumstances 
where  it  is  exposed  to  a  strong  evaporation,  or  where  living  or 
decomposing  organic  bodies  .exercise  a  peculiar  reaction  on  it, 
the  deposit  of  oxide  of  iron  takes  place,  and  with  this  the  con- 
centration, in  a  special  deposit,  of  a  formerly,  perhaps  widely, 
disseminated  content  of  iron.  A  similar  event  may  take  place 
somewrhat  more  rapidly,  where  springs  arise  from  very  ferrugi- 
nous deposits,  or  even  from  certain  iron  ore-deposits  5  but,  as  a 
rule,  the  formation  of  bog-iron  ore  has  no  such  special  cause. 

According  to  Ehrenberg,  small  living  Infusia,  also,  occa- 
sionally take  part  in  the  formation  of  the  hydrated  peroxide  of 
iron,  since  they  construct  their  shells  of  it,  as  do  many  species 
of  Gaillonellce.  After  their  death,  their  shells  remain,  as  collec- 
tions af  a  fine  ochreous  iron,  which  perhaps  subsequently  hard- 
ens, and  becomes  a  firm  mass. 

Unquestionably  a  certain  analogy  can  be  recognised  be- 
tween the  formation  of  bog-iron  ore,  and  that  of  the  limonite 
combined  with  zinc-ore  deposits.  Even  the  smithsonite  deposits 
themselves  appear,  as  we  have  seen,  to  have  been  formed  by 
precipitation  from  mineral  waters.  The  waters  must  then 
contain  some  salt  of  zinc  in  solution,  which  need  not  be  more 
considerable  than  in  the  case  of  the  bog-iron  ores,  provided  it 
is  only  renewed  for  a  long  period.  For  the  local  deposition  of 
the  smithsonite,  in  addition  to  the  nature  of  the  surface-profile, 
the  re-acting  nature  of  certain  dolomitic  limestones  have  also 
been  necessary.  That  is  the  essential  difference  between  the 
two ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  the  zinc-solutions  have  penetrated 
deeper  beneath  the  surface  than  the  iron  solutions,  pene- 
trating between  strata  of  already  existing  rocks,  and  altering 
these.  In  addition  to  this,  the  first  presuppose  the  destruction 
of  not  far  distant  rocks  or  strata  containing  zinc,  which  are  in- 
deed much  rarer  than  those  containing  iron. 


IRONSTONE-BEDS  IN  SANDSTONE.  257 

THE  CARPATHIAN  COUNTRIES.     ; 

Xlll.     THE   NORTHERN  CARPATHIANS. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  158.  The  Carpathian  Mountains  form  a  serai-circle  around 
the  great  Hungarian  basin,  and  send  out  spurs  into  this.  We 
shall  first  only  consider  the  northern  chief-range,  which  sepa-, 
rates  Hungary  from  Galicla.  It  forms  a  crescent,  open  towards 
the  South,  from  Teschen  to  the  Bukowina  and  Moldavia,  whose 
principal  axis  is  from  WNW.  to  ESE. 

This  mountain-chain,  more  than  370  miles  long,  is  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  sedimentary  rocks  belonging  to  the  age 
of  the  Carpathian  sandstone,  which  is  mostly  a  sandy  deposit, 
replacing  the  Jura  and  Cretaceous  of  other  regions,  and 
probably  still  older  strata.  The  subdivisions  of  this  large  deposit 
have  only  been  determined  in  a  few,  small,  districts;  among 
others  in  the  Lordship  of  Teschen,  where  they  have  been 
examined  by  Hohenegger.  For  the  rest,  it  is  only  known,  that 
sand  and  argillaceous  clay  strata  alternate  with  calcareous  ones, 
which  last  are  partly  designated  as  Klip penkalk stein-,  without  its 
being  possible  to  determine  with  any  certainty,  to  what  niveau 
these  rocks  belong.  Crystalline  schists  and  igneous  rocks  are 
found,  to  any  considerable  extent,  only  in  the  southeastern 
portion  of  the  chain;  with  which  we  shall  become  better  ac- 
quainted, when  speaking  of  the  ore-deposits  found  there.  This 
long  chain  of  mountains  appears  to  contain  but  few  ore-deposits, 
especially  lodes,  in  its  northern  portion.  This  circumstance  is 
most  simply  explained  by  the  total  want  of  igneous  rocks  in 
the  same:  where  these  occur  farther  to  the  South,  lodes  are 
found  in  greater  numbers  and  variety. 

IRONSTONE  BEDS  IN  CARPATHIAN  SANDSTONE. 

§  159.  Beds  of  spherosiderite,  probably  connected  together, 
are  found  along  the  whole  extent  of  the  Carpathians,  from  the 
Bukowina  to  the  Lordship  of  Teschen:  they  are  exploited  in 
numerous  localities. 

17 


258  KIMPOLUNG  IN 

In  the  Bukowina  I  examined  them  quite  carefully  at 
Kimpolung:  those  in  the  Lordship  of  Nadworna  were  described 
by  Lipold,  those  near  Skole  by  A.  Schneider,  and  those 
around  Teschen,  by  Hohenegger,  *  who  also  succeeded  in  satis- 
factorily determining  their  geological  age. 

I  shall  describe  these  localities  in  the  order  mentioned, 
merely  remarking,  that  the  same  strata  may  very  probably  be 
associated  with  similar  beds  of  iron-ore,  in  the  almost  equally 
large  intervals  of  these,  between  the  localities  examined.  If 
this  is  really  the  case,  then  this  belt,  of  iron-ore-deposits,  extends 
for  a  length  of,  at  least,  370  miles,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
extensive  known. 

It  is  not  here  meant  to  be  so  understood,  as  that  the  single 
beds,  or  layers,  which  frequently  wedge-out  very  rapidly,  con- 
tinue thus  associated;  but  only  strata  which  every  where  contain 
such  beds,  whose  number  and  quality  vary,  just  as  the  condition 
of  the  enclosing  strata  is  somewhat  altered.  These  last  are  much 
more  bituminous  in  the  western  portion,  than  in  the  eastern. 

Near  Kimpolung  in  the  Bukowina,  the  Carpathian  sand- 
stone consists  principally  of  gray  and  yellow  argillaceous  shales, 
with  numerous  subordinate  layers  of  a  hard,  gray  sandstone,  of 
magnesian  and  ferruginous  limestone,  of  spherosiderite,  and 
clay-iron-ore,  as  well  as  thin  seams  of  coal.  Impressions  of 
Fucoids,  which  occur  occasionally  in  the  shale  and  clay-iron- 
ore,  indicate  a  marine  formation  of  this  group  of  strata,  which 
overlie,  and  are,  in  turn,  covered  by  thick  strata  of  gray 
sandstone. 

These  argillaceous  strata,  with  their  numerous  subordinate 
layers,  are  several  hundred  feet  thick,  and  form  a  large  basin 
near  Kimpolung,  whose  longest  axis  extends  from  SE.  to  NW. ; 
its  northeastern  side  exhibits  a  somewhat  greater  inclina- 
tion of  the  strata,  than  the  southwestern,  while  in  the 
middle  occurs  a  succession  of  overlying  sandstone-caps.  At 
least  20  layers  of  iron-stone  are  known  on  each  side  of  this 
basin,  and  are  some  of  them  already  worked.  The  separate 


1  See:  Cotta,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanst.  1855,  p.  28;  Hoheneggerr 
in  same,  1852,  p.  140;  1855,  p.  \ ;  and  in  Amtliche  Bericht  d.  32.  Versammlung 
deutscher  Naturforscher  zu  Wien,  1858,  p.  136;  Lip  old,  in  Haidinger's 
Berichten,  IV.  p.  99,  and  Leonhard's  Jahrbuch,  1851,  p.  721;  Schneider^ 
in  Karsten's  Arch.  1834,  vol.  VII.  p.  369;  Beudant,  Voyage  en  Hon- 
grie,  1822. 


THE   BUKOWINA. 


259 


beds  have  a  thickness  of  6  inches  to  3  feet,  and  the  amount  of 
iron  they  contain  varies  from  10  to  48  per  cent.  The  richest 
consist  of  true  spherosiderite ;  the  poorest,  of  clay-iron-ore. 
Those  which  consist  of  spherosiderite,  are  frequently  composed 
of  separate  lenticular  masses,  whose  greatest  diameter  varies, 
from  1  to  over  20  feet.  The  lenses  are  found,  partly  adjoining 
and  touching  one  another,  partly  following  each  other  at  short 
intervals,  within  a  very  ferruginous,  yellow,  soft  stratum  of 
argillaceous  shale,  which  serves  as  a  guide  for  following  them. 
They  sometimes  lie  somewhat  obliquely  in  this  layer,  so  that 
like  the  tiles  of  a  roof  they  overlap  one  another,  or  would  do 
so,  if  they  could  be  pushed  nearer  to  one  another,  without 
altering  their  relative  positions.  This  threefold  manner  of  oc- 
currence is  represented  by  the  following  ideal  sketch. 


a.  Bed  of  compact  clay-ironstone; 

b.  Parallel  lenticular  masses  of  spherosiderite  ; 

c.  Lenticular  masses  of  spherosiderite  lying  obliquely; 

d.  Gray  argillaceous  shale; 

e.  Gray  sandstone  strata; 

f.  Strata  of  limestone  and  dolomite,  often  ferruginous. 

The  district  of  the  Lordship  of  Teschen  consists,  according 
to  Lipold,  almost  exclusively  of  strata  of  Vienna  sandstone 
(Carpathian  sandstone),  with  subordinate  beds  of  limestone,  horn- 
stone  and  ironstone,  conglomerate,  etc.  Klippenkalkstein  is 
only  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pasieczna  in  single  masses, 
while  small  Tertiary  deposits  occur  in  the  Bitkow  Valley.  The 
strata  of  the  Vienna  sandstone  course  SW. — KE.  and  dip  in 
SE.  The  subordinate  ironstone  and  other  layers  occur  par- 
allel and  within  these,  cropping- out  to  the  surface  in 
small,  tolerably  parallel,  ribbons.  The  iron-ores  are  of  three 
kinds:  First,  spherosiderites :  they  are  encrusted  by  a  thick 
black  shell,  which  becomes  thicker,  the  longer  it  is  open  to  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere:  Second,  clay-iron-ores  always  form 
the  middle  bed:  Third,  marl-iron-ores  are  on  the  top,  and 

17* 


260  SKOLE.  TESCHEN. 

generally  develop  the  greatest  thickness.  The  only  fossils  found 
in  these  are  Fucoids. 

Near  Skole  the  Carpathian  sandstone  consists  of  sandstone, 
argillaceous  shale,  bituminous  ,marl-slaj;e,  bituminous  shale,  clay, 
calcareous  marl,  bituminous  limestone,  and  thin  seams  of  coal 
and  hornstone. 

The  dark  argillaceous  shales,  bituminous  marl-slates,  and 
bituminous  shales,  here  contain  thin  beds  of  clay-marl-iron  ore, 
and  lime-iron  ore;  nodules  of  spherosiderite,  outwardly  brown, 
also  occur.  Schneider  observed  the  following  succession  in  the 
mines  at  Skole : 

1.  Sandstone  containing  fragments  of  coal,  outside  of  the  mines; 

2.  Dark  gray  argillaceous  shale; 

3.  Ironstone,  3-5  inches; 

4.  Argillaceous  shale,  18 inches: 

5.  Ironstone,  8—10  inches; 

6.  Argillaceous  shale,  12 — 15  inches; 

7.  Ironstone,  3—4  inches; 

8.  Greenish  gray  argillaceous  shale. 

In  the  Lordship  of  Teschen,  the  subdivisions  and  succession 
of  the  sedimentary  strata  are  stated  by  Hohenegger  to  be  the 
following,  commencing  at  the  top: 

1.  Neogene  Tertiary  deposits,  corresponding  to  the  Viennese  Tegel    (tile 
or  brick  earth); 

2.  Eocene  nummulitic  strata; 

3.  Upper  Cretaceous  strata,  about  corresponding  to  the  Planer  of  Saxony ; 

4.  Sandstone  of  the  higher  North- Carpathians,  probably  corresponding  to 
the  Gault  and  Albian; 

5.  Wernsdorf   strata  (Urgonian  and  Aptian):    black,    bituminous    marl- 
slate,  which,  especially  in  Moravia,  but  in  the  Teschen  Lordship  also,  contain 
a  belt  of  spherosiderite; 

6.  Upper  Teschen  slates,  about  corresponding  to  the  Superior  Neocomian 
and  Hils-conglomerate :   black,  bituminous  slates  with   a  thick  interbedding 
of  sandstone,  containing  the  principal  deposits  of  spherosiderite  above  and 
below  this  sandstone; 

7.  Teschen  limestone  consisting  of    two  subdivisions,  which  both  about 
correspond  to  the  Westphalian-Hils  formation; 

8.  Lower  Tesehen  slate   (Hils):   marl-slate  of  a  lighter  color  than   the 
upper  ones,  and  containing   no  deposits  of  spherosiderite  worth  exploiting. 

Hohenegger  has  thus  tixed  the  geological  age  of  the  strata 
containing  the  beds  of  ironstone.  They  belong  to  the  lower 
division  of  the  Cretaceous  Period,  and  are  of  marine  origin. 
The  manner,  in  which  they  were  formed,  is  not  indeed  explained. 
Beds  of  iron-ore  have  been  contemporaneously  deposited  by  the 
sea  over  an  area  more  than  370  miles  long,  between,  in  part, 


COPPER-ORE-BEDS.  26 1 

bituminous  and  carboniferous  clay-strata:  who  is  able  to  de- 
cide; whether  originally  as  carbonate  of  iron,  or  as  hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron?  The  concretionary  form  of  most  of  these 
ferruginous  strata,  as  well  as  the  scattered  occurrence  of  ellip- 
soidal concretions,  appears  to  indicate,  that  changes  in  their  form, 
and  contractions  of  the  similarly  composed  parts,  have  taken 
place  subsequently  to  the  deposition  of  their  substance.  Can 
this  have  possibly  been  combined  with  an  alteration  of  the 
hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  into  carbonate  of  iron?  What  has 
here  been  said  of  these  widely  distributed  beds  of  spherosiderite, 
is,  with  the  same  right,  equally  true  for  all  others,  whatever  the 
formation  in  which  they  occur. 


COPPER-ORE-BEDS  NEAR  POSCHORITA, 
AND  DOMOKOS. l 

§  160.  In  the  mica-schist-district  of  the  southern  Buko.wina, 
near  its  northeastern  limit,  which  courses  parallel  to  the  general 
strike,  occurs  a  layer  of  chloritic  schist,  embedded  between 
two  zones  of  very  quartzose  schist.  The  chloritic  schist  has  a 
very  variable  thickness,  being  at  times  more  than  100  feet,  and 
contains  a  bed  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites  in  its  middle  portion. 
The  schist  generally  has  a  considerable  dip,  which  frequently 
changes  from  NE.  to  SW.  The  ore-bed  consists,  partly  of 
massive,  flattened,  and  not  sharply  defined  lenses  of  pyrites, 
partly  of  a  pyritous  chlorite  schist  only,  in  which  the  pyrites 
locally  disappear  in  the  prolongation  of  the  bed.  But  in  general 
this  embedding  can  be  followed  continuously,  for  a  length  of 
13 — 18  miles,  and  even,  if  Domokos  is  included,  with  some  interrup- 
tions, for  a  length  of  90  miles.  The  same  has  been  opened- up 
by  numerous  mines  around  Poschorita  and  Fundul  Moldowi. 
The  amount  of  ore,  especially  that  of  copper,  being  locally 
distributed  in  unequally  rich  streaks,  and  the  mass  of  the  bed 
being  often  faulted  by  fissures,  have  given  rise  to  numerous 
trial-workings,  in  which  the  chloritic  schist  with  its  quartzose 
walls  always  serves  as  guide.  The  mass  of  the  bed  consists 
essentially  of  copper  and  iron  pyrites  only,  with  quartz  and 


1  See:  Cotta,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanst.  1855,  p.  17,  and  his  Erz- 
lagerstatten  in  Ungarn  u.  Siebenbiirgen,  1862,  p.  218. 


262  POSCHOBITA,  AND  DOMOKOS. 

chlorite  schist.  Other  minerals,  particularly  such  as  are  formed 
by  the  decomposition  and  alteration  of  those  mentioned,  are 
very  rare.  The  compact  lenticular  masses  of  pyrites,  1  inch  to 
2  feet  thick,  lie  singly,  or  several  parallel  to  one  another,  in 
the  chlorite  schist;  which  then  generally  contains  pyrites  in  their 
immediate  vicinity,  either  in  thin  parallel  threads,  or  as  im- 
pregnating particles  and  crystals. 

Similar  deposits  of  pyrites,  but  of  less  importance,  are  said 
to  occur  in  the  common  mica-schist,  forming  the  hanging-  and 
foot-walls  of  the  chloritic  schist  zone.  This  occurrence  somewhat 
resembles  the  Fallbands  in  the  crystalline  schists  of  Norway,  but 
differs  in  having  the  pyrites  somewhat  more  concentrated  than 
is  there  the  case.  It  is  hardly  conceivable,  that  an  impregnation, 
taking  place  after  the  formation  of  the  rocks,  should  have  been 
confined  to  such  a  narrow  belt,  which  is  over  90  miles  long. 
Besides  which,  the  very  simple  composition  would  lead  to  the 
supposition  that  this  is  a  true  bed. 

This  bed  of  pyrites  is  again  found  in  the  southeastern 
prolongation  of  its  strike,  under  similar  conditions  of  bedding, 
at  Balan  near  Domokos;  the  only  difference  being,  that  at  Do- 
mokos,  four  such  beds  are  found  alongside  of  (originally,  over) 
one  another. 

All  four  beds  have  the  same  strike  as  the  enclosing  schist, 
from  SSE.  to  NNW.  and  dip  70°— 75°  in  E.  They  follow  one 
another,  at  the  following  distances,  from  the  hanging-wall  to  the 
foot- wall : 

1.  Pyritous  bed, 

2 — 4  fathoms  of  schist; 

2.  Parallel  bed, 

4 — 5  fathoms  of  schist; 

3.  Brucks  bed, 

10—12  fathoms  of  schist; 

4.  Prokopi  bed: 

beyond,  and  under  this  last,  traces  of  three  other,  similar  beds 
have  been  discovered. 

Above  the  pyritous  bed,  first  lies  a  very  dark  schist,  pro- 
bably containing  chlorite;  then  a  very  quartzose  zone,  with 
somewhat  of  feldspar  and  chlorite ;  over  this  common  mica-schist, 
which  passes,  farther  to  the  East,  into  gneiss. 

The  breadth  of  the  single  beds  varies  here  between  1  and 
8  feet.  They  consist  chiefly  of  several  parallel  beds  of  pyrites 
of  x/4  to  6  inches  thick,  of  impregnations  of  the  schist,  and  of 


LEAD,  AND  SILVER,  AT  KIRLIB  \BA.  263 

compact  lenticular  masses  of  pyrites,  which  are  often  combined 
with  lenticular  quartz,  from  which  the  texture  of  the  schist 
becomes  very  irregular.  Iron  pyrites  generally  predominates, 
but  is  every  where  associated  with  much  copper  pyrites,  which 
at  times,  especially  where  combined  with  quartz,  occurs  so 
massive,  and  pure,  that  it  can  be  separated  in  large  pieces 
by  hand-sorting.  It  appears  to  me  very  remarkable,  that  the 
schist,  which  is  considerably  impregnated  with  copper  pyrites, 
or  contains  very  thin  parallel  beds  of  pyrites,  should  at  times 
be  traversed  by  cross-courses,  which  are  filled  in  such  a  manner 
with  copper  pyrites,  that  it  appears  to  be  very  firmly  and  in- 
timately united  with  the  parallel  pyritous  beds.  Hence  it  would 
seem,  as  if  the  sulphurets  had  subsequently  penetrated,  and  in 
consequence  formed  a  very  long  zone  of  impregnation.  There 
are  but  few  other  minerals  accompanying  those  mentioned :  here 
and  there  slight  traces  of  galena  and  magnetite  have  been  found, 
the  last  especially  in  the  upper  workings.  The  pyrites  have 
been  decomposed  in  a  few  points  of  the  outcroppings.  The 
relatively  somewhat  large  proportion  of  quartz,  in  the  schist  im- 
mediately in  contact  with  the  beds,  often  causes  a  quartzose 
outcrop,  which  on  this  account  projects  above  the  common 
schistose  surface. 


LEAD  AND  SILVER  ORE-DEPOSITS  AT  KIRLIBABA. 

§  161.  At  Kirlibaba,  in  the  southern  Bukowina,  have  been 
exploited,  for  several  decennials,  so-called  ore-beds,  which  occur 
in  mica-schist,  and  consist  of  argentiferous  galena,  with  spathic 
iron,  blende,  somewhat  of  pyrites,  and  quartz.  A  careful 
examination  of  the  deposit  had  the  following  result.  The  mica- 
schist  contains,  together  with  limestone,  a  bed  of  black,  bituminous 
schist,  nearly  50  fathoms  thick,  resembling  many  alum  shales. 
In  this  are  found  very  flat  lenticular  masses,  or  thin  beds,  of 
but  slight  extent,  parallel  to  the  cleavage,  but  irregularly 
distributed  as  shown  in  the  following  woodcut. 

Each  of  these  lenticular  masses  is  exploited  by  itself;  and 
it  is  impossible  to  tell  with  certainty,  whether  the  succeeding  one 
lies  directly  in  the  line  of  strike  of  that  last  worked,  or  not. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  drive  cross-courses,  to  open-up  the 
black  schist  to  its  hanging-  and  foot-walls,  and  thus  find  all 


264 


KIRLIBABA  ORE-DEPOSITS 


G.  Mica-schist. 
S.   Black-schist 
K.  Limestone, 
g.  Lode. 
1.  Lenticular  ore-masses. 

the  masses,  of  which  many  indeed  are  not  exploitable.  Along- 
side of  this  black-schist  occurs  the  so-called  'old  bed'  in  com- 
mon mica-schist,  which  has  been  opened-up  by  mining  opera- 
tions. This  is,  however,  decidedly  no  bed,  but  a  lode,  which 
is  composed  of  the  same  ores  and  minerals,  as  the  lenticular 
masses  in  the  black-schist;  the  only  difference  being,  that  the  por- 
tions of  the  lode,  as  yet  opened,  are  not  so  rich  in  lead  and 
silver.  The  lode  lies,  according  to  its  strike  and  dip,  nearly 
parallel  to  the  mica-schist;  and  might  easily,  from  this  circum- 
stance, be  mistaken  for  a  bed.  But  it  shows  in  some  places  a. 
decided  symmetrical  arrangement  of  its  matrix,  as  shown  in  the 
woodcut. 


B.  Brown  blende,  with  somewhat   of  galena  and 

quartz;  on  the  clefts,  at  times,  greenockite. 
E.  Spathic  iron,  with  somewhat  of  pyrites. 
Q.   Quartz. 


GOLD-VEINS  AT  BORSA:  TIMAZITE  265 

From  the  general  character  of  the  workings  on  this  lode, 
it  would  appear,  that  it  does  not  remain  exactly  parallel  to  the 
foliation,  but  approaches  the  black-schist,  and  intersects  it  at  a 
very  acute  angle.  There  are  probably  several  such  lodes. 
From  the  conformity  of  the  minerals  in  the  lode  and  bed, 
I  would  suppose,  that  the  last  is  really  nothing  else,  than  the 
consequence  of  an  impregnation,  taking  place  from  one  or 
more  intersecting  vein-fissures,  whence  has  developed  a  richness 
in  lead  and  silver,  principally  in  the  black,  coaly  schist,  parallel 
to  the  texture  of  the  same.  If  this  hypothesis  be  correct,  we 
have  a  very  fine  example  of  a  bedlike  impregnation,  formed 
from  a  lode-fissure,  which  follows  principally  but  one  rock,  and 
that  a  coaly  one;  like  that  in  which  the  quicksilver  ores  of  Idria 
occur,  and  also  similar  to  that  of  Braunsdorf  near  Freiberg, 
which  exerts  such  a  favorable  influence  on  the  lodes  traversing  it. 

VEINS  OF  AURIFEROUS  PYRITES  AT  BORSA. 

§  162.  Borsa-Banya1  lies  on  the  Viso  River  in  the  Mar- 
maros,  near  the  boundaries  of  the  Bukowina.  The  upper  por- 
tion of  the  Viso  valley  consists  of  a  mica-schist,  which  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  that  in  the  Bukowina.  This  is  frequently  covered 
by  Carpathian  sandstone  and  Klip yenkalk stein,  and  often  tra- 
versed by  igneous  rocks.  From  this  circumstance  the  surface 
of  the  country  is  much  more  varied,  than  farther  East,  where 
these  overlying  and  traversing  rocks  are  wanting.  The  moun- 
tains, which  are  some  of  them  quite  high,  are  surrounded  by 
hills,  so  that  the  broad  Viso  Valley  has  a  character  entirely 
similar  to  the  large  and  broad  valleys  of  the  Alps.  To  the 
South  the  mountain-chains  of  Inien  and  Pietros  rise  to  a  height 
of  7000  feet  above  the  variegated  alternation  of  the  fore- ground. 

Those  igneous  rocks,  which  traverse  the  mica-schist  and 
the  overlying  Carpathian  sandstone,  are,  partly  trachytes,  which 
appear  to  have  no  connection  with  the  auriferous  veins,  partly 
a  greenstone  containing  labradorite  (timazitej  This  timazite 
consists  principally  of  labradorite,  with  somewhat  of  horn- 
blende (gamsigradite) ;  throughout  which  are  scattered  iron 
pyrites.  It  mostly  possesses  a  granular  texture,  but  at  times 

1  See:  Cotta,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanst.  1855,  p.  24;  Strippel- 
mann,  in  Oester.  Zeitsch.  f.  Berg-  u.  Hiittenwesen,  1855,  p.  157. 


266       TROJOKA  MOUNTAINS.  SEKO-VALLEY  LODES. 

almost  passes  into  a  compact  condition.  It  traverses,  in  large 
masses  and  dikes,  both  the  mica-schist  and  Carpathian  sandstone, 
of  which  last  it  contains  fragments.  The  subordinate  strata,  of 
argillaceous  shale  in  the  Carpathian,*  sandstone,  are  converted 
into  a  jaspery  condition,  wherever  they  come  in  contact  with 
the  greenstone. 

The  large  mass  of  rock  forming  the  Trojoka  Mountains, 
on  the  right  side  of  the  Seko  Valley,  which  opens  into  the  Viso 
Valley  at  Borsa-Banya,  is  principally  composed  of  this  timazite. 
On  its  sides,  which  are  at  least  2000  feet  high,  and  quite  steep, 
a  number  of  veins  crop-out  tolerably  parallel  to  one  another, 
whose  hanging-  and  foot-walls  are  formed  by  the  greenstone. 
The  veins  are  essentially  composed  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites, 
with  which  but  little  quartz  occurs.  The  iron  pyrites  occurs 
partly  in  fine  crystallizations;  the  copper  pyrites  is  but  crystal- 
lized, generally  massive.  Both  kinds  of  pyrites  contain  gold,  the 
copper  pyrites  generally  the  most,  but  in  variable  quantities  in 
the  different  lodes.  The  breadth  of  the  lodes  varies  from  1 — 12 
inches.  Horses  frequently  lie  in  the  lodes,  or  the  lodes  branch 
into  the  rock;  which  is  often  somewhat  decomposed,  and  parti- 
cularly rich  in  pyrites,  alongside  of  the  veins. 

Only  six  such  lodes  have  been  found,  which  all  strike  parallel 
to  one  another,  and  to  the  principal  axis  of  the  Seko  Valley, 
and  are  nearly  perpendicular.  Eight  barren,  parallel  fissures 
have  been  opened-up  between  these  lodes;  consequently  there 
are  altogether  14  fissures.  The  Katharina  lode,  cropping-out 
1600  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  has  been  exploited 
to  the  greatest  distance.  It  continues  in  a  straight  line  for 
about  21/2  miles,  extending  beyond  the  greenstone  into  the 
mica-schist;  a  sufficient  proof,  that  these  lodes  are  true  veins, 
and  not  merely  gash-veins  in  the  greenstone.  It  has  not  yet 
been  ascertained,  what  amount  of  ore  it  contains  in  the  mica- 
schist. 

This  occurrence  of  lodes  is  of  considerable  scientific  interest : 
in  the  first  place  it  follows,  that  these  auriferous  veins,  like 
those  of  Vorospatak,  in  Transylvania,  are  of  more  recent  for- 
mation, than  the  Carpathian  sandstone;  since  they  occur  in  green- 
stone, itself  traversing  the  sandstone.  Secondly,  a  certain  ana- 
logy can  be  recognised  with  those  of  Beresowsk,  in  the  Ural 
Mountains,  where  the  gold-veins  traverse  the  so-called  Beresite, 
likewise  a  feldspathic  rock  containing  iron  pyrites,  as  the  timazite 


TRANSYLVANIA,  OR  SIEBENBUERGEN.  267 

is.     Finally,  we  shall  hereafter  see,  that  nearly  all  the  auriferous 
veins  of  Hungary  occur  in  rocks  containing  hornblende. 


XIV.  TRANSYLVANIA. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  163.  Transylvania  (Siebenburgen)  forms  a  large  basin 
surrounded  by  mountains,  the  interior  of  which  is  filled  with 
Tertiary  deposits,  and  no  ore-deposits  worth  noticing.  These 
are  found,  so  much  the  more  frequently,  in  a  portion  of  its  moun- 
tainous walls.  We  have  already  become  acquainted  with  the 
North  Carpathians.  These  extend  towards  the  South  to  the 
boundaries  of  Moldavia,  forming  a  broad,  but  slightly  examined, 
mountain-chain,  here  principally  composed  of  crystalline  schists 
and  trachytic  rocks.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Kronstadt  this 
chain  turns  completely  to  the  West,  composed  in  its  course  towards 
the  Banat  of  crystalline  schists  and  sedimentary  limestones, 
occasionally  enclosing  small  Tertiary  basins,  and,  as  it  appears, 
containing  but  few  ore-deposits.  The  mountain-chain,  extend- 
ing from  the  Banat  to  the  boundaries  of  Hungary  and  Tran- 
sylvania, which  does  not  quite  meet  with  the  chain  of  the  North 
Carpathians,  is  on  the  contrary  quite  rich  in  ore-deposits.  It 
consists  of  granite,  crystalline  schists,  clay-slate,  greenstone,  por- 
phyry, trachyte,  melaphyre,  basalt,  sedimentary  limestone,  and 
Carpathian  sandstone.  The  great  variety  of  the  geological  for- 
mation appears  to  have  some  relation  to  the  great  richness  in 
ore-deposits. 

Already  Beudant  remarked,  that  the  great  district  of  crystal- 
line schists  contained  relatively  fewer  ore-deposits,  than  was 
elsewhere  the  case,  these  appearing  to  be  chiefly  combined  with 
more  recent  igneous  rocks.  Only  the  most  interesting,  of  the 
large  number  of  deposits  known,  will  be  described. 

SINKA  NEAR  KRONSTADT. 

§  164.  The  great  district  of  crystalline  schists;  which, 
extending  from  the  Banat,  forms  the  boundary,  between  Transyl- 


268  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

vania  and  Wallachia,  to  the  neighborhood  of  Kronstadt;  and 
near  Negoi  reaches  a  height  of  8000  feet  above  the  sea;  is, 
according  to  all  the  examinations  that  have  been  made,  but 
rarely  broken  through  by  igneous  rocks,  and  appears  in  con- 
sequence of  this  to  contain  but  few  metalliferous  deposits.  Por- 
phyries are  only  known  to  exist  in  its  eastern  portion,  in  the 
parish  of  Pojana-Morului  near  Sinka; l  and  here'  alone  (a  fact 
worthy  of  attention)  are  found  very  remarkable  deposits  of  argen- 
tiferous galena. 

Common  mica-schist,  with  gray  mica,  predominates,  and 
passes  farther  East  into  gneiss,  partly  into  porphyritic  gneiss. 
A  few  layers,  with  silver  white,  perhaps  lithion,  mica,  occur  to 
a  very  subordinate  degree  within  the  common  schist.  This  last 
is  much  more  commonly  traversed  by  a  feldspathic,  in  part 
only,  by  a  distinctly  porphyritic  rock.  This  rock  forms  over  a 
hundred  layers  in  the  mica-schist,  which  are  in  general  parallel 
to  the  foliation,  with  a  strike  from  SSW.  to  NNE.  with  a  con- 
siderable dip  in  NW.  and  whose  breadth  varies  from  1 — 30  feet. 
They  recur  at  distances  of  4 — 100  paces,  are  separately  not 
always  exactly  parallel  to  the  foliation,  and  at  times  even  form 
very  distinct  indentations  and  ramifications  in  their  country-rock. 
They  are  consequently  not  beds,  but  bedded  dikes.  Their 
matrix  every  where  consists  of  a  feldspathic,  compact  or  granular 
mass;  occasionally  as  pure  as  quartz-porphyry,  containing 
crystals  of  feldspar  and  quartz ;  at  times,  however,  without  these, 
but  with  an  admixture  of  chlorite,  from  which  it  receives  a 
greenish  color,  while  the  predominant  color,  when  fresh,  is  brown. 
Hence,  it  may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  quartz-por- 
phyries, which  are  the  chief  causes  of  the  occurrence  of  ores, 
or  their  constant  companions,  in  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge. 

The  deposits  of  argentiferous  galena  occur  between  five 
such  dikes  of  quartz-porphyry,  which  are  several  feet  apart, 
they  are  worked  from  the  narrow  gorge  of  Pareu-Dracului 
(Devil's  .Gorge). 

These  deposits  of  galena  form  neither  lodes,  nor  beds,  nor 
even  what  are  generally  called  segregations ;  although  they 
have  the  greatest  resemblance  to  the  last.  Consequently  they 
do  not  crop-out  like  a  lode,  or  bed,  in  a  narrow  belt,  but  only 
at  one  point,  comparatively  small ;  and  have  no  strike. 

1  See:   Cotta,   Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  u.  Siebenbiirgen,    1862,  p.  214. 


S1NKA  NEAR  KRONSTADT.  269 

It  appears,  from  the  past  exploitations,  that  this  deposit 
consists  of,  relatively,  small  masses  of  ore,  having  the  form  of 
segregations;  which  succeed  one  another,  although  not  in  a  per- 
fectly straight  line.  These  have  a  dip  of  25°— 30°  in  SSW. 
within  the  belt  of  mica-schist,  which  occurs,  a  few  fathoms  broad, 
between  five  neighboring  bedded  dikes  of  porphyry:  in  one 
point  more  nearly  approaching  one,  again  another  dike  of  por- 
phyry, or  between  two  of  them;  and  consequently  having,  at 
times,  the  porphyry  as  the  hanging-  or  foot- wall,  or  separated 
from  both  the  dikes  by  mica-schist.  The  perpendicular  height, 
of  the  obliquely  penetrating  zone,  in  which  the  ore  occurs,  is 
about  120  feet,  although  in  places  much  less.  This  somewhat 
curvilinear  succession  of  ore-masses,  which  occur  singly  or 
several  together,  is  here  and  there  accompanied  by  impregnations 
of  the  very  quartzose  schist;  otherwise  it  appears  to  be  entirely 
secluded.  In  none  of  the  workings,  that  I  visited,  could  I  per- 
ceive an  extension  in  any  direction  resembling  a  vein.  Where 
the  ore  has  been  entirely  removed,  there  remains  only  more  or 
less  decomposed  schist  or  porphyry,  in  the  roof,  as  well  as  in 
the  floor,  and  on  all  sides.  It  is  said  however,  that  clay-fissures 
quite  frequently  occur  in  the  mica-schist,  between  the  deposits 
of  ore,  but  containing  no  traces  of  galena,  and  very  rarely  of 
iron  pyrites.  Every  time  that  new  ore  is  being  sought  for, 
drifts  must  be  made  in  the  direction  of  the  inclined  zone,  in 
order  to  open-up  new  masses;  since  the  discovery  of  this  pecu- 
liarity, the  above  method  has  been  always  attended  with  suc- 
cess, though  at  variable  distances. 

I  know  of  no  deposit,  of  this  form  and  manner  of  exten- 
sion, at  any  other  locality;  the  lenticular  galena-deposits  in  the 
black  schist  of  Kirlibaba,  bear  only  a  slight  resemblance.  But 
there  very  similarly  composed  lodes,  and  consequently  fissures, 
are  known  to  exist,  from  which  the  mineral  matter,  forming  these 
very  lenticularly  shaped  deposits,  may  have  penetrated  into  the 
schist.  Although  the  opening-up  and  exploitation  of  the  Sinka 
mines,  which  penetrate  the  mountain-ridge,  and  a  small  portion 
of  a  declivity  opposite  to  it,  do  not  permit  any  certain  conclu- 
sions on  the  constancy  of  this  curious  distribution  of  ore;  still 
the  results,  already  obtained,  appear  most  remarkable,  and 
worthy  of  attention. 

The  principal  portion  of  these  aggregations  of  ore  generally 
consists  of  a  coarse  crystalline,  or,  also,  fine  granular  galena, 


270  W.  TRANSYLVANIA  GOLD-DISTRICT. 

occasionally  containing  over  1300  grammes  to  the  kilogramme. 
This  galena  occurs  in  cellular  quartz,  or  decomposed  schist, 
with  earthy  cerusite.  In  a  few  cases,  fragments  of  galena  were 
found  entirely  covered  with  an  incrustation  of  cerusite.  This 
and  anglesite  occur,  also,  in  geodes  of  the  galena.  Black  and 
greenish  blende,  (red  is  much  rarer,)  also  rarely  liriarite,  crocoite, 
copper  pyrites,  azurite,  and  calc-spar,  occur  with  the  galena; 
more  apart,  iron  pyrites.  A  single  specimen  of  the  supersul- 
phuretted  lead,  Haidinger's  Johnstonite,  has  been  found.  Hence 
the  original  minerals  in  this  deposit  are;  galena,  blende,  some- 
what of  copper  and  iron  pyrites,  considerable  quartz,  and  very 
little  calc-spar.  By  the  decomposition  of  these  have  been  formed; 
cerusite,  anglesite,  linarite,  crocoite,  calamine  (frequent,  in  cracks), 
and  azurite. 

I  am  unable  to  express  any  opinion,  on  the  manner  in 
which  these  deposits  were  formed;  as  I  cannot  comprehend  it, 
so  long  as  channels,  through  which  the  mineral  solutions  can  have 
penetrated,  remain  undiscovered.  Then  the  form  of  these  depo- 
sits does  not  even  seem  like  the  pipe  of  a  mineral  spring,  which  has 
been  filled  up.  In  this  respect,  their  form  most  nearly  resembles 
the  so-called  '  badger  holes',  in  the  Devonian  slate,  at  Ems. 

WESTERN  TRANSYLVANIA. 

§  165.  A  mountainous  district  rises,  northwardly  of  the 
Maros,  out  of  the  horizontal  Tertiary  deposits,  from  which  spring 
the  sources  of  the  Aranios,  Samos,  and  Koros.  Crystalline 
schists,  as  the  oldest  formations;  are  covered  by  secondary 
limestones  and  Eocene  sandstones;  both  being  frequently 
broken  through  by  trachytic,  basaltic,  and  porphyritic  rocks, 
which  often  form  beautiful  cones. 

The  trachytic  rocks  are  here  of  the  same  varieties,  as 
around  Schemnitz  and  Nagybanya,  mostly  containing  hornblende, 
and  corresponding  to  Breithaupt's  timazite. 

This  mountain-district  contains  numerous  metalliferous  de- 
posits, and  among  them  so  many  auriferous  ones,  that  the  whole 
may  be  termed  a  gold-district.  The  gold-deposits  occur,  as 
veins,  and  impregnations  from  these.  From  the  partial  decom- 
position alluvial  deposits  have  been  formed.  Here  also  the 
gold-lodes  appear  dependent  on  trachytic  or  feldspathic,  quartz- 
ose  igneous  rocks,  or  to  have  been  caused  by  their  breaking 


VOEROESPATAK  GOLD-DEPOSITS.  271 

out.  The  veins  traverse,  however,  clay-slates  and  Eocene  sand- 
stones in  their  neighborhood;  from  which  circumstance,  as  well 
as  from  the  Tertiary  age  of  the  trachytic  rocks,  it  is  very  evi- 
dent, that  their  formation,  like  that  of  Schemnitz  and  Nagy- 
banya,  is  more  recent  than  the  Eocene  period. 

The  gold  occurs  in  these  lodes,  partly,  apparent  to  the 
eye,  in  a  native  .state,  partly,  imperceptible,  in  sulphurets  (espe- 
cially iron  pyrites),  in  what  condition  has  not  yet  been  deter- 
mined, partly  in  combination  with  tellurium.  The  last-mentioned 
manner  of  occurrence  is  very  characteristic  for  this  region, 
while  elsewhere  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  rarities. 

VOEROESPATAK. 

§  166.  This  Eldorado  of  Transylvania  lies  in  a  deep  val- 
ley, about  f>  miles  northeast  of  Abrudbanya.  The  gold-deposits 
of  Vorospatak  ]  belong  to  the  most  remarkable  geological  ones 
which  exist,  and  are  in  addition  very  important  to  Austria,  from 
the  large  amount  of  gold  which  is  accumulated  in  the  mani- 
fold ways  of  its  occurrence.  Although  not  distinguished  by  a 
great  variety  of  minerals,  it  is  still  mineralogically  interesting, 
from  the  fact,  that  the  gold  always  occurs  crystallized,  or  with 
a  tendency  to  crystallization,  and  from  the  circumstance  that  it 
occurs,  in  some  of  the  beds,  implanted  in  dialogite. 

No  examination  of  the  district  has  as  yet  succeeded  in  dis- 
covering the  mutual  relations  between  the  nature  of  the  rocks 
and  deposits  which  occur  together  at  Vorospatak;  and  I  am 
only  able  to  add  a  contribution  to  what  has  previously  been 
written  on  the  subject. 

The  village  of  Vorospatak  (in  English,  Red  Brook)  lies  in 
a  tolerably  deep  valley  on  sandstone,  which  has  been  recog- 
nised by  the  Viennese  geologists  as  belonging  to  the  Eocene, 
consequently  the  oldest,  of  the  Tertiary  deposits.  This  valley 
is  closed  in  towards  the  West  by  a  crescent-shaped  mountain 
ridge,  which  consists  of  a  rock  containing  much  hornblende, 
generally  considered  as  belonging  to  the  trachytes  (Breithaupt's 
timazite).  This  rock  appears  to  have  no  connection  with  the 


*See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerst.  in  Ungarn  u.  Siebeiibiirgen,  1862,  p.  66; 
Hauer,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanst.  1851,  No.  4,  p.  64;  Grimm,  in  same, 
1852,  p.  54. 


272  GOLD-ORE  STAMPING-MILLS. 

metalliferous  deposits,  and  to  be  of  more  recent  age,  than  the 
Tertiary  sandstone,  which  it  has  probably  broken  through.  To- 
wards the  South  rises  a  bare  and  rocky  mountain-ridge,  whose 
mass  is  composed  of  a  still  doubtful, "but  probably  igneous  rock ; 
its  western  peak  is  called  Csetatye  (castle).  If  Vorospatak  is 
approached  from  the  North  (from  Offenbanya),  the  view  from 
the  tolerably  high  pass,  on  the  western  side  of  the  trachytic  or 
timazitic  mountain,  is  surprising,  from  the  very  peculiar  and,  in 
a  mining  sense,  grand  prospect.  The  opposite  declivity  of  the 
Csetatye,  600  feet  high,  or  of  the  Kirnik,  is  covered,  nearly 
from  top  to  bottom,  with  white  burrows  and  quarries,  between 
which  the  small  sheds  covering  the  shafts  can  only  with  diffi- 
culty be  recognised.  When  however  the  descent  into  the  val- 
ley is  begun,  it  will  be  remarked,  that  this  declivity,  consisting 
of  sandstone,  has  been  nearly  every  where  burrowed  through 
by  miners.  At  a  still  greater  descent  a  continuous  stamping  will 
be  heard,  which  comes  from  the  numerous  small  stamping  mills ; 
which  are  distributed  throughout  the  entire  valley.  Over  800 
such  mills  belong  to  Vorospatak  alone,  and  with  those  belong- 
ing to  the  neighboring  valleys  there  are  over  one  thousand  in  a 
district  of  ten  square  miles.  Many  have  but  three  stamps,  their 
number  being  a  consequence  of  the  peculiar  mining  regulations. 
There  exist  at  Vorospatak  about  300  companies  with  900  stock- 
holders, each  of  which  receive  their  dividends  from  the  mine, 
not  in  money,  but  in  stamping-stuff  and  free  gold,  so  that  each 
stockholder  is  compelled  to  dress  and  concentrate  his  own  ore. 
This  peculiar  relation  was  originally  caused  by  the  nature, 
and  extraordinary  number,  of  the  auriferous  deposits.  Their 
number  is  not  determinable,  as  there  is  no  general  mining  chart 
of  the  older  workings,  and  it  is  in  many  cases,  at  present,  im- 
possible to  determine,  what  workings  exist  on  the  same  veins. 
Over  300  clefts  have  been  traversed,  and  numbered,  by  the 
deep  principal-adit  with  its  branches,  which  is  united  by  a 
tramway  with  the  imperial  stamping-mill  at  Abrudbanya;  the 
majority  of  these  strike  K. — S.  but  many  are  not  worked  at 
the  present  time.  More  to  the  South  an  E. — W.  strike  of  the 
clefts  is  said  to  predominate.  The  lodes,  as  yet  traversed  by 
the  adit,  800  fathoms  long,  occur  nearly  altogether  in  sand- 
stone; which  is  frequently  very  indistinctly  stratified;  and  alter- 
nates with  conglomerate,  and  formations  resembling  tufa,  more 
rarely  with  argillaceous  shales.  These  fissures,  or  lodes,  evi- 


CS&TATYE  LODES.  273 

dently  encrease  in  number  with  the  near  approach  to  the  Cse- 
tatye; while  the  first  600—1000  feet  from  the  mouth  of  the 
adit  are  entirely  free  of  them.  The  adit  has  but  recently 
reached  the  igneous  rock  of  the  Csetatye. 

An  auriferous  sandstone  can  thus  be  distinguished  from  the 
common  widely  extended  Tertiary  sandstones  of  the  region. 
The  auriferous  sandstone  surrounds  the  mass  of  the  Csetatye, 
extending  to  unequal  distances  from  it,  and  is  distinguished 
from  the  common  sandstone,  in  addition  to  its  containing  gold, 
by  the  greater  frequency  of  conglomerate-  or  tufa-strata,  which 
occasionally  contain  fragments  of  the  Csetatye-rock,  and  boulders 
of  a  dark  and  partly  schistose  rock:  also  by  more  indistinct 
stratification,  the  strata  being  considerably  tilted  on  the  southern 
declivity  of  the  Csetatye. 

These  lodes,  or  fissures,  only  attain  a  width  of  about  a  foot, 
have  partly  a  vertical,  partly  a  gentle  dip ;  intersect,  and  then 
generally  enrich  one  another.  Their  matrix  is  principally  quartz, 
calc-spar,  or  iron  pyrites.  They  seldom  contain  gold,  percepti- 
bly to  the  outward  eye ;  it  generally  occurs  very  finely  dissemi- 
nated in  iron  pyrites,  and  together  with  this  has  penetrated 
from  the  fissures  into  the  country-rock  in  certain  portions,  so 
that  the  gang,  together  with  the  sandstone  or  conglomerate, 
can  be  profitably  exploited  for  a  breadth  of  several  feet.  It  is 
said,  but  I  will  not  vouch  for  the  fact,  that  the  lodes  are  the 
richest  between  rocks  of  a  medium  degree  of  consistence,  poorer 
between  very  firm  or  very  soft  ones.  The  pyritous  fissures 
contain  at  times  an  argentiferous  tetrahedrite ;  and  in  the  so- 
called  e Silver  fissure',  somewhat  of  copper  pyrites,  and  stalactitic 
pyrites- sinter  have  been  formed,  which  frequently  cover  large 
areas  on  the  sides  of  the  fissure.  These  stalactitic  incrustations 
cover  both  sides  of  thin  sandstone  slabs  with  layers  of  pyrites. 

The  fissures  have  been  seldom  followed  to  a  greater  length, 
than  600  feet  in  the  direction  of  strike,  or  150  feet  in  that  of 
dip.  These  fissures  (gash-veins),  which  are  frequently  faulted, 
traverse  the  whole  sandstone  around  the  Csetatye-rock,  and 
northwardly  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  trachytic  mountains. 

The  very  quartzose  rock  of  the  Csetatye  appears  to  be 
much  richer  in  gold,  than  the  sandstone;  whose  junction  has 
been  reached  by  the  principal  adit,  but  has  never  been  observed 
sharply  defined.  The  line  of  contact  is  covered  at  the  surface 
by  the  tailings  from  the  stamping-mills.  Grimm  has  called  the 

18 


274        CS£TATYE-ROCK.  DEEL  AND  KLAM. 

rock  of  the  Csetatye,  feldstone-porphyry.  This  term  has  been 
objected  to;  since  the  large  grains  of  enclosed  quartz  have,  as 
a  rule,  their  edges  and  solid  angles  rounded,  though  generally 
crystallized  in  double  pyrariiids.  T&is  fact  would  of  itself  be 
no  proof  against  the  true  nature  of  porphyry,  for  quartz-crys- 
tals sometimes  occur  similarly  rounded  in  distinct  quartz-por- 
phyries with  very  characteristic  felsitic  matrix;  this  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  Thuringian  Forest.  But  then  the  matrix  of  the 
Csetatye-rock  is  not  compact  and  distinctly  felsitic:  it  is  partly 
very  quartzose,  with  crystalline-granular  quartz,  in  which  par- 
ticles of  feldspar  are  sparingly  scattered:  partly,  and  predomi- 
nantly felsitic,  but  in  a  somewhat  decomposed  condition,  con- 
taining considerable  quantities  of  small  grains  of  quartz.  It  also 
exhibits  traces  of  the  crystalline-granular  texture  of  the  feldspar- 
or  rather,  remains  oi  dissimilar  directions  of  cleavage  can  be 
observed,  and  even  of  two  kinds  of  feldspar  mingled  together, 
which  have  decomposed  unequally.  The  whole  mass  is  impreg- 
nated by  a  mass  of  small  crystals  of  iron  pyrites,  pentagonal 
dodecahedrons,  and  cubes,  as  well  as  granular  aggregations  of 
the  same.  The  quartzose  varieties  of  the  rock  are  frequently 
very  drusy,  or  traversed  by  veins  of  quartz.  The  miners  call 
the  half-d-ecomposed  condition  of  the  rock  'Drei';  the  entirely 
decomposed,  argillaceous  condition,  'Klam7.  It  is  certainly 
questionable,  whether  the  rock  can  be  rightly  termed  a  por- 
phyry. The  compact,  felsitic  matrix  is  wanting;  and  on  this 
account  it  resembles  a  granite  without  mica,  rendered  porphy- 
ritic  from  rounded  crystals  of  quartz.  I  consider  the  rock  to 
be  in  any  case  igneous,  and  not  belonging  to  the  sandstone  for- 
mation; and  will  on  this  account  for  the  sake  lof  conciseness 
call  it  Csetatye-rock  (pronounced  Tsetatye).  This  at  times  con- 
tains fragments  of  a  dark  rock,  undetermined,  probably  older 
and  broken-through,  similar  to  that  already  mentioned,  under 
the  conglomerate  and  tufa  rocks. 

The  prominence  of  the  Csetatye-rock,  as  a  rocky  mountain,, 
may  possibly  be  a  consequence  of  its  generally  greater  hard- 
ness. The  form  of  its  inclination  'beneath  the  surface,  which 
has  been  partially  opened-up  by  underground  workings ;  the 
manner  in  which  the  sandstone  •  surrounds  it;  as  well  as  the 
existence  of  portions  of  the  same,  as  fragments,  or  boulders,  in 
the  conglomeratic  or  tufalike  sandstone;  all  go  to  prove  that 
this  mountain  existed,  before  the  Tertiary  strata  were  deposited, 


KATRANZA,  NETWORK  OF  VEINS,  AND  CAVES.  275 

and  was  overlaid  by  these.  It  seems,  however,  as  if  the  rock 
had  been  subsequently  raised,  so  as  to  have  partly  tilted,  partly > 
fissured  the  neighboring  sandstone  strata;  which  perhaps  oc- 
curred at  the  same  time  as  the  gold  emanation.  Whether  these 
elevations  were  predecessors,  or  consequences,  of  the  trachytic 
eruption,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  deposit  of  sandtsone, 
as  already  said,  evidently  does  not  belong  to  the  mass  of  the 
Csetatye-rock ;  I  am  strongly  inclined  to  consider  it  as  a  much 
altered,  partly  silicified,  partly  decomposed  igneous  rock,  which 
was  originally  felsitic.  The  silicification,  and  decomposition, 
may  well  have  been  the  consequences  of  one  and  the  same 
cause;  by  which  the  gold  of  this  region,  together  with  its  gang, 
reached  the  places  of  deposit.  The  same  occurs  mostly  in  the 
Csetatye-rock;  and  here,  as  in  the  sandstone,  partly  in  an  in- 
numerable and  altogether  irregular  network  of  fissures  or 
veins,  and  passing  from  these,  as'  impregnations,  into  the  rock 
itself. 

In  ancient  times  large  masses  were  obtained  from  quarries 
in  the  Csetatye-rock,  partly  by  the  aid  of  fire.  On  the  summit 
of  the  Csetatye  is  a  large  pit,  which  was  only  excavated 
for  the  gold  of  the  rock,  probably  in  the  time  of  the  Roman 
domination. 

Underneath  this,  in  the  interior  of  the  mountain,  lies  the 
renowned  network  of  veins,  which  has  been  called  'Katranza7, 
from  its  resemblance,  though  very  faint,  to  the  dress  of  the 
Wallachian  women.  Caves  have  here  been  excavated,  so  colossal, 
that  an  ordinary  mining-lamp  does  not  reveal  their  extent,  and 
reaching  to  so  great  a  depth,  that  a  stone  thrown  in,  takes 
several  seconds  to  reach  the  bottom.  It  is  stated,  that  the  cave 
is  over  70  fathoms  long  and  20  broad :  it  is,  any  how,  of  much 
greater  height,  than  breadth.  It  represents  a  former  network 
of  gold-veins,  which  were  perpendicular,  and  irregularly  colum- 
nar. An  attempt  is  now  being  made  to  open  this  Katranza,  at 
a  still  greater  depth,  by  means  of  the  chief  adit. 

Not  far  from  thi»,  and  perhaps  connected  with  it,  a  similar 
network,  or  a  branch  of  this,  has  been  opened  by  the  Rakosi 
mine,  also  in  the  Csetatye-rock.  Here  numerous  irregular  veins 
branch  out  through  the  gray  rock ;  which  is  somewhat  more 
porphyritic  than  usual,  and  contains  considerable  iron  pyrites, 
disseminated  through  it  in  crystals.  These  veins  essentially 
consist  of  a  beautiful  red  dialogite,  with  somewhat  of  yellow 

18* 


276  CONCLUSIONS. 

blende.  These  veins  of  dialogite,  1 — 2  inches  broad,  are  here 
and  there  entirely  permeated  by  crystalline  gold ;  so  that,  when 
cut  and  polished,  they  have  a  splendid  appearance. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  these  veins  are  not  only  irregu- 
lar, but  suddenly  cease  at  times  with  a  rotundity;  and  entirely 
enclose  or  surround  small  fragments  of  the  porphyry. 

Up  to  the  present  time  I  have  only  mentioned  the  ore  in 
place.  In  the  bed  of  the  Vorospatak,  and  of  the  Aranios,  into 
which  it  empties,  the  tailings  that  have  been  swept  away,  and 
the  refuse  from  the  imperfect  concentration,  are  washed  out  in 
many  places. 

From  my  own  observations,  from  the  views  of  von  Hauer 
and  Grimm,  and  from  the  communications  of  the  mining  officials, 
I  concluded: 

1.  that  the   oldest  rock,  which  comes  to  the  surface,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Vorospatak,  is  the  Csetatye-rock; 

2.  the  Eocene  sandstone  was  next  deposited;  which  appears, 
from   the   tufa-layers   it   contains,   to   have  had  some  connection 
with  the  porphyritic  eruption; 

3.  the  impregnation  of  gold  and  pyrites,  and  the  formation 
of  the  minerals  in  the  veins    and   fissures,  took  place   after  the 
sandstone  had  been  formed; 

4.  still    later   occurred   the    upheaval   of  the    trachytes   (or 
timazites),  and  the  basalts;  of  which  the  Detonata  is  celebrated 
for  its  beautiful  columns; 

5.  the  present  valleys  are  of  much  more  recent  formation. 
The    gold,    with    the     minerals    accompanying    it;    pyrites, 

blende  and  tetrahedrite,  quartz,  dialogite,  calc-spar;  has  pene- 
trated into  the  fissures  and  rocks,  in  the  interval,  between  the 
formation  of  the  Eocene  sandstone,  and  the  eruption  of  the 
trachyte  or  timazite,  perhaps  during  its  eruption.  It  did  not 
penetrate  from  above,  but  from  below — in  what  form  of 
solution? — Here  as  little  known  as  elsewhere,  it  evidently 
arose  principally  within  the  limits  of  the  Csetatye-rock,  and 
spread  itself  out  from  this  as  from  a  centre,  penetrating  also 
into  the  neighboring  sandstone.  Was  the  penetration  of  this 
solution  a  consequence  of  the  previous  eruption  of  the  Csetatye- 
rock,  or  a  consequence  of  the  subsequent  upheaval  of  its  mass, 
already  hardened,  occurring  about  the  period  of  the  trachytic 
eruption? 

Since   in  the  neighborhood,    as    in   Hungary,  gold-ore-beds 


OFFENBANYA  ROCK.  277 

frequently  occur  together  with  trachytic  or  timazitic  rocks,  it  might 
be  supposed,  that  the  gold-region  of  Vorospatak  was  in  some 
way  connected  with  the  neighboring  trachytes,  or  timazites; 
still  this  cannot  be  recognised  from  any  outward  circumstances. 
It  is  however  probable,  that  the  peculiar,  partly  silicified,  partly 
decomposed,  condition  of  the  Csetatye-roqk,  is  also  a  consequence 
of  the  penetration  of  mineral  waters  or  vapors. 

OFFENBANYA. 

§  167.  Near  Offenbanya1  a  mountain-chain  rises  out  of 
the  Tertiary  sandstone  district  of  the  upper  Aranios,  which  is 
principally  composed  of  mica-schist.  This  schist  contains, 
southwardly  of  Offenbanya,  subordinate  layers  of  granular 
limestone;  and  is  traversed  by  a  porphyritic  rock,  which  I  no 
where  found  in  a  fresh  and  distinctly  recognisable  condition. 
Bielz,  who  took  part  in  the  geological  survey  of  the  Viennese 
Reichsanstalt  in  this  region,  called  it  greenstone-trachyte;  and 
thus  placed  it  in  the  group  of  igneous  rocks,  which  Breithaupt 
has  called  timazites.  Where  I  was  able  to  observe  the  rock, 
especially  on  the  rubbish-heaps  at  the  mouths  of  the  shafts,  it 
was  every  where  in  a  decomposed  state,  frequently  bleached 
almost  white,  commonly  containing  pyrites  disseminated  through 
it.  Those  portions  appeared  the  freshest,  which,  curiously 
enough,  occur  in  the  neighboring  limestone  of  the  mica-schist, 
and  are  entirely  enclosed  by  this  5  while  in  the  workings  of  the 
mines  I  visited,  the  limestone  never  comes  directly  in  contact  with 
the  greenstone-trachyte,  but  is  separated  from  it  by  the  mica-schist. 

It  appears  to  me  very  difficult,  and  from  the  few  observa- 
tions lying  before  me  impossible,  to  explain  these  enclosures  in 
the  limestone.  When  the  porphyritic  rock,  as  it  appears  to  do, 
traverses  the  mica-schist,  it  must  necessarily  be  more  recent 
than  this  and  the  embedded  limestone.  How  then  can  this  last 
contain  fragments  and  even  large  masses  of  the  same?  The 
only  explanation  is,  that  the  limestone  was  softened  and  in 
motion  during,  or  after,  the  eruption  of  porphyry;  so  that  it 
was  able  to  separate  and  enclose  fragments  of  the  greenstone- 
trachyte  (timazite).  This  is  certainly  a  hypothesis,  which 

1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  und  Siebenbiirg.  p.  81;  Bielz, 
in  Verhandlungen  u.  Mittheilungen  d.  Siebenbiirg.  Vereins  f.  Naturwissen- 
schaften  z.  Hermannstadt,  1860,  p.  167;  Hauer  u.  Fotterle,  Uebersicht 
der  Bergbaue,  1855,  p.  59. 


278  TELLURIC  VEINS,  OR  'CLEFTS,' 

cannot  be  farther  confirmed  by  the  local  conditions,  to  which 
I  have  been  led  by  the  analogous  case  at  Miltitz  in  Saxony, 
where  granular  limestone,  embedded  in  mica  and  hornblende- 
schist,  contains  fragments  of  the  ^granite  dikes  traversing  the 
schists.  At  Offenbanya  the  analogous  igneous  rocks  of  the 
neighborhood  are  of  more  recent  origin,  than  the  Eocene  sand- 
stones ;  so  that;  if  the  igneous  rock  of  Offenbanya  belongs  to  the 
same  period  of  formation,  the  limestone  may  first  have  been 
softened  in  the  Miocene  period.  It  is  useless  to  trouble  oneself 
with  the  explanation  of  geological  relations,  which  are  so  little 
known  as  these;  and  for  which  some  future  more  accurate 
examination  may  reveal  a  simple  explanation.  On  this  account 
I  pass  to  the  metalliferous  deposits,  which  occur  under  very 
peculiar  geological  conditions.  There  are  two  kinds,  which 
occur:  telluric  veins  in  igneous  rocks,  and  segregated 
masses  in  granular  limestone. 

1.  The  telluric  veins  (called  locally  'Clefts')  are  in  reality 
almost  only  clefts.  Fifteen  are  known,  within  the  ground  be- 
longing to  the  Franzisci  adit,  which  are  tolerably  parallel  to 
one  another,  strike  E.— W.  and  dip  30°— 40°  in  N.  They  have 
an  average  breadth  of  one  inch,  and  contain  locally  sylvanite, 
and  at  times  somewhat  of  native  gold.  Other  small  veins  in- 
tersect these,  containing  pyrites,  or  quartz  •  and  which  generally 
occasion  an  enrichment  at  the  point  of  intersection.  The  telluric 
ores  are  so  sparingly  distributed,  that  their  exploitation  is  ren- 
dered much  more  difficult,  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  Accord- 
ing to  the  statement  of  the  mining-officials,  the  state  of  de- 
composition of  the  country-rock  always  has  a  certain  relation  to 
the  contents  of  the  lodes:  they  are  the  richest  in  a  medium-hard, 
and  but  slightly  decomposed  rock,  less  rich  in  a  slightly,  or 
very  much  decomposed,  condition  of  the  wall-rock.  Both  can 
be  explained,  if  it  be  assumed  that  the  slight  decomposition 
comes  from  a  re-action  of  the  metalliferous  solutions,  which 
could  no  longer  penetrate,  where  an  extensive  decomposition  had 
already  taken  place.  The  principal  matrix  is  quartz  and  dialogite ; 
in  which  occur,  as  the  principal  ores,  nagyagite,  sylvanite,  and 
native  gold;  associated  with  which  are  iron  pyrites,  galena, 
blende,  stibnite,  native  silver,  and  pyrargyrite. 

Similar  telluric  veins  are  said  to  occur  in  the  neighboring 
property  of  the  Barbara  adit,  which  strike  N.  —  S.  and  dip 
in  W. 


AND  SEGREGATIONS.  279 

2.  Segregations.  The  same  adit,  which  has  opened-up 
the  tellurium  veins,  has  also  opened  the  neighboring  granular 
limestone,  in  which  two  segregated  masses  are  known  to  occur. 
Their  form  is  very  irregular,  with  a  curious  contour  of  surface. 
The  so-called  pyrites  segregation  consists  predominantly  of  iron 
pyrites,  with  somewhat  of  galena,  tetrahedrite,  and  blende; 
wrhich  are  accompanied  by  quartz,  and  calc-spar,  as  vein-stones. 
It  surrounds  a  large  rounded  mass  of  porphyry,  on  the  borders 
of  which  the  galena  has  principally  collected,  being  at  times  a 
foot  broad.  On  this  account  the  mass  of  porphyry,  several  feet 
wide,  is  operied-up,  and  laid  free,  on  nearly  its  whole  circum- 
ference, at  least  in  its  upper  portion. 

It  appears  to  be  an  entirely  separated  mass  of  porphyry, 
like  the  smaller  ones,  which  are  occasionally  found  here,  com- 
pletely surrounded  by  the  common  limestone,  and  then  surrounded 
also  by  narrow  zones  of  pyrites,  galena,  and  blende. 

The  second,  or  so-called  'Old  ore-segregation',  consists  prin- 
cipally of  dialogite  with  considerable  galena,  containing  but  little 
silver,  blende,  manganblende,  iron  pyrites,  and  tetrahedrite ; 
it  occasionally  also  contains  copper  pyrites.  Quartz  and  calc- 
spar  occur,  crystallized,  in  large  geodes.  The  minerals  fre- 
quently show  a  combed  texture  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
combs  form  irregular  ellipses;  portions  of  which  occasionally 
penetrate  the  limestone  in  such  a  manner,  that  small  handpieces 
of  the  same  might  be  easily  mistaken  for  portions  of  a  sym- 
metrically banded  vein  in  granular  limestone,  being  yet  in  reality 
portions  of  irregular  cockade  ores.  I  observed  on  such  a  hand- 
piece,  the  following  entirely  regular  arrangement  of  the  layers, 
from  the  exterior  limestone  towards  the  interior: 

1.  dialogite,  with  particles  of  manganblende; 

2.  three  thin   bands  of  light  gray  quartz,  separated  from 

each  other  by  still  thinner  layers  of  pyrites,  and  blende; 

3.  dialogite,  like  1; 

4.  a  very  thin  band  of  pyrites  and  blende; 

5.  white  calc-spar,  also  but  a  line  thick; 

6.  Pyrites,  and  blende,  like  4 ; 

7.  dialogite,   forming  the   nucleus,    with    a    little    pyrites, 

blende,   and  galena. 

This  so  peculiarly  composed  ore-deposit,  upwards  of  16 
fathoms  thick,  which  is  entirely  surrounded  by  limestone,  en- 
closes, like  the  previously  mentioned  segregration,  a  broad  mass 


280  NAGYAG  ROCKS, 

of  porphyry;  which  does  not,  however,  appear   to    have  exerted 
any  special  influence  on  the  distribution  of  ore. 

The  facts,  about  these  peculiar  and  irregular  collections  of 
ore,  are  too  little  known,  to  enaWe  me  to  express  a  definite 
opinion,  or  explanation  concerning  them.  These  segregations, 
appear  to  be  entirely  independent  of  the  entirely  differently 
composed  telluric  veins. 

NAGYAG. 

§  168.  The  mining  town  of  NagyagJ  lies  in  a  valley- 
gorge  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  great  trachytic  mountain- 
district,  which  is  here  known  by  the  name  of  Csetraser  Moun- 
tains. All  the  surrounding  mountains  are  here,  also,  composed 
of  the  trachytic-greenstone,  Breithaupt's  timazite.  These  rocks, 
around  Nagyag,  were  formerly  called  greenstone-porphyries. 
Baron  von  Hingenau  separated  these  into  several  varieties 
and  alterations  of  porphyry  and  trachyte:  and  also  mentioned 
the  occurrence  of  melaphyre,  and  quartz-porphyry.  He  states, 
that  the  greenstone-porphyries  occupy  the  under,  or  inner 
portion  of  the  mountains,  and  pass  in  an  upward,  and  outward 
direction,  into  trachytes.  He  sought,  in  a  more  recent  memoir, 
to  maintain  the  trachytic  nature  of  these  rocks,  against  the  ob- 
jections of  Grimm ;  and  proposed  the  name,  which  originated 
with  G.  Rose,  of  diorite-trachyte,  to  do  away  with  the  very  in- 
definite name  of  greenstone-porphyry.  The  cabinet-specimens, 
which  I  brought  with  me  from  Nagyag,  all  correspond  very 
decidedly  with  Breithaupt's  timazite.  In  my  opinion  the  name 
is  of  little  importance,  it  being  only  essential  that  they  should 
be  recognised  as  igneous  rocks,  composed  of  feldspar  and  am- 
phibole,  which  have  broken  through  eocene  sandstones,  and  argil- 
laceous shales.  They  recur  in  a  similar  manner,  traversed  by 
lodes,  at  Kapnik,  Felsobanya,  Nagybanya  and  Schemnitz ;  while 
similar  rocks  are  found  at  Vorospatak,  but  having  no  apparent 
connection  with  the  gold-veins.  These  rocks  occur  in  many 
varieties,  probably  caused  by  the  conditions  under  which  they 


1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerst.  in  Ungarn  u.  Sieberbtirg.  p.  85;  Hingenau, 
in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanst.  1857,  p.  82;  Grimm's  Geognosie  f.  Berg- 
manner,  1856,  p.  72,  and  following;  Zerrener,  in  Oesterreich.  Zeitschr.  f. 
Berg-  und  Hiittenw.  1855. 


AND  LODES.  281 

hardened;  but  it  is  not  always  possible  to  show,  what  these 
special  causes  were. 

Red  shaks  and  yellow  sandstones,  most  probably  Eocene, 
crop-out  beneath  these  rocks  in  the  valley-gorge  of  Nagyag. 
The  Franz  adit  has  opened  these  up,  for  a  long  distance, 
under  the  summit  of  the  timazitic  Calvary  Mountain,  until  they 
are  cut  off  by  the  timazite,  whose  limits  dip  very  steeply 
towards  N. 

Since  the  adit  has  not  intersected  any  prolongation  of  the 
Calvary-Mountains  timazite,  which  may  be  regarded  as  having 
been  the  special  channel  of  eruption;  it  must  therefore  be  pre- 
sumed, that  this  beautiful  cone,  together  with  many  other  similar 
ones  in  the  neighborhood,  were  not  each  formed  by  separate  vol- 
canic action,  but  are  the  conical  denuded  remains  of  one  im- 
mense overflow  of  lava.  The  crater  was  opened  by  the  adit 
somewhat  farther  to  the  North. 

The  lodes  of  Nagyag  are  only  known  to  exist  in  the  igneous 
rocks,  and  essentially  only  in  the  deeper  varieties,  called  by 
Von  Hingenau  greenstone  porphyries;  they  do  not  exist,  at 
least  not  so  as  to  be  exploitable,  in  the  upper,  more  trachytic 
rocks. 

The  lodes  are  auriferous  tellurium  ones.  They  strike  prin- 
cipally N. — S.  or  NW.~  SE.,  and  in  such  a  manner,  that  they 
converge  somewhat  in  their  course.  Their  dip  is  generally  very 
great.  The  lodes  are  said  to  contain  more  gold,  near  the  sur- 
face, than  in  the  depth;  a  circumstance,  which  agrees  with  the 
manifold  experiences  on  this  subject,  which  have  been  made 
in  this  relation  with  gold-veins.1  Their  breadth  is  gener- 
ally a  few  inches,  exceptionally  it  attains  5 — 6  feet.  They 
are  very  commonly  accompanied  by  a  breccia  in  their 
hanging-  or  foot-walls,  very  peculiar  in  its  occurrence,  which 
is  called  'Glauch'  by  the  miners.  It  consists  of  a  dark  matrix, 
formed  of  triturated  or  decomposed  particles  of  rock,  containing 
numerous  angular  fragments  of  various  kinds  of  clay-slate;  more 
rarely,  rounded  (perhaps  by  friction)  boulders  of  the  wall-rock 
are  also  found  in  it.  Whence  came  the  fragments  of  clay- slate? 
is  a  question  asked  in  vain.  This  breccia  attains  a  breadth  of 


1  It  appears  to  be  generally  the  case,  but  is  not  always  so,  that  gold- 
veins  decrease  in  richness  with  the  depth.  Exceptions  are,  many  of  the  mines 
in  the  Grass- Valley-district  in  California.  Trans. 


282  NAGYAG  LODES. 

over  6  feet,  and  branches  into  widely  extended  and  irregular 
side-fissures,  often  but  1  — 2  inches  broad  ;  this  is  a  very  remark- 
able manner  of  occurrence,  for  a  mechanically  formed  breccia, 
containing  numerous  fragments,  and  j&ere  and  there  boulders. 

The  matrix  of  the  lodes  proper  is  dialogite,  or  brown  spar  and 
calc-spar,  or  hornstone  and  quartz;  this  varies  in  the  different  lodes, 
and  in  the  different  portions  of  the  same  lode.  Through  these  vein- 
stones are  scattered  auriferous  telluric  ores  :  the  most  common  after 
these  are,  manganblende,  and  iron  pyrites;  the  last  has  frequently 
impregnated  the  country-rock  for  a  considerable  distance.  The 
following  are  the  chief  ores  exploited :  nagyagite,  sylvanite, 
native  gold,  auriferous  iron  pyrites,  argentiferous  tetrahedrite, 
native  silver,  and  galena.  Associated  with  these  are :  hessite, 
bournonite,  jamesonite,  heavy  spar,  blende,  stibnite,  arsenic, 
realgar,  orpiment,  silver -glance  (rare),  copper  pyrites,  marcasite, 
native  copper,  malachite,  pyrrhotine,  sulphur;  the  following  also 
are  said  to  have  occurred  formerly,  but  it  is  not  certain:  ara- 
gonite,  altaite,  erythrine,  eucairite,  asbolan,  pyrolusite,  smaltine, 
and  scorodite.  The  following  secondary  minerals  occur:  agal- 
matolith,  kaolin,  gypsum,  calamine,  pharmacolith,  copperas;  and 
(doubtful)  cerusite,  smithsonite,  keramohalite,  and  plumbo-resinite. 
No  combed  texture  can  be  observed;  very  commonly,  however, 
small  geodes,  in  which  are  found  crystallized  quartz,  and  dialogite. 

The  tellurium-lodes  of  Nagyag  evidently  have  a  considerable 
analogy  with  those  of  Offenbanya:  they  occur,  in  both  places, 
as  nearly  parallel,  narrow  fissures  in  an  igneous  rock  containing 
hornblende :  the  essential  difference  between  the  two  is,  that 
the  gang  of  Nagyag  consisting  of  dialogite,  brown  spar,  or 
quartz,  occurs  somewhat  more  massively;  but  this  quality  is 
wanting  at  Offenbanya. 

Von  Hingenau  relates,  that  according  to  a  manuscript  of 
Debreczenyi,  a  former  local  official,  very  remarkable  intersec- 
tions and  Enrichments  of  the  Nagyag  lodes  occur;  which,  as  I, 
unfortunately,  had  no  opportunity  myself  of  seeing  them,  I  can 
neither  confirm  nor  deny.  Von  Hingenau  himself  does  not  seem 
to  have  observed  them,  although  staying  at  Nagyag  for  two 
weeks.  The  officials,  who  accompanied  me  on  my  visits  to  the 
mines,  expressed  the  opinion,  that  such  appearances  occurred ; 
but  could  give  me  no  particulars  regarding  them.  If  I  rightly 
understand  von  Hingenau's  memoir,  the  following  are  the  most 
important  phenomena  he  observed: 


ENRICHMENT,  AND  INTERSECTION.  283 

1.  The  country-rock,   like   that  of  Offenbanya,   has  exerted 
an  unequal  influence   on   the  distribution  of  ores   in  the   veins, 
according  to   its   greater,    or  less   solidity   (freshness,    or  decom- 
position): the  lodes  appear  to  be  much  contracted  between  firm 
walls,    and   then   consist  of  barren   fissures;    between  less    firm 
ones,  they  widen  out  and  contain  ores;  in  a  soft  (much  decom- 
posed) rock,  they  branch,  contain  many  horses,  and  are  poorer. 

2.  The   intersections,    and  junctions,    are  just  the    contrary 
of  those  at  Offenbanya,  as  a  rule  containing  but  little  ore,  even 
though    both    lodes  were   rich    before    their    intersection.      The 
curious  circumstance  occurs,    that   small    side-branches   connect, 
alongside  of  the  junctions,  the  rich  portions  of  the  lodes. 

3.  These  side-veins  branch  off,  very  rich  in  ores,  from  the 
champion-lode,    and   again   unite    with   it,    while   the   lode  itself 
contains  no  ores  for  the  whole  extent  of  these  side-branches. 

4.  When  the   tellurium-lodes   are   intersected  by  clay-dikes, 
as   is  often  the  case;  they  are  often  faulted  by  them,   and  have 
the   peculiar   relation  of  retaining   their  whole    breadth,    in    the 
foot- wall  of  the  dike,  up  to  the  point  of  Contact ;  in  the  hanging- 
wall,  on  the  contrary,  they  consist  for  several  feet  merely  of  a 
thin  cleft,   and  only  regain  their  full   breadth   at  a  considerable 
distance. 

The  clay-dikes  appear  to  correspond  to  the  curious  breccia 

1  observed;  although  1  find  no  mention  of  this  in  von  Hingenau's 
paper. 

These  phenomena  of  enrichment,  and  intersection  (especially 

2  to   4),    mentioned    by   von    Hingenau,    are   partly   of   such   a 
peculiar  kind,    that   they  are,    up  to   the  present  time,    isolated 
cases,   appearing   even  to  contradict  all   previous    experience  on 
this    subject.     I   would,    on   this   account,    regard    them   as    the 
result  of  an  imperfect  examination,  if  I  had  any  right  to  do  so. 
But  I  have  the  less  right,  as  the  .veins  of  breccia,    which  I  ob- 
served, belong  to  one  of  the  most  abnormal. appearances,  which 
I  have  ever  seen  in  nature ;    since  they  contain  in  fissures,  fre- 
quently but  a  few  inches  broad,  fragments  of  a  clay-slate,  which 
has  not  been  observed   in  place,    together  with  a  few,    boulder- 
like,  rounded  portions  of .  the  adjoining  country-rock;    although 
Grimm,   indeed,    mentions    the    cropping-out  of   clay-slate,    with 
embedded   layers   of  limestone   and    gypsum   near   her£,    at   the 
village  of  Vermaga. 


284  BANAT,  AND  SERVIA. 

XV.     THE  BANAT,  AND  SERBIA. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  169.  The  geological  formation  of  the  Banat,  and  that 
portion  of  Servia  adjoining  it,  is  very  manifold ;  but  has  not  yet 
been  sufficiently  examined. 

Crystalline  schists,  and  granitic  rocks,  rising  to  high  moun- 
tains, are  surrounded  by  crystalline  schists,  sandstones,  lime- 
stones, and  argillaceous  rocks  of  the  Carboniferous,  Jurassic, 
Cretaceous  Periods.  Thick  Tertiary  deposits  are  found  in  the 
broad  valley-basins,  partly  containing  lignite,  partly  marine 
fossils.  The  crystalline  schists,  and  the  secondary  formations, 
are  traversed  by  porphyries,  syenites,  greenstones,  melaphyres, 
and  basalts;  while  they  contain  coal-deposits  of  very  different 
ages. 

The  geological  forriTation  of  Servia  is  still  less  known,  than 
that  of  the  Banat:  it  is  only  certain,  that  the  Danube,  though 
a  political  boundary,  is  not  here  a  geological  one. 

LUNKANY. 

§  170.  The  neighborhood  of  the  Baths  ofLunkany,  in  the 
northern  Banat,  consists  of  mica-schist  passing  into  chlorite 
schist,  and  clay-slate;  which  contain  numerous  crystalline  lime- 
stones, quartzites,  and  siliceous  slates,  embedded  in  them.  In 
this  district  excellent  hematite,  and  limonite,  partly  containing 
manganese,  are  exploited;  which  are  principally  combined  in  a 
peculiar  manner  with  the  limestones ;  since  they  form  altogether 
irregular  beds,  in  which  they  are  found,  as  irregular  nodules, 
or  masses,  in  brown  clay  or  ochreous  iron. 

Although  in  some  places  they  only  fill  depressions  in  the 
surface,  in  others  they  occur,  in  a  very  analogous  manner, 
irregularly  embedded  between  crystalline  schist  and  limestone. 
As  these  ore-pockets  evidently  fill  cavities  washed-out  in  the 
limestone,  they  must,  of  course,  be  of  a  more  recent  origin  than 
this,  and  the  schist  enclosing  it;  but,  of  what  age  they  are,  I 
am  unable  to  decide. 


LUNKANY. 


285 


The  two  accompanying  woodcuts  represent  two  cases  of 
this  diverse  manner  of  occurrence,  which  is  found  repeated 
with  innumerable  modifications. 


S.   So-called    silk-slate,  midway  between  clay-slate  and  mica-schist. 
K.  Fine-grained  limestone. 

E.  Iron  ore;  a  ferruginous  clay  containing  nodular  masses  of  limonite 
and  hematite. 

i  The  ironstone  is  at  times  more  brownish-red  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  schist,  nearer  black  and  containing  considerable 
manganese  near  the  limestone.  In  addition  to  the  nodular  iron, 
fragments  of  schist  occasionally  occur  in  the  clay;  and  on  the 
borders  of  the  limestone  the  deposit  frequently  passes  into  a  kind 
of  breccia,  of  limestone  fragments,  cemented  together  by  iron- 
ore  and  calc-spar.  Some  of  these  irregular  deposits  are  60 — 70 
fathoms  broad,  and  over  300  long.  They  must  generally  be 
called  secondary  contact-deposits;  being  secondary  in  so  far, 
that  they  only  fill  cavities  washed-out,  which  have  been  induced 
by  the  rock-limits. 


286  ORE-SEGREGATIONS. 


THE  BANAT  ORE-SEGREGATIONS. 

§  171.  The  mountain-chain,  traversing  the  Banat l  from 
North  to  South,  is  mostly  composed  of  deposits  belonging  to  the 
Jurassic,  and  Cretaceous  Periods;  which  overlie  crystalline  schists, 
and  are  broken  through,  on  the  almost  straight  western  wall  of 
the  mountains,  by  igneous  rocks ;  which  are  geologically  united, 
but  are  lithologically  very  different.  We  will  name  them  all 
collectively  Banatite,  for  the  sake  of  conciseness,  without  under- 
standing by  this  any  determined  rock. 

The  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  strata  are  mostly  of  a  cal- 
careous character;  but  the  lowest  members  (corresponding  to  the 
Lias)  contain  the  coal-basin  of  Steierdorf;  while  at  Reschitza, 
somewhat  farther  North,  the  true  Carboniferous  formation  crops- 
out  for  a  short  distance. 

The  Banatites  most  nearly  resemble  the  greenstones;  but 
at  times  approach  the  syenite,  or  a  hornblendic  quartz-porphyry. 
Their  separate  eruptions  lie  in  the  Banat,  one  behind  another, 
in  a  straight  line  from  North  to  South,  nearly  50  miles  long, 
on  the  western  mountain-wall.  They  can  be  followed  in  a 
southerly  direction  over  the  Danube  to  beyond  Kuczaina  in 
Servia;  to  the  North,  with  a  slight  change  in  their  direction, 
a£  far  as  Rezbanya  in  Hungary.  Throughout  their  whole  extent 
they  are  accompanied  by  irregular,  segregated  contact-ore- 
deposits  ;  which  consist  of  cupriferous  pyrites,  galena  and  blende, 
or  magnetic  iron,  locally  alternating,  and  accompanied  by 
numerous  other  minerals,. 

Where  these  Banatites  have  broken  through  the  Jura,  or 
Cretaceous  limestones;  these  last  are  generally  converted,  at  the 
junctions,  into  crystalline,  granular  marble,  with  considerable 
admixture  of  garnets,  at  times  almost  entirely  altered  into  garnet- 
rock.  Their  stratification  is  also  partly  destroyed,  and  the 
segregations  of  Neu  Moldova,  Szaszka,  Csiklova,  Oravicza, 
Dognacska,  Moravicza  and  Petris  in  the  Banat,  also  that  of 

1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  im  Banat  u.  Serbien,  1864,  p.  100; 
Schrockenstein,  Geognostische  Notizen  aus  dem  Banat,  1863;  Peters, 
Geologische  u.  mineralogische  Stjidien  aus  dem  sudostlichen  Ungarn,  1861; 
Von  Berg,  Aus  dem  Osten  der  osterreich.  Monarchic,  1860;  Von  Zepha- 
rovich,  Mineralogisches  Lexicon,  1859,  and  in  Oesterreich.  Zeitschr.  f.  Berg- 
u.  Hiittenwesen,  1857,  p.  12 ;  Brei  thaupt,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.,  1857,  p.  1. 


CONCLUSIONS.  287 

Rezbanya  in  Hungary,  and  Kuczaina  in  Servia,  are  principally 
found  at  the  limits  of  the  metamorphosed  limestone. 

It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  describe  in  detail  all 
the  contact-deposits  of  the  Banat;  the  translator,  therefore,  refers 
those  persons,  desirous  of  more  special  information,  to  the 
Author's  work  on  the  same,  which  was  published  in  Vienna  in 
1864,  under  the  title  'Erzlagerstatten  im  Banat  und  Serbien7; 
and  confines  himself  to  extracts  from  the  chief  conclusions 
arrived  at. 

1.  A  zone  of  igneous  rocks,    150 — 200  miles  long,    can  be 
followed  in  a  N. — S.  direction  through  the  whole  of  the  Banat, 
and   extending   into   Hungary,   and   Servia:    they  do   not   every 
where  reach  the  present  surface,  but  still  in  many  places. 

2.  The  separate  localities,  where  they  occur,  appear  to  form 
the  fillings  of  an  uncompleted  fissuring,  and  consequently  to  repre- 
sent, in  common,  a  broad  igneous  dike,  whose  separate  portions 
are  not  connected  at  the  level  of  the  present  surface. 

3.  These  igneous  rocks  are  certainly  of  more  recent  origin, 
than  the  Jura  formation,  and  probably  also  than  the  Cretaceous 
deposits  of  this  region :  they  have  broken  through,  and  frequently 
much  metamorphosed  the  same  in  many  places. 

4.  The  nature  of  these    igneous  rocks,    which  I  have  com- 
prised  under  the  common   name  of  Banatite,   is  very    variable. 
They  vary,  in  their  composition,- between  syenite,  diorite  (tima- 
zite),  minette,  granitic  porphyry,  and  feldstone ;  in  their  texture, 
between  crystalline  granular,  porphyritic  with  granular  or  com- 
pact  matrix,   and  almost   entirely    compact.     In   the   amount   of 
silicic  acid  they  contain,  they  form  a  transition   from   distinctly 
basic  to  acidic  igneous  rocks,  but  only  attain  the  level  of  gray 
gneiss. 

Geologically  all  these  various  kinds  of  rocks  belong  together; 
they  are  only  modifications  of  one  igneous  mass. 

5.  It  appears   in   the  Banat,    as   in   many   other    localities; 
that    the    mineralogical,    like    the    chemical    composition,     and 
the   texture,   of  the   igneous  rocks,    is  very   independent  of  the 
period  of  their  origin ;    that  many  rocks  might  be    contempora- 
neously formed  from  the  same  mass  by  peculiar  subordinate  cir- 
cumstances,  which  are  distinguished  from  one   another  by  their 
texture,  mixture,  and  chemical  composition ;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,   almost   entirely  similar   igneous   rocks  have  been  formed 


288  BANATITE. 

at  similar   epochs.     This  is  a  point  to  which  I  have   frequently 
,  called   attention  in  my  lithology. 

6.  It  is  not  improbable,  that  the  Banatites  belong  geologically 
.to   the  variety  of  diorites,   or  greenstones,    called  by  Breithaupt 
timazite,  which  occurs  very  widely  extended  in  Servia,  Tran- 
sylvania,   and  Hungary.      It  is   frequently   accompanied  by  ore- 
deposits;  and  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  Tertiary  deposits, 
generally  traverses  them. 

7.  These   igneous   rocks  (Banatites)    are   generally,    though 
not  always,   accompanied  at   their  limits,    especially   where  they 
traverse  limestone,  by  striking  contact-phenomena,  which  consist 
in  changes  in  their  condition  of  aggregation,  or  in  the  formation 
of  certain  minerals   (garnet-rock):    besides  this   they  are  accom- 
panied   by    ore-deposits   of   irregular   form,    rich  in    sulphurets, 
magnetite,  and  their  products  of  metamorphosis. 

8.  The  character  of  these  ore-deposits   is  in  many   respects 
a  uniform  one,  but  dissimilar  ores  and  minerals  predominate  in 
different  localities. 

9.  We  must  separate  the  contact-formations  proper,  consist- 
ing  of  mixtures   of  garnet,   calc-spar,   wollastonite,    vesuvianite, 
and  amphibole  (which  I  call  garnet-rock),  from  the  ore-deposits, 
which  are  of  more  recent  and   other   origin.     The   ore-deposits 
are  subdivided  into  original  (chiefly  sulphurets),  and  products  of 
decomposition  and  metamorphosis  (limonite,  calamine,  etc.). 

10.  These   three     categories   of   deposits    are    evidently    of 
very   dissimilar,   and   not  contemporaneous  formation;    still  they 
pass  into  one    another.     The    original   ores   are   ramified  in   the 
true  contact-formations.     The   regions  of  decomposition    are  not 
distinctly  limited,  but  have  penetrated  to  very  variable  depths,  and 
have  advanced  unequally,  with  regard  to  the  separate  minerals. 
They  are  also  not   the  result  of  a  simple  event,    but  the  result 
of  a  metamorphosis,  now  more  catogene,  then  more  anogene,1 
extending  over  a  long  period. 

11.  Since    the    numerous    minerals,    which    occur   in    these 
three  kinds  of  deposits,   all  belong  together  geologically,   I  will 


1  Catogene  signifies  the  transmutations  which  have  taken  place  in  the 
interior  of  the  earth  with  exclusion  of  the  atmospheric  air  (for  which  defi- 
nition Lyell's  hypogene  has  really  priority);  anogene  means  the  transmutations, 
which  proceed  from  the  exterior  towards  the  interior  under  the  influence  of 
air  and  water.  Trans. 


BANATITE  MINERALS.  GARNET-ROCK.  289 

comprise  the  minerals  observed  at  the  various  localities  together, 
arranged  according  to  the  threefold  nature  of  the  deposits,  in 
order  to  give  a  general  mineralogical  and,  to  a  certain  degree, 
also  chemical  view  of  the  composition  of  the  same. 

12.  The  true  contact-deposits  contain,  as  original  minerals, 
that    is;    probably    by    the    contact    of  the   Banatites    with    the 
limestone : 

1.  Garnet; 

2.  Wollastonite ; 

3.  Malacolith,  as  substitute  for  2; 

4.  Tremolith,  and  asbestos; 

5.  Actinolith; 

6.  Vesuvianite; 

7.  Mica  (green); 

8.  Calc-spar  (frequently  blue): 

according  to  G.  Leonhard,  also  hypersthene;  and,  as  doubt- 
ful in  regard  to  the  manner  of  formation,  analcime,  apophyllite, 
and  stilbite. 

These  minerals  form  irregular  crystalline  masses,  which  I 
have  called  garnet-rock;  they  are,  probably,  for  the  most  part, 
the  results  of  the  combination  of  the  lime  in  the  limestone  with 
the  silicates  of  the  Banatites,  by  melting  under  a  high  pressure, 
and  subsequent  very  gradual  cooling-off  in  enclosed  places. 
These  minerals  contain  the  following  chemical  elements :  silicium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  aluminium,  iron,  carbon,  and  oxygen. 

With  the  preceding,  occur  as  secondary  penetrations,  or 
products  of  metamorphosis,  in  the  true  contact-deposits ;  epidote, 
quartz,  agalmatolith,  steatite,  serpentine,  chlorite,  szaibelyite, 
magnetite,  pyrites,  galena,  blende,  and  their  products  of  decom- 
position. 

13.  The  ore-deposits,  which  were  evidently  deposited,  after 
the  Banatites  had  solidified,  from  solutions  in  accidentally  exist- 
ing cavities;  or  such  as  were  excavated  by  the  solutions  them- 
selves; contain,  as  probably  belonging  to  their  original  condition: 


290 


MINERALS  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS,  AND 


Minerals  .of  the 
Ore-Deposits.1 

1 

N 

& 

J-i    N 

(**\    ert 

M   « 

Oravicza. 

Csiklova. 

ii 

33 

M 
1 

|| 

Kuczaina. 

i* 

oS    a. 

Gold  

4_ 

4. 

J? 

Arsenic     ... 

I 

i 

(  Bismuth) 

,,        V 

I 

Tetradymite  

4- 

Bismuthine    

4- 

1 

, 

- 

Silver  Glance 

**"• 

"^ 

Galena  

4- 

4_ 

4. 

4- 

i 

Stromeyerite    ..... 

+ 

~^~ 

' 

Copper  Glance    .  ,V"i-, 
Digenite    
Molybdenite 

4- 



4- 

+ 
4. 

— 

4- 

4- 
4. 

4- 

— 



Stibnite    

, 

4_ 

Hessite    

4_ 

~^~ 

Erubescite     
Copper  Pyrites    .  . 
Iron  Pyrites   .  .  ..'';> 
Pyrrhotine     .  .  .  .'  .     • 

4- 

4- 

4- 
4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 
4- 
4- 

4- 
4- 

4- 
4. 

4- 

4- 
4- 

Blesde 

4_ 

4_ 

-4- 

I 

Mispickel    

i 

4. 

Tetrahedrite  . 

4. 

+" 

4. 

f-i-l 

, 

i 

Rezbanyite    

4- 



Realgar          . 

. 

Orpiment    



_L 

Glaucodote    
Copper  Nickel    .... 
Magnetite     ....  ."•• 
Hematite 

4- 

4- 

4_ 

+ 
4- 

— 

ff) 

(+) 

f^-i 

:  

4- 
•1- 

Psilomelane  
Pyrolusite  

— 

- 

— 

— 

+ 

— 

Quartz  ......  *;»•%.* 
Calc-spar    . 

4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 
J_ 

4- 

+ 
4- 

4- 
•4_ 

4- 

_(_ 

4- 

4_ 

4- 
-I- 

Dolomite    'v  »  - 

4- 

' 



Spathic  Iron    
Heavy  Spar  
Fluor  Spar    

4- 

— 

4- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

(Orthoclase)  . 







(4-) 











The  mixture  of  these  minerals  is  very  irregular:  generally 
one  or  two,  of  those  printed  in  coarser  type,  locally  predominate, 
and  determine  the  technical  character  of  the  deposits.  The  fol- 
lowing;  are  the  essential  chemical  elements  they  contain: 


1.  Iron, 

2.  Copper, 

3.  Lead, 

4.  Zinc, 

5.  Arsenic; 

6.  Silver; 

7.  Gold; 

8.  Bismuth ; 


predominant ; 


9.  Cobalt; 

10.  Nickel; 

11.  Tellurium ; 

12.  Manganese; 

13.  Antimony; 

14.  Molybdenum ; 

15.  Sulphur  (considerable) ; 

16.  Selenium  (traces); 


1  A  4-  denotes  the  presence,  a  —  the  absence  of  the  mineral;  when  in 
parenthesis,  it  signifies,  only  mentioned  in  Schrockenstein's  manuscript. 


IN  REGIONS  OF  DECOMPOSITION. 


291 


17.  Carbon; 

18.  Oxygen; 

19.  Hydrogen; 

20.  Silicium; 


21.  Calcium; 

22.  Magnesium; 

23.  Barium; 

24.  Fluorine: 


Consequently,  about  one  third  of  the  elements  known  to 
exist.  In  those  portions  of  the  ore-deposits,  where  decomposition 
had  taken  place,  were  found: 


Minerals  in  the 
Regions  of  Decomposi- 
tion of  the  Ore-Deposits. 

Rezbanya. 

^  a 

II 

«• 

«aO^ 

o  g 

Q  § 

Oravicza. 

Csiklova. 

Szaszka. 

c* 
3  o 

*1 

Kuczaina. 

J* 

Silver    v.  .  .  .  ;  .  .;  .  . 
Copper  . 
Tile  Ore  

+ 
+ 

4- 

— 

+ 

-h 
+ 
4- 

— 

+ 

+ 

— 

— 

Red  Copper  
Covelline    ....... 

— 

+ 

— 

+ 

+ 

— 

i 

Hematite       .  . 

4- 

4- 

Limoni  te         .      .  . 

4- 

4_ 

4_ 

4_ 

4- 

4_ 

l_ 

i 

Melaconite 

4_ 

+, 

Minium 

-4- 



Bismuth  Ochre  .... 
Psilomelane  ... 

H- 

— 

— 

_ 

4- 

— 

— 

— 

Pyrolusite  .  
Wad  

— 

— 

+ 
4- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Quartz 

4- 

4__ 

-J. 

4- 

(Chalcedony)    

(4.) 

(4-y 

(+) 

Bole  

4- 

(4-i 

Calamine     

4- 

1 

4- 

4- 

f-h) 

i- 

Chrysocolla   . 

4_ 

.  i... 

4. 

Opal   

-|- 

4- 

Calc-spar    

4- 

|_ 

4- 

4- 

4- 

L. 

Aragonite  

-j_ 

T4-) 

+' 

Smithsonite 

_4_ 

Cerusite   

4- 

4. 

4- 

j. 

Malachite   

4- 

+' 

4_ 

_1_ 

4. 

+L 

Azurite 

-4- 

1 

i 

4_ 

+' 

(Plumbic  Ochre)    .  .  . 
Buratite  

_i_ 

— 

(+) 

— 

— 

— 

Wulfenite   . 

_i_ 

4. 

Crocoite 

_i_ 

Pyromorphite         .  .  . 

_u 

4_ 

4_ 

Thrombolith 

4_ 

Phosphorchalcite  .  .  . 
Tyrolite    

+ 
-1- 

•^   ' 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Gypsum 

\. 

+' 

i_ 

Brochantite      .      .  . 

4, 

Cyanosite 

+' 

(\\ 

/4_\ 

1 

+: 

Copperas     

\  1  / 

+' 

+. 

Goslarite 

Linarite 

Caledonite  

_|_. 

Leadhillite    

_|_ 

Anglesite    

_i_ 

4_ 



Allophane 

4. 

Lettsomite  

_i_ 

4. 

4- 

4- 

Erythrine    

— 

„.. 

+ 

— 

— 

— 

19* 


292 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS. 


Minerals  in  the 
Regions  of  Decomposi- 
tion of  the  Ore-Deposits. 

Rezbanya. 

o  N 

,     d 
faJC-* 
O    g 

a 

Oravicza. 

Csiklova. 

I 

. 
1 

Neu 
Moldova. 

Kuczaina. 

Q 

Marcasite      

-4- 

Kaolin  







_ 

_ 

, 



(Talc)    

__ 

/i-v 



_ 



Lithomarge    



-j- 

Steatite 



-\- 

Chlorite    
Epidote    *  . 

~ 

— 

+ 

~ 

— 

— 

— 

- 

Apophyllite    .  .  .  .  «T; 
Chabazite      .        .  .'  . 

~ 

__ 

(  +  ) 

— 

— 

-\- 

— 

,— 

— 

Stilbite          .'•"       .   "i. 

(4-) 

(Analcime)    . 







_ 





(-H 





These  minerals  contain,  in  agreement  with  the  original  ore- 
deposits,  the  following  chemical  elements: 


1.  Iron; 
2    Copper; 

3.  Lead; 

4.  Zinc; 

5.  Silver; 

6.  Arsenic; 

7.  Bismuth; 

8.  Cobalt; 

9.  Manganese; 


10.  Molybdenum; 

11.  Sulphur  (much  less); 

12.  Carbon; 

13  Oxygen  (more); 

14  Hydrogen  (more); 

15.  Silicium; 

16.  Calcium;  ^ 

17.  Magnesium. 


From  this  it  appears,  that  gold,  tellurium,  selenium,  nickel, 
barium,  and  fluorine,  are  wanting. 
To  these  have  been  added: 

18.  Aluminium;  j     21.  Chlorine; 

19.  Strontium  (in  aragonite?);         22.  Phosphorus: 

20.  Chromium; 

which  were  probably,  in  part,  concealed  in  the  original  minerals, 
or  in  the  country-rock. 

14.  All  these  ore-deposits  occur,  in  irregular  forms,  on  the 
borders,    or  at   least  near   the  limits,    of  the  igneous   rocks;    in 
great  part  in  the  limestone,  but  also  at  the  contact  of  the  lime- 
stone and  mica-schist.     Impregnations   are   frequently    combined 
with  these.     Regular  beds  and  lodes  are  entirely  wanting. 

15.  The  irregular  form  was  here,  also,  evidently  caused  by 
the  predominance  of  peculiar  circumstances.     These    were   pro- 
bably:  first,   irregular  cavities  and  fissures,   which  were  formed 
by  mechanical  forces  at  the  period  the  Banatites  broke  through ; 
secondly,  local  dissolutions  and  excavation  of  the  limestone,   by 
the   same   solutions   from   which   the   ores   were   deposited;    and 


CHARACTERISTICS.  293 

thirdly,  subsequent  upheavals  and  subsidences,  by  which  breccias 
were  formed. 

16.  The  solutions    (in  their  underground  courses,    probably 
warm  mineral  springs)  may  have  been  subsequent  effects  of  the 
same  plutonic  action,  by  which  the  Banatites  were  forced  to  the 
surface. 

17.  The  commencement  of  their  formation  can,  at  the  earliest, 
have  been  during  the  Cretaceous  Period  5  their  completion,  pro- 
bably, took  a  long  period  of  time,  and  during  this  the  alterations 
and  decompositions    had   already   begun   in    many   places,    from 
which    it    becomes    difficult    to    sharply    separate    the    original 
minerals  from  those  formed  by  alteration. 

So  much  the  more  difficult  is  it,  when,  during  the  period 
of  formation,  changes  of  level,  overlyings,  and  erosions,  continued 
in  such  a  manner,  that  the  same  region  was  subjected,  now  to 
catogene,  then  to  anogene  transmutations;  as  Peters  has 
shown  to  have  been  probably  the  case  at  Rezbanya. 

18.  The   geological    connection  of  all  these   deposits,    in  a 
zone  over  150  miles  long,   is  not  without   practical    importance. 
It   may  be  supposed   from  this,    that  the  intervals,   between  the 
ore-districts  of  the  Banat  already  discovered,    also  contain    ore- 
deposits  at  some  depth,  and  in  all  probability  less  altered,   pre- 
dominantly composed  of  sulphurets.     Whether  they  are  attainable 
for  mining   purposes  is  a  question,   that    can   only  be   answered 
by  practical  experience  in  the  various  cases. 

19.  The   characteristics  of  these   ore-deposits   may   be    con- 
cisely described  as  follows: 

a.  Form:  irregular  (segregations  and  impregnations),  neither 
beds  nor  veins; 

b.  Contents:  sulphurets  predominate,  combined  with  quartz 
and  calc-spar;    heavy  spar  and  fluor   spar  are  very  rare;    near 
the  surface  numerous  products  of  decomposition; 

c.  Occurrence:      at     the     contact     of     dissimilar     rocks, 
especially  of  the  limestone; 

d.  Predominant  direction:  North-South; 

e.  Age:  Cretaceous  or  Eocene  Period. 

20.  The  ore-deposits,  here  described,    agree  in   their   geolo- 
gical occurrence,  their  form  and  composition,    most  nearly  with 
those  of  Bogoslowsk   in  the  Urals;   somewhat   less  exactly   with 
those   of  Schwarzenberg   in  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge,    Rochlitz  in 
Bohemia,  Offenbanya  in  Transylvania,  Chessy  near  Lyons,  Rio- 


294  HUNGARY.  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

Tinto  in  Spain,  the  Apuanian  Alps,  Christiania  in  Norway,  and 
Tunaberg  in  Sweden.  These  may  properly  all  be  considered 
as  forming  a  class  of  contact:deposits. 


XVI.  HUNGARY. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  172.  Hungary  forms  a  large  basin  surrounded,  to  the 
East,  North,  and  West,  by  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  and  to 
the  South  by  spurs  of  the  Alps.  It  is  composed  of  the  Neu- 
rader  Mountains,  and  the  Bakony  Forest;  and  is  divided  by 
a  range  of  heights,  whose  axis  is  from  NE.  to  SW.  into  two 
unequal  portions;  the  larger  of  these  is  the  great  Theis-basin, 
the  smaller,  the  basin  of  Comorn.  The  flat  bottom  of  both 
these  basins,  only  slightly  undulating  towards  the  edges,  consists 
of  recent,  Diluvial,  and  Tertiary  strata,  without  ore-deposits. 
Numerous  ones,  on  the  contrary,  are  found  in  the  northern 
mountainous  portion,  united  to  the  North  Carpathians,  which 
has  a  very  varied  composition,  consisting  of  crystalline  schists, 
silurian  strata,  granites,  greenstones,  porphyries,  trachytic  and 
basaltic  rocks:  an  unequally  greater  variety,  than  is  shown  by 
the  principal  chain  of  the  Carpathians,  of  which  this  is  a  spur. 
We  have  already  become  acquainted  with  the  Eastern  edge  of 
the  basin,  as  belonging  to  Transylvania,  and  the  Banat.  The 
mountains  rising  southerly  of  both  the  basins,  consist  in  great 
part  of  sedimentary  limestones,  without  igneous  rocks;  they  have 
only  been  very  slightly  examined,  but  appear  to  contain  but 
few  ore-deposits. 

SCHEMNITZ.1 

§  173.  The  mining  town  of  Schemnitz,  which  lies  in  the 
upper  portion  of  the  valley  of  the.  same  name,  is  surrounded  by 

1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  und  Siebenbiirg.  p.  28; 
Breithaupt,  in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1861,  p.  51;  Faller,  in  Berg-  u. 
Hiittenm.  Jahrb.  d.  k.  k.  Schemnitzer  Bergakademie,  vol.  VIII.  p.  1; 


SCHEMNITZ.  295 

tolerably  high  mountains.  These  mountains  consist  of  a  crys- 
talline rock,  which  is  commonly  called  greenstone,  and  has  in 
fact  much  in  common  with  the  greenstones  of  other  regions. 
The  Schemnitz  greenstone  passes,  towards  the  North  and  South, 
so  gradually  into  a  trachytic  rock  containing  hornblende,  that 
a  sharp  line  cannot  be  drawn  between  the  two.  On  this  account 
the  Schemnitz  rock  is  generally  called  a  trachytic  greenstone, 
or  a  trachyte  resembling  greenstone.  This  occurs  repeatedly  in 
Hungary,  and  Transylvania:  we  shall  become  better  acquainted 
with  similar  rocks  near  Nagybanya,  Felsobanya,  and  Kapnik; 
at  those  places,  as  at  Schemnitz,  and  Kremnitz,  traversed  by 
gold-veins. 

Breithaupt  has  rather  lately  discovered,  that  the  Hungarian 
greenstone,  that  of  Schemnitz  also,  generally  contains,  instead 
of  the  common  hornblende,  a  new  species  of  black  amphibole, 
which  he  has  called  gamsigradite,  from  the  locality  where 
first  discovered  (Gamsigrad  in  Servia).  This  hornblende  occurs 
intimately  combined  with  a  feldspar,  probably  labradorite  or 
albite ;  somewhat  of  mica,  magnetite,  and  iron  pyrites,  occur  as 
subordinate  minerals.  He  called  the  rock  Timazite,  from  the 
Roman  name  for  Gamsigrad  (Timacum  minus).  This  timazite 
must  be  joined  to  the  diabase,  diorite,  hyperite,  and  gabbro, 
which  are  collectively  called  greenstones,  and  whose  compact 
varieties  are  generally  called  aphanite  and  melophyre.  Baron 
Richthofen  thinks,  that  all  the  more  recent  igneous  rocks  of 
Hungary  can  be  most  suitably  divided  into  three  groups:  viz. 

1.  Trachytes  resembling  greenstone,  corresponding  to  Breit- 
haupt's  timazite; 

2.  Basic  trachytes,  or  trachytes  proper,  frequently  containing 
oligoclase  in  place  of  sanidine; 

3.  Trachytic   porphyries,    containing  the   most   silicic    acid*, 
and,  according  to  Richthofen,   the  most  recent  of  these  rocks. 

These  distinctly  crystalline  greenstones,  or  timazites,  of 
Schemnitz  are  bounded  to  the  Southeast,  according  to  von 
Pettko's  map  and  description,  by  greenstone-  and  trachyte-tufa 


and  Oesterreich.  Zeitschr.  f.  Berg-  u.  Huttenw.  1861,  p.  5;  Richthofen,  in. 
Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanst.  vol.  X.  p.  67;  Pettko,  in  Abhandlungen  d.  geo- 
logisch.  Reichsanst.  1853,  vol.  II.  No.  1;  Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Ueber- 
sicht  d.  Bergbaue,  p.  53;  Rivot,  and  Duchanoy,  in  Annales  des  mines, 
1853,  vol.  III.  p  68. 


296  GROUPS  OF  LODES  IN 

deposits,  which  contain^  near  Kibnik  and  Steplitzhof,  imprints 
of  the  leaves  of  Dicotyledons,  as  well  as  traces  of  lignite;  while 
near  Eisenbach  they  overlie. a  limestone-conglomerate  containing 
nummulites;  consequently  they  musf*  be  more  recent  than  the 
Eocene.  Since  the  greenstones  are  most  intimately  combined 
with  their  tufa-deposits,  and  both  are  very  probably  of  contempo- 
raneous origin;  while,  also,  the  Schemnitz  lodes 'traverse  the 
greenstone  (timazite);  it  follows,  that  these  lodes  must  also  be 
of  more  recent  age  than  the  Eocene.  This  result  is  more 
completely  confirmed  by  the  lodes  at  Felsobdnya,  Kapnik,  and 
Nagyag;  where  like  greenstones,  traversed  by  the  lodes,  have 
evidently  burst  through  the  Eocene  series ;  near  Olahlaposbanya, 
where  a  broad  lode  traverses  Eocene  sandstone;  and  at  Voros- 
patak,  where  a  portion  of  the  gold-veins  also  occurs  in  Eocene 
sandstone.  All  these  lodes,  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania, 
appear  therefore  to  belong  to  the  Tertiary  Period,  and  Miocene 
Epoch. 

At  Schemnitz  the  trachytic  greenstone  overlies  a  "district 
consisting  of  granite,  syenite,  and  gneiss;  and  surrounds  it 
on  nearly  every  side,  like  a  ring,  while  it  is  surrounded  and 
overlaid  in  turn  by  trachyte.  The  central  granite-region  is  tra- 
versed by  the  Hodritsch  lodes.  In  addition  to  these,  sedimen- 
tary limestones,  and  slates,  of  probable  Triassic  age,  occur  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Schemnitz,  as  well  as  trachytic  porphyry,  pum- 
ice, and  tripoli ;  which  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  lodes. 
A  few  caps  of  basalt  occur  scattered  through  the  region. 

Two  groups  of  lodes  occur  in  the  Schemnitz  district:  viz. 

1.  at  Schemnitz,  in  greenstone  (timazite); 

2.  at  Hodritsch,  in  gneiss — granite — syenite. 

The  Schemnitz  lodes  all  strike  almost  parallel  to  one 
another,  SW. — NE.,  and,  with  but  a  single  exception,  dip  toward 
SE.  The  Hodritsch  lodes  have  no  such  constancy  of  strike  and  dip. 

The  Schemnitz  lodes  are  mostly  quite  broad,  attaining  in 
some  places  a  breadth  of  20  fathoms.  When  of  such  consider- 
able breadth,  they  principally  consist  of  more  or  less  decom- 
posed wall-rock,  or,  more  correctly  expressed,  of  a  series  of 
fissures  and  branches,  between  which  the  country-rock  is  often 
changed  into  a  soft,  even  claylike,  mass.  But  the  separate 
leaders  of  the  lodes,  consisting  of  gangstones  and  ores,  also, 
often  attain  a  considerable  breadth,  being  occasionally  over  a 
fathom  broad.  The  decomposed  rock  between  the  related  fis- 


SCHEMNITZ-DISTRICT.  297 

sures,  which  are  considered  as  forming  a  lode,  is  frequently  so 
impregnated  with  ores,  that  it  can  be  worked  in  the  stamping- 
mills;  thus  justifying  its  being  considered  a  portion  of  the  vein. 
The  matrix  of  the  separate  champion-lodes  is  not  always  the 
same,  but  in  ajl  of  them  the  predominating  vein-stone  is  quartz 
in  its  various  forms;  while  the  ores  are  principally  silver  glance, 
galena,  and  pyrites. 

The  separate  lodes,  following  them  from  SE.  to  NW.  are 
the  following:  I  have  filled  out  my  personal  observations  with 
Faller's  concise  description. 

The  Griiner  lode  strikes  NE.—  SW.,  dips  80°  in  SE.  and 
is  6  fathoms  broad.  Its  matrix  is  principally  an  adhesive  white 
clay,  which  probably  originated  from  decomposed  country-rock, 
and  quartz.  Both  frequently  have  iron  pyrites  disseminated 
through  them,  which  probably  contain  somewhat  of  gold.  This 
matrix  is  penetrated  by  irregular  threads  of  quartz,  containing 
iron  pyrites,  silver  glance,  argentiferous  galena,  and  somewhat 
of  ruby  silver.  Fragments  of  the  country-rock  are  occasionally 
found,  surrounded  by  crystalline  quartz:  which  contains,  at 
slight  distances  from  the  fragment,  and  parallel  to  its  general 
contour,  small  ribbons  of  ore,  or  impregnations,  having  the 
appearance  of  ring-ores.  The  same  quartz  frequently  fills  the 
smaller  cracks  in  the  fragments,  and  cements  them  together. 
In  other  places,  the  very  irregularly  distributed  quartz  contains 
silver  glance,  galena,  and  pyrites,  unequally  divided  through  it. 
These  ore-strikes  form  chimneys,  which  are  nearly  perpendicular. 
The  Griiner  lode  is  accompanied  by  four  small  veins,  which  in 
part  intersect  and  fault  it.  The  same  passes  southwesterly,  out 
of  the  greenstone,  into  a  Tertiary  coal-deposit;  where,  being 
barren,  it  has  not  been  followed  for  any  distance. 

Faller  has  recently  described  an  interesting  occurrence 
of  quartz-pebbles  in  this  lode.  They  appear  to  occupy  a  very 
confined  portion,  from  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  at  least  155 
fathoms,  attain  a  diameter  of  4  inches,  and  consist  of  quartz; 
in  which,  remarkably  enough,  traces  of  galena  and  blende 
occur.  These  ores  are  foreign  to  the  Griiner  lode,  but  occur 
in  the  Spitaler  and  Theresia  veins,  which  crop  out  to  the  surface 
higher  up  the  mountain  sides.  From  which  it  appears,  as  if 
the  pebbles  came  from  a  partial  erosion  of  these  veins,  and 
have  been  washed  from  the  surface  into  open  portions  of  the 
fissures  in  the  Griiner  lode.  If  this  be  true,  great  changes,  in 


298  SEPARATE  LODES. 

the  contour  of  the  surface,  must  have  taken  place  since  the  for- 
mation of  the  lodes ;  and  the  present  outcroppings  cannot  be  the 
original  ones. 

The  Stephan  lode;  lies  150  fathdms  northwesterly  of  the  last, 
strikes  nearly  parallel  to  it,  and  is  almost  perpendicular.  It 
contains  clay  and  quartz,  in  which  occur:  polybashe,  silver 
glance,  silver,  and  argentiferous  iron  pyrites;  which  last  has  at 
times  impregnated  the  country  to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  Johann  lode  is  like  the  preceding,  and  contains: 
amethyst,  calc-spar,  brown  spar,  dialogite,  polybasite,  and  some- 
what of  galena.  Its  mass  frequently  contains  geodes.  The 
galena  is  said  to  en  crease  towards  the  Southwest. 

The  Spitaler  lode,  strikes  nearly  parallel  to  the  preceding 
lodes,  but  dips  only  45  °  at  the  surface,  at  a  greater  depth  70  ° 
in  SE.  It  is  known  to  extend  a  distance  of  4l/2  miles.  It 
attains  a  breadth  of  18  fathoms.  Within  this  considerable  length 
its  matrix  does  not  remain  constant.  To  the  Northwest,  reddish 
quartz,  hornstone,  amethyst,  and  auriferous  (so-called)  Zinopel, 
with  galena,  blende,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  predominate ;  which 
frequently  enclose  decomposed  fragments  of  the  country-reck. 
To  the  Southwest  the  matrix  is  more  argillaceous,  containing 
auriferous  silver-ores.  It  is  stated,  that  the  quantity  of  gold 
decreases,  while  that  of  galena  encr eases,  with  the  depth. 

It  appears,  that  the  gold  chiefly  occurs  in  the  so-called 
Zinopel;  which  is  a  brownish-red  mass  consisting  principally  of 
silicic  acid  and  peroxide  of  iron,  and  deserves  a  more  exact 
chemical  examination.  According  to  the  accounts  of  some  of 
the  mining  officials,  a  green  auriferous  substance  frequently  ac- 
companies the  Zinopel.  Cinnabar  occurs,  as  a  rarity,  in  py- 
ritous  quartz.  A  peculiar  fibrous,  yellow  alum  has  been  found 
in  the  amygdaloidal  cavities  of  the  greenstone  impregnated 
with  ores. 

The  Theresia  lode  occurs  in  the  highest  mountain-ridge  of 
the  greenstone,  where  its  outcrop  is  distinctly  seen  in  old 
quarries.  It  courses  parallel  to  the  other  veins,  and  dips 
75°— 90°  partly  in  SE.,  partly  towards  NW.  The  lode  attains 
a  breadth  of  3  fathoms,  but  forks  and  branches  off.  Its  matrix 
appears  to  be  quartzose,  and  frequently  brecciated. 

In  the  upper  workings  its  three  leaders,  especially  the  foot- 
leader,  contain  auriferous  stamping  ore,  and  rich  silver-ores, 
combined  with  dialogite,  and  quartz;  these  decrease  with  the 


KREMNITZ.  HERRENGRUND.  299 

depth,  and  the  amount  of  lead-ores  encrease.  Beautiful  ring-ores 
occur,  whose  kernel  consists  of  galena,  with  somewhat  of  pyrites ; 
this  is  surrounded  by  a  thin  drusy  crust  of  quartz,  over  which 
follows  a  thin  pyritous  layer  of  Zinopel,  and  lastly  radiated  quartz. 
More  recent  cross-fissures,  which  traverse  the  quartzose  vein- 
breccia,  show,  at  times,  a  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  layers; 
as  outer  layer,  a  white  crystalline  band  of  quartz,  on  this 
Zinopel  with  pyrites,  then  again  white  quartz,  again  Zinopel 
with  pyrites,  each  of  these  layers  only  a  line  thick,  and 
then,  in  the  middle,  crystallized  white  quartz  with  con- 
siderable iron  pyrites,  the  last,  occasionally,  in  pentagonal 
dodecahedrons.  Crystallized,  columnar  brown  spar,  and  dialogite, 
occur  in  the  quartz  geodes  of  the  lode. 

I  omit  here  the  Hodritsch  lodes;  as  they  are  neither  re- 
markable, nor  interesting. 

It  is  striking,  that  the  Schemnitz  lodes  are  barren;  and, 
probably,  do  not  perceptibly  extend  into  the  rock,  that  sur- 
rounds the  greenstone,  and  which  is  called  trachyte,  although  no 
sharp  line  between  it  and  the  greenstone  can  be  drawn. 

KREMNITZ. 

§  174.  At  Kremnitz l  there  occurs  one  champion-lode, 
30 — 90  feet  broad,  which  occurs  in  greenstone  (timazite)  sur- 
rounded by  trachyte,  in  three  leaders,  besides  numerous  smaller 
branches.  The  matrix  of  the  lodes  consists  of  decomposed 
greenstone,  and  quartz;  in  which  are  disseminated,  native  gold, 
silver-ores,  iron  pyrites  and  stibnite;  while  the  same  ores  have 
often  impregnated  the  country-rock  to  such  an  extent,  that  it 
can  be  profitably  extracted;  the  greenstones  being  often 
especially  rich  in  gold  between  two  fissures.  Brown  spar  and 
heavy  spar  are,  at  times,  found  with  the  ores,  and  the  crystals 
of  stibnite  are  very  rarely,  encrusted  with  chalcedony. 

HERRENGRUND. 

§  175.  Herrerigrund2  lies  in  a  deep  ravine  of  the  high 
mountain-chain,  separating  the  district  of  Leptau  from  that  of 
Sohler,  and  which  reaches  its  highest  point  at  Gumbir,  with  a 

1  See:  Hingehau's  Zeitschr.  f.  Berg-  und  Hiittenwesen,  1^56,  p.  209; 
Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Uebers.  d.  Bergbaue,  p.  55. 

2  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  u-  Siebenbiirg.  p.  41. 


300  MAGURKA. 

height  of  6000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  central  axis  of  this 
chain  consists,  from  Gumbir  to  Herrengrund,  of  Granite;  at  the 
last  named  place  it  is  surrounded  and  covered  by  gneiss,  mica- 
schist,  and  clay-slate;  which  last^much  resembles  the  Silurian 
slate,  and,  also,  alternates  with  strata  of  sandstone  and  conglo- 
merate. The  geological  age  of  this  has  not  yet  been  determined, 
no  fossils  having  been  found  in  it.  The  red,  and  partly  sandy, 
strata,  which  immediately  overlie  this,  are  also  undetermined, 
they  have  been  compared  to  the  Rothliegendes,  and,  also,  the 
Bunt  sand  stein-,  they  could  not  well  belong  to  a  more  recent 
period,  as  limestones  overlie  them,  which  have  been  recognised 
as  belonging  to  the  Triassic.  The  strata  of  all  these  rocks  are 
somewhat,  though  but  slightly,  tilted;  and  their  strike  and  dip 
appear  to  be  very  variable. 

The  ores  are  principally  found  in  the  clay-slate,  although 
they  also  occur  in  the  gneiss  and  talcose  mica-schist  combined 
with  it.  They  form  deposits,  containing  tetrahedrite  and  py- 
rites, of  indefinite  form,  in  part  decidedly  veinlike,  in  part 
bedlike  with  veinlike  branches,  in  part  flat  lenticular  masses, 
soon  wedging-out.  Their  distribution,  and  mineral  composition, 
are  almost  as  irregular  as  their  form.  It  can  only  be  stated, 
that  a  certain  zone,  in  the  partly  crystalline,  partly  sedimentary 
slates  and  schists,  contains  ore-deposits  of  unlike  form  and 
composition,  in  which  tetrahedrite  is  the  most  important  ore. 
These  deposits  do  not  appear  to  extend  into  the  red  sandstones 
and  slates,  but  appear  to  be  cut  off  by  these ;  which  would  in- 
dicate a  great  age.  The  irregularity,  in  the  occurrence  of  these 
deposits,  renders  their  exploitation  quite  difficult.  Quartz  is  the 
principal  gang,  associated  with  which  are  occasionally;  gypsum, 
spathic  iron,  calc-spar  and  heavy  spar.  The  principal  ores  are 
tetrahedrite,  and  copper  pyrites;  with  which  are  found:  native 
copper,  erythrine,  liroconite,  tyrolite,  iron  pyrites,  sulphur, 
malachite,  azurite,  chrysocolla,  copperas,  cyanosite,  aragonite, 
coelestine,  epsomite,  and  steatite. 

MAGURKA. 

§  176.  On  the  northerly  slope  of  the  granite-chain  of  the 
Gumbir  lies  the  mining  village  of  Magurka,1  about  2500  feet 

1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  u.  Siebenbiirg.  p.  45. 


DOBSCHAU.  301 

above  the  sea.  The  granite  is  here,  where  it  occurs  normal, 
composed  of  orthoclase,  quartz,  and  dark-colored  mica;  on  the 
joints  of  which  epidote  is  often  found.  It  is  intersected  by  an 
auriferous  antimony-lode.  Near  this  lode,  which  has  been 
opened-up  at  several  levels  by  an  adit,  the  normal  lode  is  altered 
in  a  very  remarkable  manner.  Reddish  or  greenish  quartz  is 
irregularly  mingled  with  feldspar  and  a  greenish-yellow,  talcose, 
waxlike  mineral.  Mica  occurs  in  it  but  scantily,  and  irregularly 
distributed;  and  is  not  the  dark -brown  variety,  as  in  the  fresh 
rock,  but  silver-white.  That  this  change  in  the^texture,  as  well 
as  the  mass  of  the  rock,  has  been  caused  by  the  formation  of 
the  lode;  appears  probable  from  the  fact,  that  pyrites  and  traces 
of  antimony-ore  are  found  in  the  altered  rock,  both  of  which 
seem  to  be  the  result  of  impregnation.  To  how  great  a 
distance  in  the  rock  this  impregnation  has  continued,  cannot  be 
determined;  but  it  appears  to  extend  for  a  very  considerable 
distance.  The  vein  of  antimony  is  frequently  interrupted  in  its 
course  by  faults,  which  have  at  the  same  time  altered  its  direc- 
tion. Four  chief  faults^  and  several  smaller  ones,  are  known, 
by  which  the  vein  is  divided  into  five  parts.  Its  breadth  varies, 
between  a  few  inches  and  several  feet.  The  matrix  of  the  lode 
consists  of  stibnite,  and  quartz,  with  horses  of  granite.  Com- 
bined with  these  is  a  finely  distributed  argentiferous  gold;  also, 
iron  pyrites,  yellow  blende,  brown  spar,  and  fine  threads  of 
argentiferous  galena;  the  last,  chiefly  in  the  country-rock.  In 
the  richest  point,  thus  far  reached,  almost  pure  stibnite  was  found 
over  a  fathom  broad;  but  this  breadth  of  pure  ore  soon  de- 
creases; and  it  is  mingled  *  with  much  ore  and  country-rock, 
or  the  fissure  becomes  narrower.  This  is  the  finest  known 
example  in  Europe  of  the  occurrence  of  antimony-ores  in  lodes. 

DOBSCHAU. 

§  177.  It  was  formerly  supposed,  that  all  the  ore-deposits 
around  Dobschau1  were  formerly  closely  connected  with  the 
gabbro  occurring  there.  This  does  not  appear  to  be  the  case 
with  all,  but*  certainly  is  so  with  the  ore-deposits  containing 
nickel  and  cobalt.  The  surrounding  country  is  composed  of 
clay-slate  and  mica-schist,  through  which  protrudes  a  small 


1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  und  Siebenbiirg.  p.  48. 


302  CLASSES  OF  DEPOSITS. 

mass  of  greenstone,  alongside  of  which  is  somewhat  of  gar- 
netiferous  serpentine.  I  only  saw  the  greenstone  in  a  compact 
condition;  but,  according  to  Kiss,  it  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
labradorite  and  dialoge,  which  lasf  is  mostly  altered  to  chlorite. 
Somewhat  of  mica,  quartz,  and  iron  pyrites,  occasionally  dis- 
seminated in  its  mass,  which  is  repeatedly  traversed  by  veins  of 
ankerite,  and  calc-spar,  at  times  containing  copper  pyrites.  Kiss 
has  determined  the  rock  to  be  gabbro.  The  same  is  traversed, 
northwardly  of  Dobschau,  by  several  lodes,  distinguished  by 
their  containing  cobalt  and  nickel;  and  is  overlaid  by  broad  masses 
of  spathic  iron;  whose  lower  portions,  also,  contain  cobalt  and 
nickel  ores.  Huss,  with  whose  description  my  own  observations 
agree,  has  divided  the  deposits  into  three  classes.  He  distinguishes:' 

1.  a  champion-lode,  striking  E. — W.,  with  numerous  parallel 
leaders,  near  the  junction  of  the  gabbro  and  clay-slate ; 

2.  several   lodes,    dipping  in   N.,   at  the   southern   limits    of 
the   gabbro,    near   the    clay-slate;   principally   containing    nickel 
ores  with  calc-spar  and  spathic  iron,  but  only  attaining  a  slight 
breadth ; 

3.  a  thick  deposit  of  spathic   iron,  with  ankerite,    lying  on 
the  gabbro;  and  containing,  near  its    contact  with   the   last,  co- 
balt and  nickel  ores,  with  calc-spar  and  quartz. 

This  spathic  iron  is  exploited  by  means  of  large  quarries, 
and  attains  the  immense  thickness  of  18  fathoms.  It  appears, 
that  this  somewhat  irregular,  perhaps  lenticular,  bed-mass  shoots- 
in,  towards  the  South,  under  the  clay-slate,  and  that  its  proper 
position  is  between  the  gabbro  and  clay-slate;  but  this  bedded 
relation  has,  in  no  place,  been  distinctly  opened  to  view. 

Since  the  lodes,  also,  contain  spathic  iron,  and  ankerite,  in 
addition  to  the  ores;  the  following  conclusion  may  be  drawn: 
viz.  that  the  metalliferous  solutions  have  penetrated  through  the 
fissures  from  below  to  the  level  of  the  irregular  bed;  from  which 
the  cobalt  and  nickel  ores  were  principally  deposited  in  the 
fissures ;  the  spathic  iron,  on  the  contrary,  principally  over  them. 
It  will  remain  a  difficult  question  to  decide,  whether  the  openings, 
through  which  the  solutions  poured  out,  were  at  the  surface,  or 
between  the  gabbro  and  clay-slate. 

I  became  acquainted  with  the  veinlike  occurrence  only 
in  the  Zenberg  mine.  The  champion-lode  varies  in  breadth 
from  a  few  inches  to  one  fathom;  in  the  last  case,  prin- 
cipally consisting  of  horses,  which  are  traversed  and  cemented 


SCHMOELLNITZ.  303 

together  by  parallel  threads  of  ore.  These  threads  extend  into 
the  wall-rock  for  a  distance  of  20  fathoms.  The  principal  ore 
they  contain  is  a  compact  mixture  of  nickel  and  cobalt  ore 
(containing  4 — 14  per  cent  cobalt,  and  4 — 16  per  cent  nickel); 
besides  which,  in  separate  leaders,  tetrahedrite  combined  with 
spathic  iron.  Besides  these  are  found  (many  as  rarities) :  copper 
pyrites,  erubescite,  red  copper,  gersdorffite  (dobschauite),  copper 
nickel,  mispickel,  native  copper,  erythrine,  annabergite,  malachite, 
azurite,  vivianite,  and  chrysocolla.  Curiously  enough,  heavy  spar 
has  never  been  observed. 

SCHMOELLNITZ. 

§  178.  Schmollnitz  l  lies  in  a  deep  valley.  The  mountains 
consist  of  clay-slate  passing  into  mica-schist,  in  which  quartz 
is  here  and  there  embedded.  These  rocks  strike  E.  —  W.  and 
dip  60° — 80°  in  S.  They  contain,  eastwardly  of  the  town,  (in 
a  belt,  182  fathoms  broad,  of  gray  clay-slate  embedded  in  a  black 
variety,)  iron  pyrites  with  copper  pyrites;  partly  in  bedlike  im- 
pregnations, partly  in  lenticular  segregations,  which  have  been 
opened  in  the  direction  of  strike  for  2400  fathoms.  There  are 
three  chief  segregations,  of  lenticular  shape,  which  gradually 
wedge-out  in  the  direction  both  of  strike  and  dip.  They  'con- 
sist of  a  massive  pyrites,  so  finely  granular,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  distinguish  the  iron  from  the  copper  pyrites.  Even  in  these 
solid  masses  a  parallelism  of  the  more  or  less  pure  layers  can  be 
recognised,  corresponding  to  the  general  strike.  These  segre- 
gations are  accompanied  by  shales,  more  or  less  impregnated 
with  pyrites.  Two  principal  zones  of  impregnation  are  known, 
one  of  which  connects  two  of  the  segregations.  These  consider- 
ably impregnated  zones  attain  a  greater  depth  than  the  segre- 
gations; but  pass,  without  any  sharply  defined  limits,  into  the 
common,  less  impregnated,  gray  slate.  So  that  the  whole  may 
be  designated,  as  a  pyritous  deposit,  in  which  the  pyrites  are 
unequally  distributed,  at  times  forming  an  extremely  fine  gra- 
nular mixture,  at  times  somewhat  more  distinctly  crystallized; 
so  that  the  iron  and  copper  pyrites  can  be  distinguished,  and 
somewhat  separated,  at  times  in  considerable  quantities,  at  times 
much  scattered  through  the  mass. 


1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  u.  Siebenbiirg.  p.  53. 


304  TRACHYTE.  MOUNTAIN-DISTRICT. 

Near  the  outcrops  the  pyrites  are  partly  altered  to  limonite, 
while  erubescite  and  native  copper  also  occur.  In  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  zone  traces  of  galena;  blende,  and  cobalt  ores, 
have  been  discovered. 

The  pyritous  segregations  of  Schmollnitz  have  a  great 
similarity  with  those  of  the  Rammelsberg  in  the  Hartz,  and 
Agordo  in  the  southern  slope  of  the  Alps :  also  a  certain 
resemblance  to  those  of  Rio-Tinto  in  Spain,  and  Fahlun  in 
Sweden,  cannot  be  denied  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  deposits 
of  Borsabanya  in  the  North  Carpathians,  of  Poschorita  and 
Domokos,  form  more  regular  beds.  It  is  very  difficult  to  explain 
satisfactorily  the  origin  of  such  wide  local  accumulations  of 
pyrites.  The  continuation  of  traces  of  the  cleavage,  even 
through  the  most  compact  masses  of  pyrites  of  the  three  segre- 
gations at  Schmollnitz,  would  argue  in  favor  of  contemporaneous 
deposit,  or  subsequent  impregnation.  At  least  the  supposition 
would  be  excluded,  that  irregular  fissures,  or  hollows,  could  have 
been  filled  with  pyrites.  Whence  came  the  quantity  of  mineral 
matter  forming  the  sulphurets,  during  or  subsequent  to  the 
deposit  of  the  rock?  How  could  this  matter,  in  the  one  case 
remain  unchanged  during  the  subsequent  alteration  of  the  rock ; 
or,  in  the  other,  find  a  channel  and  cause  for  such  massive 
impregnations?  These  are  questions,  I  will  not  attempt  to 
answer. 


NAGYBANYA,    FELSOEBANYA,    KAPNIK, 
AND   OLAHLAPOSBANYA. 

§  179.  In  the  eastern  corner  of  the  Szathmar  District,1 
and  the  northernmost  extremity  of  Transylvania,  where  both  join 
the  Marmaros,  rises  a  magnificent  mountain-district  of  trachyte, 
for  the  most  part  luxuriantly  wooded.  The  trachytic  rocks,  like 
those  of  Hungary  in  general,  are  of  the  most  various  kinds. 
Nearly  the  same  varieties  occur,  similarly  combined  with  one 
another,  as  around  Schemnitz;  viz.  trachytic  greenstones  (tima- 
zites),  trachytes  and  trachytic  porphyries.  All  these  igneous 
rocks  have  burst  through  Tertiary  formations,  in  which  sand- 
stones and  argillaceous  shales  predominate,  and  according  to  the 


1  See:  Cotta,  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  u.  Siebenbiirg.  p.  56. 


NAGYBANYA.  305 

geological  examination  of  the  Viennese  Reichsanstalt,  belong  to 
the  Eocene  Period.  Beneath  these,  and  at  a  greater  distance 
from  the  mountains,  Cretaceous  strata  crop-out,  which  have  not 
jet  been  observed  in  the  district  of  the  ore-deposits.  The  ore- 
deposits,  chiefly  distinct  lodes,  occur  almost  entirely  in  the 
timazite,  having  but  rarely  been  observed  in  the  trachytes  or 
Tertiary  sandstones.  From  their  occurrence  in  igneous  rocks, 
which  have  broken  through  Tertiary  strata,  and  even,  exception- 
ally, between  Eocene  sandstones  and  argillaceous  shales;  it  is 
certain,  that  they  were  formed  subsequently  to  the  Eocene  epoch. 
In  all  these  relations,  they  completely  resemble  the  Schemnitz 
lodes,  and  their  mineralogical  composition  shows  much  similarity 
with  these. 

I  comprise  together  a  large  number  of  single  lodes  or  groups, 
which  occur  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nagybanya,  Felsobanya, 
Kapnik,  and  Olahlaposbanya;  though  great  differences  between 
them  may  be  recognised ;  because  they  belong  to  a  common 
geological  district,  occur  under  nearly  like  circumstances,  and 
appear  to  have  been  formed  at  about  the  same  time.  Quartz  is 
common  to  them  all,  as  predominating  gang,  in  the  form  of 
veins,  often  very  crystalline;  it  traverses  the  older  members  of 
the  lodes  in  various  directions,  from  which  a  repeated  formation 
of  quartz  must  be  concluded. 

Nagybanya.  This  mining  village  lies  at  the  base  of 
the  luxuriantly  wooded  Kegel  Mountain,  which  rises  precipitously 
7 — 800  feet  above  the  surrounding  country.  The  plains,  and 
slightly  advanced  hills,  consist  of  drift  and  fragments  of  Eocene 
deposits.  The  dome  of  timazite  rises  out  of  these,  and  is  tra- 
versed by  lodes.  The  rock  is  generally  so  much  decomposed, 
that  fragments  are  but  seldom  found,  whose  nature  can  be 
determined.  The  Kreuzberg  lode  traverses  the  mountain  of  the 
same  name,  from  its  crest  to  its  base,  and  must  continue  to  a 
considerable  distance  beneath.  The  matrix  of  the  lode  is  prin- 
cipally quartz;  in  which  the  chief  ores  are:  auriferous  iron 
pyrites,  somewhat  perceptible  native  gold,  and  some  silver  ores. 
Its  immediate  wall-rock  is  a  very  much  decomposed,  white, 
felsitic  mass,  impregnated  with  iron  pyrites;  and  appears  to  be 
a  much  altered  condition  of  the  timazite.  Southerly  of  this 
occurs  the  Evangelist  lode;  whose  veinstones  are  quartz,  amethyst 
and  hornstone,  partly  with  cellular  or  drusy,  partly  with  banded 

20 


306  FELSOEBANYA. 

texture.     This  lode  is  more  auriferous  than  the  last,  but  free  gold 
is  rare. 

The  finest  fragment  I  saw,  was  from  a  lode  at  Vivisa,. 
somewhat  to  the  North  of  Nagybatfya.  The  following  was  the 
order  of  occurrence; 

1.  wall-rock; 

2.  quartz; 

3.  brown  spar; 

4.  iron  pyrites; 

5.  mixture  of  quartz  and  calc-spar, 

6.  impregnation  of  gold,  in  the  middle  of  preceding; 

7.  mixture  of  quartz  and  calc-spar; 

8.  iron  pyrites; 

9.  brown  spar; 

10.  quartz ;  and 

11.  wall  rock. 

The  arrangement  is  very  symmetrical,  but  the  central  quartz 
appears  pure  only  on  one  side,  being  intimately  combined  with 
calc-spar  on  the  other.  In  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  the 
following  minerals  have  been  found  at  Nagybanya;  ruby  silver,  tetra- 
hedrite,  stephanite,  silver  glance,  galena,  native  silver,  blende,  copper 
pyrites,  realgar,  orpiment,  native  arsenic,  stibnite,  and  marcasite. 

Felsobanya.  But  one  lode  is  here  exploited,  which  is 
traversed  by  numerous  others.  This  lode  entirely  traverses 
a  mountain,  which  it  cuts  through  from  East  to  West:  it  is  of 
great  breadth,  and  dips  steeply  in  N.  The  breadth  of  the  lode 
is  very  variable;  it  encreases  from  a  few  inches  to  12  fathoms. 
Not  only  the  breadth,  but  the  mineral  matter  filling  the  vein,  is 
extremely  variable.  Even  the  quartz,  hornstone,  and  heavy  spar,, 
forming  the  chief  veinstones,  are  most  unequally  distributed. 
Veins  of  crystallized  quartz,  or  amethyst,  only  J/2  to  2  inches 
broad,  traverse  the  lode,  and  the  horses  in  the  same,  partly 
parallel  to  one  another,  partly  in  undetermined  directions.  This 
younger  vein-formation,  within  an  older,  is  very  common  in  this 
district.  The  ores  are  still  more  unequally  distributed,  than  the 
lodes.  It  is  asserted,  that  the  rich  silver-ores  are  principally 
collected  near  the  surface,  and  auriferous  pyrites  are  character- 
istic of  greater  depths;  but  this  distribution  is  not  found  to  be 
constantly  the  case.  The  richest  mass,  I  saw,  when  visiting 
the  mine  in  Sept.  1860,  was  a  place,  three  feet  broad,  consisting 
of  almost  pure  galena,  with  but  little  pyrites,  in  the  lowest  work- 
ing. The  coarse  granular  contains  here  but  100  grammes  in  100 
kilogrammes,  the  fine  granular  in  other  places  up  to  265  grammes. 


KAPNIK.  307 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  more  exactly  characterize  the 
motley  mixture  of  cellular  quartz,  hornstone,  banded  or  brecciated 
heavy  spar,  large  fragments  of  wall-rock,  large  geodes,  galena, 
blende,  and  various  kinds  of  pyrites ;  with  here  and  there  stib- 
nite,  heteromorphite,  valentinite,  bournonite,  realgar,  orpiment, 
ruby  silver,  polybasite,  native  gold,  silver,  arsenic,  miargyrite 
(kenngottite),  freieslebenite,  felsobanyite,  kermesite,  wad,  pyro- 
lusite,  sulphur,  anthracite,  etc.  One  is  inclined  to  say,  that  all 
lies  topsy  turvey,  while  frequently  fragments  of  the  country-rock, 
or  some  of  the  older  portions  of  the  lode,  are  radially  surrounded 
by  more  recent.  The  quartz-veins  alone,  traversing  the  whole, 
have  a  constant  character.  The  lode  traverses  a  considerable  mass 
of  schist  enclosed  in  the  greenstone,  in  which  it  appears  particu- 
larly to  lose  its  breadth  and  ores.  It  is  accompanied  by  numerous 
side-branches,  which  have  been  chiefly  observed  near  the  surface. 

Both  this,  and  the  Kreuzberg  lode  at  Nagybanya,  traverse, 
as  we  have  seen,  mountains,  6 — 700  feet  high,  from  the  crest 
to  the  base.  This  fact  appears  to  me  especially  important,  as 
the  mountains  consist  of  a,  relatively,  recent  Tertiary  igneous 
rock.  With  fissures  averaging  so  considerable  a  breadth,  it 
appears  impossible  to  assume,  that  the  same  can  have  been  filled 
by  solutions;  since  the  mountain-cones  stood  free,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  fissures  were  open  at  the  sides.  The  matrix  must, 
therefore,  have  been  deposited  at  a  time,  when  the  mountains 
still  formed  a  coherent  plateau,  not  yet  intersected  by  valleys, 
or  they  were  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  Tertiary  strata.  The 
formation  of  the  valleys,  or  the  laying  free  of  the  peaks,  appears 
to  have  here  taken  place  at  a  more  recent  date,  than  the  filling 
of  the  fissures. 

Kapnik.  In  this  district  the  only  fact  worth  noticing  is, 
that  the  outer  members  of  the  metalliferous  belt  contain  galena, 
and  are  auriferous;  while  the  central  lodes  contain  galena, 
and  but  little  gold.  They  have  been  formed  by  a  repeated 
tearing-open  and  filling  of  the  fissures.  The  vein-stones  are  : 
quartz,  calc-spar,  dialogite,  and  heavy  spar;  associated  with  which 
are  the  following  ores ;  tetrahedrite,  galena,  copper  pyrites,  gold, 
silver,  silver  glance,  ruby  silver,  stephanite,  polybasite,  and  copper 
glance.  The  following  minerals  have  also  been  found:  blende,  iron 
pyrites,  stibnite,  bournonite,  dyscrasite,  realgar,  orpiment,  arsenic, 
pyromorphite,  kermesite,  smithsonite,  hornstone,  amethyst,  fluor 
spar,  gypsum,  anhydrite,  sulphur,  and  talc. 

20* 


308  OL AHL APOSB  AN  YA. 

Olahlaposbany  a.  This  small  village  lies  in  the  extreme 
northwestern  corner  of  Transylvania,  where  it  borders  on  Hun- 
gary and  the  Marmaros.  Near  it  can  be  seen,  in  a  steep  ravine, 
a  reiterated  alternating  bedding  (ft  clay,  shale,  and  sandstone  ; 
all  frequently  so  firmly  united,  that  it  is  easy  to  knock  off  hand- 
specimens  consisting  of  several  layers  joined  together.  These 
very  irregular  strata  contain  subordinate  deposits  of  magriesian 
limestone,  and  a  variety  of  greenstone,  which  last,  as  igneous  rock, 
must  have  penetrated  between  them;  according  to  the  Viennese 
geologists,  they  all  belong  to  the  lower  Tertiary  deposits  of  the  region. 

A  few  steps  northwardly  of  the  greenstone,  occurs  a  broad 
lode,  the  Vorsehung-Gottes,  in  sandstone :  it  is  accompanied 
by  numerous  subordinate  quartzose  veins,  and,  at  times,  even 
traversed  by  them :  it  appears  to  have  been  formerly  exploited 
by  means  of  quarries.  The  lode  courses  E. — W.,  parallel  to  the 
strata  of  sandstone,  and  dips  like  these  in  N.,  but  at  a  much 
greater  angle.  Its  breadth  is,  occasionally,  as  much  as  6 — 8 
fathoms,  but  it  then  contains  numerous  horses.  The  vein-stones 
are  principally  hornstone  and  quartz,  also  somewhat  of  heavy 
spar,  in  which  are  found  various  kinds  of  pyrites.  Among  the 
last,  copper  pyrites  is  the  most  important,  often  occurring  of 
great  breadth,  and  entirely  compact.  The  same  is  locally  mixed 
with  considerable  galena,  and  this  is  also  found  alternating  in 
bands  with  the  copper  pyrites  and  heavy  spar,  or  spathic  iron. 
It  has  been  stated,  that  the  ores  occur  more  in  the  foot- wall 
of  the  lode,  but  the  ore  is  very  irregularly  distributed.  Large 
geodes  occur  in  the  matrix,  in  one  of  which,  14  feet  long  and 
QVs  feet  broad,  massive  aggregations  of  stalactitic  iron-pyrites 
were  found.  It  is  stated,  that  where  the  vein  enters  the  pre- 
dominating slates,  it  decreases  in  breadth  and  contents. 

The  sandstone  of  the  country-rock  is  often  much  changed 
in  color,  and  is,  in  places,  penetrated  by  iron  pyrites,  which 
form  small  crystalline  grains.  The  sandstone  is  traversed,  prin- 
cipally in  the  foot-wall  of  the  lode,  by  numerous  quartz-veins, 
J/4  to  2  inches  broad.  The  quartz,  or  even  amethyst,  is  distinctly 
crystallized,  from  the  selvages  towards  the  middle  of  the  lode; 
and  frequently  forms  beautiful  geodes,  in  which  curved  rhom- 
bohedrons  of  ankerite  lie  on  the  quartz,  at  times  somewhat 
of  filiform  native  gold  is  found  in  both  of  these.  The  netlike 
combination  of  many  such  veins  sometimes  causes  a  sort  of 
breccia,  whose  cementing  medium  is  quartz- veins,  while  the 


THE  ALPS.          GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION.  309 

fragments  consist   of  very   quartzose    sandstone,    or   argillaceous 
shale. 

The  copper  pyrites  contain  30  —  32  kilogrammes  of  copper, 
and  65—85  grammes  of  silver,  to  the  hundred  kilogrammes. 
The  silver  contains  133/100o  gold  5  and  the  pyrites  are  said  to 
be  richer  in  gold,  where  they  contain  the  least  silver.  Perhaps 
the  fact  is,  that  the  gold  is  more  equally  distributed,  than  the 
silver ;  and  that,  therefore,  in  an  equal  amount  of  matrix,  a  small 
quantity  of  silver  contains  relatively  more  gold,  than  a  large 
quantity  does. 


XVII.     THE  ALPS. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  180.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  this  long  and  high  moun- 
tain-chain, a  central  ridge  can  be  distinguished  from  two  parallel 
side-ridges,  which  are  at  times  all  three  separated  from  one 
another  by  deep  and  broad  valleys.  The  central  ridge  is  chiefly 
composed  of  crystalline  schists  and  granitic  rocks,  overlying 
which  are  Palaeozoic  strata,  to  which  deposits  of  the  Carboni- 
ferous Period  are  added  on  the  southern  slope. 

The  two  parallel  side-ridges  are  mostly  composed  of  lime- 
stones, long  called  'Alpine  limestones7,  while  their  subdivisions 
were  still  undetermined,  but  which  have  been  recently  divided 
into  numerous  epochs,  belonging  to  the  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and 
Cretaceous  Periods.  The  outer  edges,  and  hills,  consist  of  Ter- 
tiary strata;  which  are  mostly  divided  into  Eocene  Nummulitic 
deposits,  and  Neogene  Molasse  deposits;  these  last  frequently, 
however,  penetrate  into  the  depressions  of  the  principal  ridges. 

The,  thus  concisely  described,  formation  of  the  Alpine-chain 
is,  as  it  were,  only  the  normal  or  ideal  one,  in  reality  the  same 
is  frequently  much  disturbed,  even  to  a  subversion  of  all  the 
original  relations  of  bedding.  The  central  ridge,  in  particular, 
is  eastwardly  divided  into  two  arms;  which,  as  they  advance, 
become  more  indistinct,  and  farther  apart  from  one  another; 
while  towards  the  West  the  entire  mountains  become  broader, 


310  GOLD-DEPOSITS  OF  THE  ALPS. 

so  that  but  little  of  the  original  formation  can  be  recognised. 
It  bends,  as  a  high  and  broad  mountain- belt,  from  its  original 
East-west  axis  more  and  more  towards  the  South,  until  it  reaches 
the  sea  at  Nice. 

It  would  occupy  too  much  space,  were  I  to  attempt  a 
detailed  description;  I  would,  therefore,  only  call  attention  to  the 
fact,  that  the  Alpine  chain  was  raised  at  a  comparatively  recent 
period;  that  is,  from  the  Jurassic  to  the  end  of  the  Tertiary  Period; 
and  that  but  few  igneous  rocks  have  been  found  in  it.  Basalts 
and  trachytes  are  entirely  wanting ;  greenstones  are  not  common ; 
porphyries  and  melaphyres  are  confined  to  a  single  district  on 
the  southern  flank.  By  far  the  most  common  igneous  rocks  are 
granite  and  protogine,  which  are  often  difficult  to  distinguish 
from  the  neighboring  gneiss. 

Perhaps  this  want  of  igneous  rocks  is  one  of  the  reasons, 
why  so  few  lodes-  have  been  found  in  this,  the  most  extensive 
mountain-chain  in  Europe,  in  comparison  to  many  smaller  moun- 
tainous districts. 

In  describing  the  separate  ore-districts  I  shall  more  fully 
treat  those  portions  of  the  chain  belonging  to  Austria  and  Ba- 
varia, those  in  Switzerland  and  France. 


THE  GOLD-DEPOSITS  OF   THE  ALPS. 

§  181.  The  central  ridge  of  the  Alps,  consisting  chiefly  of 
crystalline  schists,  contains,  in  numerous  places,  very  poor  gold- 
deposits,  which  occur  as  beds,  impregnations  or  lodes,  but  still 
appearing  to  have  a  general  relation  to  one  another.  To  these 
must  be  added  a  few  other,  in  part  secondary,  gold-deposits  in 
more  recent  formations.  From  their  general  relation  to  one 
another,  I  subjoin  a  short  table  of  the  best  known  of  the  gold 
occurrences,  which  will  be  followed  by  more  special  descriptions 
of  the  more  important  localities. 

TABLE  OF  THE  OCCURRENCES  OF  GOLD  IN  THE  ALPS. 
Auriferous  Beds. 

1.  At  Wale  hern,   southeast  of  0  el  barn  in  Styria:    a  quartz-bed,  in 
argillaceous  schist,   contains  auriferous  and  argentiferous  pyrites  and  other 
sulphurets,   especially  iron  and  copper  pyrites,   mispickel,    tetrahedrite,   and 
cobalt  ores; 

2.  Fusch,  westwardly  of  Gastein:  Chlorite-schist,  containing  auriferous 
quartz,  accompanied  by  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  mispickel,  and  argentiferous 


BEDS.  VEINS,  AND  ALLUVIUM  DEPOSITS.  31 1 

galena;   it  seems  to  be  a  bedlike    impregnation:   also    near  Mosen   in  the 
Kauris,  occurs  an  auriferous  quartz-bed  in  clay-slate; 

3.  On  the  Heinz  en  Mountain  at  Zell  in  the  Tyrol:  auriferous  quartz-bed, 
in  argillaceous  mica-schist:  similar  beds  on  the  Rohn  Mt.  at  the  same  place; 

4.  At  the  Radlgraben,  northwest  ofVillach:  lenticular  quartz-masses 
containing  gold  with  somewhat  of  wulfenite; 

5.  AtUntersulzbach,  southwardly  of  Miihlbach,  in  the  Salzburg  district, 
occurs  an  auriferous  bed  of  copper  pyrites  in  chloritic  mica-schist; 

6.  At  Schwaig  and  Lengholz,  northwesterly  of  Villach  in  Carinthia: 
auriferous  pyrites,  with  silver  ores,  in  chlorite  schist :  probably  beds  or  bed- 
like  impregnations; 

7 .  R  a  d  e  r  mine,  at  We  i  s  s  b  r  i  a  c  h  in  Carinthia :  gold  in  Palaeozoic  clay- 
slate:  it  is  uncertain,  whether  in  beds,  or  veins; 

8.  The  Lias  limestone  of  Grave  (hautes  Alpes)  contains,    according  to 
Oueymard,  almost  every  where  finely  disseminated  gold,   perhaps   combined 
with  the  iron  pyrites  occurring  in  the  rock:    or  is  it  perhaps  a  gold-deposit 
formed  during  the  Lias  Period? 

9.  The  green  slates  of  the  Jura-formation,  at  Felsberg  in  Graubiinden, 
contain  somewhat  of  native  gold,  perhaps  only  in  veins;  auriferous  pyrites 
were  also  formerly  exploited  in  the  crystalline  schists  of  Graubiinden. 

Auriferous  Veins. 

10.  On  the  Rathhaus  Mountain,  in  the  Sieglitz,  in  Rauris,  and  in  the 
Fusch  (neighborhood  of  Gastein),  occur  numerous  auriferous  veins :  probable 
continuations  of  the  same  are  found  at  Ober-Villach  in  the  Moll  valley; 

11.  On  the  Calanda,  in  Graubiinden,  auriferous  veins  occur  in  the  Jura- 
formation-, 

12.  Auriferous    veins    of    pyrites   occur   in    the    crystalline    schists    of 
Pest  arena,  and  Macugnaca,  east  of  Monte  Rosa; 

13.  In   the  Ligurian  Alps,    Balddracco   observed   auriferous   veins    of 
quartz  in  the  Valleys  of  Cella  and  of  Tana; 

14.  Gold  veins  occur  in  protogine,  at  Gardette  in  the  Department  of 
the  Isere: 

15.  Lodes  containing  a  small  percentage  of  gold  are  found  in  the  Cha- 
lanche  Mts.  near  Allemont  (Dauphiny). 

Gold  Alluvium  Deposits. 

16.  In  the  Salza-valley  near  Lend,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Moll  and  the 
Drau,  evidently  coming  from  the  neighboring  central  ridge:  on  the  Ens,  the 
Mur,  the  Isar,  the  Inn,  and  the  Danube,  from  the  same  source; 

17.  On  the  Aar,  and  the  Emme.  in  Switzerland:  the  gold  here  originates  . 
from  the  Molasse  deposits,  into  which  it  was  probably  swept  from  the  Central 
Alps  during  the  Tertiary  Period; 

18.  In  Cheron  near  Chateland; 

19.  In  the  hills  of  Saint-Georges,  near  Chivas  in  Piedmont;  also  in  the 
sands  of  the  Po,  and  of  the  Dona  Despine. 

If  we  examine  the  more  original  of  these  Alpine  deposits, 
we  find  that  they  may  be  divided  into  beds  or  bedlike  impreg- 
nations, and  into  lodes  in  the  region  of  the  crystalline  schists. 


312  DISTRIBUTION,  AND  ORIGIN,  OF  GOLD-DEPOSITS. 

Possibly  the  beds,  or  impregnations,  are  the  original  depo- 
sits, from  which  the  lodes  have  received  their  gold.  At  least 
it  is  certainly  very  remarkable,  that  the  majority  of  the  auri- 
ferous veins  in  the  Alps,  and  as  it  ^eems  to  me  in  many  other 
localities,  appear  to  be  only  workable  in  their  upper  portions ; 
from  which  the  idea  may  arise,  that  the  gold  has  penetrated 
into  them  either  out  of  the  wall-rocks,  or  from  -  above  out  of 
other,  now  destroyed,  rocks.  Lieber1  has  expressed  the  same 
idea  in  regard  to  the  gold-veins  of  both  the  Carolinas;  and 
Genth  has  mentioned  chlorine,  as  the  most  probable  solvent  of 
gold.  In  some  cases  even  a  mechanical  washing  into  the  fissures 
does  not  seem  to  be  impossible. 

Even  if  we  may  assume,  the  gold  of  the -veins  originated 
in  older  beds  or  impregnations;  the  problem  still  remains  to  be 
solved,  how  and  when  the  gold  came  into  those  metamorphic 
strata?  Was  it  already  in  them  before  their  alteration,  or  did 
it  penetrate  during  the  same?  .In  the  first  case,  from  whence 
did  it  come  into  those  older  sedimentary  deposits,  out  of  which 
the  crystalline  schists  were  formed?  Probably  from  the  erosion 
of  still  older  igneous  rocks,  in  which  it  was  distributed  with 
the  various  other  elements  composing  the  earth's  crust. 

The  results  of  Gueymard's2  careful  researches  are  of  con- 
siderable scientific  interest.  He  found  traces  of  gold,  and 
platinum,  in  numerous  veins  of  the  western  Alps,  of  which  no 
one  had  previously  had  an  idea.  The  amounts  were  certainly  too 
small  to  allow  of  the  deposits  being  worked,  but  the  scientific 
worth  of  their  discovery  was  not  in  the  slightest  degree  affected 
by  this. 

It  appears  from  these  researches,  that  gold  is  one  of  the 
most  widely  distributed  elements;  but  this  must  be  qualified  by 
saying,  that  its  original  distribution  is  so  finely  disseminated, 
that  it  cannot  be  profitably  extracted.  Such  an  extraction  could 
only  be  profitable,  when  it  had  been  locally  concentrated  by 
chemical  or  mechanical  causes,  as  in  some  quartz-veins,  or  allu- 
vium-deposits. Is  not  this  the  case  with  all  the  metals.?  The 
greater  the  advances  that  are  made  in  analytical  chemistry,  the 
more  widely  are  traces  of  the  different  elements,  even  the  ab- 
solutely rare  ones,  found  to  be  distributed  in  the  various  pro- 
ducts of  nature. 

1  See:  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  vol.  III. 

2  See:  Annales  des  mines,  1852,  vol.  I.  p.  345. 


RATHHAUSBERG.  313 

GOLD-VEINS  IN  THE  SALZBURG  TAUERN  CHAIN. 

§  182.  The  central  ridge  of  the  Alps  consists,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Rathhaus  Mountain, 1  near  Gastein,  chiefly  of 
gneiss,  which  passes  into  mica- schist;  and  both  contain  subor- 
dinate beds  of  granular  limestone.  To  the  North  of  this  gneiss 
and  mica-schist  district,  occur  repeated  alternations  of  chlorite 
schist,  mica-schist,  talc  schist,  black  schist,  serpentine  (more  like 
a  segregation),  and  slaty  limestone.  The  gold  veins  occur  for 
the  most  part  in  the  gneiss  and  mica-schist  district,  but  also 
traverse  the  previously  mentioned  alternation  in  the  Fusch  valley. 
Their  predominant  strike,  on  the  Rathhaus  Mountain,  is  NE. — SW., 
but  is,  in  the  Siglitz  and  on  the  Rauris  Gold-Mountain,  more 
NNE. — SSW.  and  in  the  Fusch  valley  entirely  N.— S.  From 
this  it  would  appear,  that  there  was  a  general  convergence  of 
these  veins  in  the  direction  of  Dollach,  where  however  a  junc- 
tion has  not  been  observed.  Cross-courses,  containing  little  or 
no  gold,  intersect  the  principal  course  of  the  others,  on  the 
Rathhaus  Mountain,  and  in  the  Ketschach  valley. 

On  the  Rathhaus  Mountain  there  have  been  distinguished 
lodes,  which  dip  E.,  and  barren  argillaceous  veins,  dipping  W. 
The  last  very  rarely  contain  gold ;  frequently,  however,  quartz, 
and  molybdenite. 

The  nature  of  these  veins  is  a  peculiar  one:  they  do  not 
have  the  appearance  of  distinctly  opened  fissures,  which  have 
been  filled  with  mineral  matter ;  but  essentially  consist  of  several 
clefts  parallel  to  one  another,  between  which  lies,  more  or  less 
altered,  often  impregnated,  country-rock,  whose  foliated  texture 
sometimes  continues  uniformly  between  these  clefts,  sometimes 
has  assumed  another  direction.  The  clefts  widen,  indeed,  in 
places,  and  are  then  predominantly  filled  with  quartz,  which 
also  appears  to  have  penetrated  from  these  into  the  rock.  Such 
enlargements,  filled  with  quartz  and  other  minerals,  then 
resemble  other  lodes.  But  the  veins  of  the  Rathhaus  Mt.  are 
essentially  only  systems  of  parallel  clefts,  between  which  lies 


1  See:  Whitney's  Metallic  Wealth,  1854,  p.  93;  Cotta,  Geol.  Brief e 
aus  den  Alpen,  1850,  p.  144;  Ehrlich,  nordostlichen  Alpen,  1850,  p.  72; 
Reissacher,  die  goldfuhrenden  Gangstreichen  cler  Salzburger  Centralalpen- 
kette,  1848;  Russegger,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1832,  p.  89;  1835,  pp.  182, 
203,  379,  505;  and  1836,  p.  199;  Riepl,  in  Bulletin  geologique,  1832—33, 
III.  p.  142,  and  1835—36,  VII.  p.  13. 


314 


SECTIONS  OF  THE  ELISABETH-ADIT. 


the  wall-rock.  Their  true  cha- 
racter can  be  best  seen  from 
the  following  four  woodcuts, 
whiten  are  copied  from  Reis- 
sacher's  work.  They  represent 
four  consecutive  sections  of  the 
Elisabeth  adit.  In  the  first  a 
and  c  are  gneiss,  containing 
but  little  gold,  b,  on  the  con- 
trary, which  is  separated  by 
the  principal  cleft  AB  from  a, 
and  by  a  less  constant  one 
from  c,  consists  of  a  quartzose 
and  auriferous  gneiss.  The 
second  cut  represents  the  same 
adit  7  feet  farther.  The  chief 
cleft  AB  has  preserved  the 
same  position,  containing  some- 
what more  clay:  a  and  b  are 
almost  entirely  quartz,  between 
which  a  wedge  of  chlorite 
schist  has  penetrated :  b  and  d 
are  only  poor  stamping-stuff, 
a  and  b'  both  rich  enough  for 
hand-sorting.  The  third  figure 
represents  the  adit  at  a  farther 
distance  toward  SW.  of  36  feet. 
The  principal  cleft  AB  was 
here  enclosed,  on  both  sides, 
by  auriferous,  gneissic  quartz 
b  and  6',  b1  richer  than  b :  the 
two  chloritic  portions  m  and 
m  were  particularly  rich.  The 
gneiss  a  had  curved  around 
the  quartz  6;  e  was  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  barren  portion 
of  gneiss  observed  in  the  pre- 
ceding figure  The  fourth 
woodcut  represents  the  adit  83 
feet  farther  SW.  The  cleft  AB 
contains  a  soft  clay  d,  alongside 


ERZWIESER  CHAMPION-LODE. 


315 


of  it  auriferous  quartz  b, 
and  on  the  other  side  en- 
riched gneiss  a ;  while  c  and 
e  consist  of  barren  granitic 
.gneiss. 

Frequently  several  parallel 
subordinate  clefts  occur, 
alongside  of  the  principal 
one  (which  is  chiefly  followed 
in  the  exploitation).  Some 
of  these  are  at  a  consi- 
derable distance  apart;  and 
the  intervals  between  them 

are  then  occasionally  traversed  in  various  directions  by  cross- 
fissures.  Where  many  of  these  last  occur,  the  amount  of  gold 
is  said  to  encrease,  which  is  easily  comprehended;  since  each 
fissure  acted  as  a  channel  for  dissemination  of  the  metal.  The 
whole  occurrence  has  some  resemblance  to  that  of  Goldkronach 
(§  92). 

The  gold  penetrated  from  the  clefts,  especially  the  principal 
one,  to  unequal  distances  in  the  wall-rock  on  both  sides.  As 
a  rule,  its  amount  gradually  decreased  with  the  distances  from 
the  fissures. 

Besides  the  native  gold,  which  is  often  imperceptibly  dis- 
seminated in  the  snow-white,  compact  quartz,  there  also  occur: 
so-called  glaserz,  a  mineral  resembling  tetrahedrite,  containing 
a  large  percentage  of  auriferous  silver;  somewhat  of  copper 
pyrites,  erubescite,  iron  pyrites,  mispickel,  galena,  and  blende, 
(according  to  Riepl,  also  stibnite,  calc-spar,  fluor  spar,  and 
lazulite,  and,  according  to  Russegger,  dyscrasite).  The  copper- 
ores  chiefly  occur  in  the  chloritic  gneiss;  the  others,  like  the 
gold,  in  common  gneiss  and  in  quartz:  these  ores  are  finely 
disseminated.  It  is  considered  a  favorable  sign,  when  the  quartz 
contains  small  particles  of  dialogite,  and  decomposed  or  fresh 
iron  pyrites. 

The  Erzwieser  champion-lode,  some  miles  to  the  West  of 
the  Rathhaus  Mi,  can  be  followed  3200  fathoms  in  a  straight 
line,  between  gneiss,  chloritic  gneiss,  and  mica-schist;  it  is 
lost  sight  of  in  the  Anger  valley,  under  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  Alluvium,  and  southwardly  under  the  Rauris  Gold-Mt. 
under  the  glacier  of  the  high  Schareck.  Traces  of  ancient 


316  KAURIS,  FUSCH,  SALZBURG. 

mining  are  found  in  Carinthia,  on  the  other  side  of  this 
mass  of  snow  and  ice,  in  the  prolongation  of  the  same  line  of 
strike.  The  vein  intersects  granular  limestone  in  its  course, 
in  which  it  shows  a  remarkable  change  of  character,  which  can 
be  distinctly  recognised  in  the  heaps  of  rubbish  at  the  mouths 
of  old  shafts.  It  is  here  evidently  very  broad,  essentially  con- 
sisting of  spathic  iron,  and  calcareous  spathic  ir6n,  in  which 
argentiferous  galena  is  disseminated.  The  auriferous  quartz- 
vein,  or  system  of  clefts  has  suddenly  become  converted  into  a 
broad  spathic  iron  lode,  containing  lead  and  silver;  which, 
beyond  the  limestone,  again  contains  gold  between  the  gneiss, 
in  the  same  manner  as  already  described  of  the  Rathhaus  Mt. 

In  Kauris,  where  the  veins  strike  like  those  of  the  Rath- 
haus Mt.,  there  are  but  two  circumstances  worth  noticing. 
Firstly,  the  veins  exhibit  a  concentration  and  enrichment  near 
the  so-called  black  achist,  which  they  entirely  lose,  when  they 
intersect  the  same,  and  appear  to  be  much  compressed.  Secondly, 
certain  fissures  which  frequently  intersect  the  veins  produce  very 
peculiar  appearances  of  intersection  and  faulting,  which  can 
however  be  explained  by  natural  laws. 

In  the  Fusch  valley,  where  about  40  veins  are  known, 
though  only  3  have  been  opened-up,  these  show  an  analogous 
relation  to  those  on  the  Rathhaus  Mt.,  although  they  here  tra- 
verse a  repeated  alternation  of  talc-schist,  mica-schist,  chlorite 
schist  and  slaty  limestone.  The  ores  consist  of  gold,  so-called 
glaserz,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  galena  and  blende,  which  occur 
in  all  the  rocks  but  the  so-called  black  schist.  In  the  slaty 
limestone  the  quartz,  as  in  the  Erzwieser  lode,  is  replaced  by 
impure  spathic  iron,  and  the  argentiferous  galena  is  more  com- 
mon*, but  native  gold  is  not  entirely  wanting,  implanted  on  the 
spathic  iron. 

All  these  gold  veins,  in  the  crystalline  central  ridge  of  the 
Alps,  which  essentially  coincide  in  their  nature  and  strike, 
must  have  had  a  common  origin.  The  fissures  are  the  conse- 
quences of  mechanical  forces,  caused  by  movements  in  the  moun- 
tains, which  can  be  recognised  from  the  faults,  and  friction-sur- 
faces. In  what  manner  did  the  metallic  and  non-metallic 
minerals  penetrate?  It  is  highly  improbable,  that  these,  especially 
the  last,  originated  from  the  wall-rock;  while  we  have  found 
this  to  be  very  probable  as  to  some  of  the  Hungarian  and  Tran- 
sylvanian  gold-veins  in  greenstone.  It  is  the  more  improbable; 


HEINZENBERG.  .  317 

as,  according  to  Reissacher,  whose  statements  are  founded  on 
very  careful  experiments  in  the  concentration-works,  the  amount 
of  gold  in  the  wall-rock  decreases,  and  soon  ceases,  with  the 
encreasing  distance  from  the  clefts,  especially  the  chief  fissure. 
The  country-rock  also  contains  no  pyrites,  which  might  be 
regarded  as  containing  the  gold.  This,  and  the  other  metals 
have,  therefore,  evidently  penetrated  from  some  direction  in  a 
dissolved  condition  into  the  fissures,  and  have  penetrated  from 
these  into  a  portion  of  their  wall-rock.  Of  what  sort  the  solu- 
tions, especially  that  of  the  gold,  were,  is  still  a  problem.  From 
the  manner  in  which  the  gold  occurs,  chiefly  in  the  upper  por- 
tions of  the  veins,  it  might  be  supposed,  that  the  gold  pene- 
trated from  above.  In  this  case  it  could  only  have  come  from 
the  rocks,  which  formerly  overlay  those  now  at  the  surface. 
But  there  actually  occur,  as  we  have  seen,  auriferous  beds,  or 
belts  of  impregnations,  in  the  clay-slates  and  chloritic  schists  of 
the  Tyrol,  which  overlie  the  gneiss  and  mica-schist  of  the  cen- 
tral ridge,  whose  destroyed  prolongation  may  in  reality  have 
formerly  covered  the  central  chain  at  Salzburg.  I  will  not 
attempt  to  pursue  this  train  of  thought  any  farther,  as  I  merely 
wished  to  notice  the  same  once  more.  The  striking  difference 
in  the  contents  of  the  lodes,  when  within  the  limestone,  is  one 
of  the  most  distinct  cases  of  the  influence  of  the  country-rock. 

GOLD-DEPOSITS  ON  THE  HEINZEN  MOUNTAIN. 

§  183.  The  Heinzen1  Mt.  near  Zell  in  the  Tyrol,  consists 
of  mica-schist,  which  dips  70°  in  S.  The  mass  of  the  bed,  in 
which  the  gold  occurs  disseminated,  is  a  quartzose  slate  more 
or  less  impregnated  with  pyrites,  whose  thickness  encreases  from 
a  few  inches  to  5— 6  fathoms.  This  bed  is  by  no  means  auri- 
ferous enough,  throughout  its  whole  extent,  to  be  profitably 
exploited;  on  the  contrary  certain  portions  are  very  poor  or 
barren,  between  which  lie  richer  zones,  30 — 40  fathoms  broad, 
which  dip  obliquely  to  the  plane  of  the  bed  30°— 40°  in  SW. 
Up  to  the  present  time  three  such  belts  have  been  opened  and 
exploited.  In  these,  which  occur  at  about  equal  distances  apart, 
there  appears  a  progressive  encrease  in  the  amount  of  gold  from 

1  See:  Trinker,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanst.  1850,  p.  213;  linger, 
Einfluss  des  Bodens,  1836,  p.  39. 


318 


CALLANDA  GOLD-VEINS. 


East  to  West ;  the  reason  of  this  is  entirely  unknown.  A  varia- 
tion in  the  country-rock,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  lodes,  can  here 
have  exercised  no  influence,,  as  the  wall-rock  remains  the  same. 
It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the'  oblique  inclination  of  ore- 
chimneys  can  by  no  means  always  be  explained.  Nature  some- 
times resists  the  attempts  of  our  interpretations;  or  rather  our 
knowledge  of  the  same  is  in  many  ways  still  very  imperfect. 

Unger  states,  that  the  Heinzen  Mt.  contains  six  similar  beds 
to  those  now  worked,  and  the  Tauern  Mt.  four. 


GOLD -VEINS  ON  THE  CALLANDA  IN  GRAUBUENDEN. 

§  184.  The  southern  slope  of  the  Callanda !  in  Graubiin- 
den,  from  which  the  renowned  landslip  of  Felsberg  took  place, 
consists,  according  to  Deicke,  of  the  following  strata: 

CalUtnda, 


a.  Red  sandstone  of  the  Alps; — Buntsandstein; 

b.  Yellow  limestone,   /    m  . 

c.  Dolomite,  j    TnaSS1C' 

d.  Red  schist, 

e.  Yellowish  schist, 

f.  Chloriticschist  (containing  the  gold  veins), 

g.  Schist  containing  magnetite, 
h.  Slaty  limestone, 

i.  Limestone  containing  Belemites, 


Jurassic; 


1  See:  Deicke,  in  Berg-  u.  htittenm.  Zeit.  1860,  p.  119. 


LA  GARDETTE  GOLD-VEINS. 


319 


k.  Slaty  dolomite,        (     Turas<sic. 
1.  Massive  dolomite,  (    J 
m.  whose  eastern  prolongation  is  the  mass  which  formed 

the  landslide; 
n.  Rubbish  formed  by  the  landslide. 

In  the  chloritic  schist  f  occur  veins  1 — 3  inches  broad, 
which  course  NE. — SW.  and  dip  considerably  in  NW.  The 
separate  veins  have  only  been  followed  about  20  feet  in  their 
course,  the  whole  group  about  400  feet;  while  a  continuation 
is  found,  near  Tamins,  at  the  limits  of  the  rock,  about  8000  feet 
off.  These  veins,  which  appear  to  belong  only  to  the  Jura  for- 
mation (and  are  therefore  gash-veins),  but  traverse  much  meta- 
morphosed chlorite  schist;  consist  of  quartz  and  ealc-spar,  in 
which  somewhat  of  native  gold  occurs,  in  part  imperceptibly 
disseminated,  in  part  in  scales  and  masses  weighing  several 
ounces,  also  auriferous  iron  pyrites,  and  iron  ochre.  The  gold 
is  mostly  found  in  the  hanging  selvage.  The  wall-rock  of  the 
veins  also  contains  considerable  quantities  of  iron  pyrites  dissemi- 
nated through  its  mass ;  which  do  not,  however,  contain  gold. 

Deicke  gives  the  following 
section  of  one  of  these  veins, 
which  has  been  opened-up 
by  two  adits. 

He  thinks,  these  veins  must 
have  been  filled  in  the  wet 
way.  It  is  quite  curious, 
that  they  only  occur  in  the 
chlorite  schist,  and  that  the 
f.  CMoritic  schist.  iron  pyrites  in  this  contains 

p.  Gold  vein. 

q.   and  r.   Adits.  J 


GOLD -VEINS  OF  LA  GARDETTE. 

§  185.  At  La  Gardette,1  near  Bourg  d'Oisans  in  the  Isere 
Department,  a  gold-vein  crops-out,  in  protogine,  4200  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  same  strikes  WNW.— ESE.  and  dips  70°— 80° 
in  S.  Its  breadth  is  3 — 24  inches,  and  the  principal  vein-stone 
quartz,  exhibiting  curious  phenomena.  The  matrix  of  the  vein 


1  See:  Graff,  in  Annal.  des  sciences  phys.  et  naturel.  Published  by  the 
Lyons'  Agricultural  Soc.  III.  p.  153. 


320  KLAUSEN   COPPER-  AND    LEAD-DEPOSITS. 

is  divided  into  10  different  layers;  which  do  not  occur  double, 
and  are  not  arranged  symmetrically  from  the  walls  to  the  middle, 
but  must  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  the  same  number  of 
openings  and  fillings  of  the  fissure  ^combined  with  dislocations. 
These  separate  layers  are  commonly  separated  from  one  another 
by  distinct  friction-surfaces  with  horizontal  grooves ;  the  last  have 
been  found  to  extend  symmetrically  for  a  length  of  1300  feet 
and  depth  of  250  feet.  The  first  bed,  which  is  probably  the 
oldest,  as  traces  of  the  same  are  observed  both  on  the  hanging- 
and  foot-wall,  consists  of  quartz  with  somewhat  of  galena,  tetra- 
hedrite,  iron  and  copper  pyrites.  The  second  layer  contains  in 
its  quartz,  especially  in  its  geodes,  native  gold  and  somewhat 
of  galena,  also  somewhat  of  calc-spar,  and  specular  iron,  occa- 
sionally even  fragments  of  the  wall-rock,  or  first  layer,  which 
are  never  larger  than  the  breadth  of  this  layer,  and  lie  altogether 
separated  from  one  another,  at  times  completely  enclosed  in 
spathic  iron.  The  remaining  layers  appear  to  consist  only  of 
quartz,  the  second  one  containing  the  greater  part  of  the  gold. 
The  nearly  horizontal  direction  of  the  grooves,  in  all  the 
friction-surfaces,  between  the  separate  layers,  is  very  remarkable. 
Graff  does  not  think,  that  the  dislocations  were  originally  hori- 
zontal, but  supposes  that,  after  the  completion  of  the  lode  and 
the  friction-surfaces,  the  entire  mass  was  turned  over  on  one  side ; 
by  which  the  grooves,  from  lying  in  the  direction  of  dip,  came 
into  that  of  strike.  This  is  the  more  easily  supposable  in  the 
Alps,  since  such  mechanical  changes  of  the  original  relations 
have  been  frequently  proved  by  other  facts. 

COPPER  AND  LEAD  DEPOSITS  AT  KLAUSEN  IN 
THE  TYROL. 

§  186.  The  crystalline  schists,  and  subordinate  granular 
limestones  embedded  in  them,  of  the  eastern  Alps,  contain  beds 
and  veins  of  the  above  ores  in  several  localities ;  which  are  not 
confined  to  particular  rocks,  nor,  probably,  to  particular  geolo- 
gical niveaus.  I  shall  here  only  mention  the  Pfundrer  Moun- 
tain near  Klausen,1  which  I  have  personally  examined. 

The  predominating  argillaceous  mica-schist  of  this  district  is 
pierced  on  the  Pfundrer  Mt.  by  a  broad  mass  of  diorite ;  at  whose 

1  See:   Cotta,  in  Berg-   u.    huttenm.  Zeit.   1862,  p.  377;   Hauer   and 
Fotterle,  Uebers.  d.  Bergbaue,  p.  31. 


KLAUSEN  IN  THE  TYROL.  321 

limits  occurs  a  peculiar  rock  called  by  the  miners  'Fieldstone'. 
All  three  of  these  rocks  are  traversed  by  lodes,  which  have 
been  worked  for  a  long  time,  on  the  steep  flanks  of  the  moun- 
tain mentioned,  about  3000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  contents 
of  these  lodes  are  very  variable  in  the  different  rocks;  so  unlike, 
that  the  ores  occurring  in  the  diorite  are  separated  in  the  mine, 
as  containing  lead,  from  those  found  in  the  fieldstone,  or 
argillaceous  mica-schist,  only  consisting  of  iron  and  copper 
pyrites. 

The  argillaceous  mica-schist  consists  of  repeated  alter- 
nations of  common  argillaceous  mica-schist,  mica-schist  proper, 
very  quartzose  schist  containing  large  lenticular  masses  of  quartz, 
and  quartz-schist;  which  all  frequently  pass  into  one  another. 
At  the  junction  with  the  fieldstone,  it  partly  passes  into  this, 
and  Bichthofen  even  considers  the  fieldstone  to  be  merely  schist 
altered  by  the  influence  of  the  diorite;  still  I  observed,  at  one 
place  in  the  mine,  a  quite  clearly  defined  line  of  demarcation 
between  the  fieldstone  and  schist,  while  in  the  Vildar  valley 
large  boulders  occur,  perhaps  originally  at  the  junction,  con 
sisting  of  a  very  coarse  breccia,  in  which  fragments  of  schist, 
in  part,  indeed,  resembling  the  fieldstone,  are  cemented  together 
by  a  binding  medium;  which  corresponds  to  the  common  field- 
stone,  and  appears  to  consist  of  a  reddish-yellow  intimate  mixture 
of  feldspar  and  quartz. 

The  greenstone  generally  occurs  compact  in  the  mine,  con- 
sequently aphanitic,  while  at  the  surface  large  masses  are  found 
very  distinctly  fine  to  middle  granular,  consisting  of  a  mixture 
of  actinolithic  hornblende  and  oligoclase,  and  may  therefore  be 
called  diorite.  The  lodes,  of  which  three  exist,  strike  E. — W. 
with  a  slight  convergence  towards  W.,  so  that  they  may  be 
properly  considered,  as  three  leaders  of  one  lode.  Subordinate 
leaders,  of  a  like  course,  occur  here  and  there  between  these; 
and  a  few  cross-courses  of  a  different  character,  whose  matrix 
consists  of  a  sort  of  breccia,  containing  fragments  of  fieldstone, 
cemented  together  by  spathic  iron,  somewhat  of  ankerite,  calc- 
spar  and  pyrites;  also  clay -fissures,  which  intersect  obliquely, 
and  in  part  produce  faults.  The  dip  of  the  lodes  is  60°— 80° 
in  N.  Their  breadth  encreases  to  several  fathoms;  but  when  so 
broad,  they  by  no  means  entirely  consist  of  vein-mass,  but 
essentially  of  wall-rock,  traversed  by  numerous  clefts,  generally 
following  the  principal  direction  of  strike,  but  frequently  forming 

21 


322 


KLAUSEN  COPPER  AND  LEAD. 


a  network,  and  then  having  separately  a  breadth  of  one  line  to 
two  feet.  These  irregular  fissures  are  then  filled  with  ores, 
which  are  only  here  and  there  accompanied  by  quartz  and  cale- 
spar  as  vein-stones.  (See  woodcut.) 


A,    Je 


Jc       e 


G.  Wall-rock. 

g.  Wall-rock  in  the  lode. 

k.  Clefts. 

e.  Ore. 

The  peculiarity  of  these  lodes  consists  in  the  fact,  already 
mentioned;  that  the  ores  in  each  of  them  only  consist  of  iron 
and  copper  pyrites,  when  they  lie  in  the  argillaceous  mica-schist 
and  fieldstone;  while  in  the  greenstone  there  is  found  with  these 
galena,  containing  2 — 14  oz.  of  silver,  and  blende;  also  that 
they  are  generally  most  productive  in  the  greenstone,  somewhat 
less  so  in  the  fieldstone,  and  poorest  in  the  schist.  This  differ- 
ence is  not  confined  to  single  streaks  of  ore,  but  to  the  occur- 
rence of  ore  in  general;  that  is,  that  there  are  many  more  and 
larger  exploitable  masses  of  ore,  within  the  greenstone  and 
fieldstone,  than  in  the  schist.  Another  curious,  but  rare  ore- 
occurrence  is  that  of  lenticular  concretions,  2 — 10  inches  in 
diameter,  having  within  a  concentric  structure.  One  of  these 
shows  an  irregular  amphibolic  or  chloritic  kernel,  containing 
cubes  of  iron  pyrites.  This  is  surrounded  by  five  concentric 
layers,  alternately  composed  of  pyrites  and  galena-blende.  These 
layers  are  not  altogether  sharply  defined ;  so  that  a  little  blende 
or  galena  is  occasionally  found  in  the  bands  of  pyrites,  and  the 
reverse. 


AGORDO   COPPER.  323 

From  the  above-described  nature  of  these  lodes  is  explained 
the  intermission  of  the  ore-masses.  At  times  every  trace  of 
vein  disappears,  the  wall-rock  only  extending,  somewhat  more 
fissured  than  usual,  in  the  direction  of  strike,  until  the  fissure 
again  opens?  and  contains  ore.  It  also  seems  to  me,  that  the 
very  evident  influence  of  the  peculiar  character  of  the  wall- 
rock  on  the  qualitative  and  quantitative  nature  of  the  ore  in 
the  lodes,  has  been  supported  by  its  mechanical  nature ;  a  great 
encrease  having  been  caused,  by  this  means,  in  the  surface  of 
the  rocks.  The  other  minerals  found,  in  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned,  are:  chrysocolla,  cyanosite,  native  copper, 
native  silver,  cerusite,  and  antimony. 


COPPER  DEPOSIT  AT  AGORDO. 

§  187.  The  village  of  Agordo  l  lies  in  a  beautiful  moun- 
tain-basin, surrounded  by  high  peaks  of  limestone  and  dolomite; 
which  rise  perpendicularly,  as  precipitous  peaks,  to  a  height  of 
6,  7,  and  even  8,000  feet  above  the  sea.  In  the  interior  of  this 
basin,  the  surface  consists  of  argillaceous  mica-schist,  which  forms 
low  hills  and  mountains  with  gentle  slopes.  This  is  overlaid 
by  red  sandstone  (Werfner  beds)  corresponding  to  the  German 
Bunt  sand  stein.  Over  this  follows,  to  the  North,  Guttensteiner 
limestone  (fossiliferous  limestone);  southerly  in  the  Imperina  valley, 
on  the  contrary,  Dachstein  limestone  (Keuper),  both  being  con- 
siderably tilted  in  the  beginning.  At  a  greater  distance,  and 
farther  removed  from  the  argillaceous  shale,  the  strata  have  a 
more  gentle  slope,  and  from  the  predominance  of  limestones  and 
dolomites,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  recognise  the  subdivisions  of 
the  Alpine  Triassic:  viz. 

Dachstein  limestone, 

St.  Cassian  beds, 

Guttensteiner  limestone,  and 

Werfner  beds  (Grodner  sandstone). 
All  these  Triassic  strata  appear  to  be  in  no  way  connected 


1  See:  Cotta,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenni.  Zeit.  1862,  p.  425;  Oesterreich. 
Zeitschr.  f.  Berg-  und  Hiittenwesen,  1860,  p.  173;  Schmidt,  in  Berg-  und 
hiittenm.  Zeit  1867,  p,  240;  Bauer,  in  Kraus'  Jahrb.  f.  d.  Berg-  u.  Hiitten- 
mann,  1852,  p.  231;  Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Uebersicht  d.  Bergbau.  p.  37; 
Fuchs,  Beitrage  z.  Lehre  v.  d.  Erzlagerstatten,  1846,  p.  14. 

21* 


324 


IMPERINA  VALLEY. 


with  the  copper- ore-deposits  of  the  Imperina  valley,  although 
they,  at  times,  almost  come  in  contact  with  them.  These  last 
are  found  altogether  in  the  argillaceous  mica-schist.  They  occur 
as  large  segregated  masses  of  ore, :  which  appear  to  have  been 
formerly  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  the  schist,  and  to  have  been 
partly  laid  free  by  subsequent  erosions.  It  is,  therefore,  only  a 
consequence  of  subsequent  denudations,  that  the  Triassic  sandstones 
or  limestones,  at  times,  almost  or  quite  touch  the  ore-deposits. 

Horizontal  Projection. 


Vertical  Section. 


The  principal  pyrites  segregation  of  the  Imperina  valley, 
which  is  said  to  be  accompanied  by  some  other  smaller  ones, 
has  an  irregular  elongated  form  (see  woodcuts).  Its  longest 
axis  is  almost  horizontal,  inclining  but  about  20°  in  NE. 
parallel  to  the  narrow  bed  of  the  Imperina  brook,  whose  bed 
usually  follows  the  course  of  the  pyrites  segregation  from  SW. 
to  NE.,  in  such  a  manner,  that  it  may  be  supposed  the  decom- 
position of  the  pyrites  has  caused  the  washing-out  of  the  same, 
or  at  least  aided  it.  Where  the  pyrites  does  not  crop-out  in 
the  bed  of  the  brook,  it  is  only  a  consequence  of  being  sub- 
sequently covered  by  stream- deposits.  The  strike,  like  the  dip, 
of  the  two  greatest  dimensions  of  this  mass,  corresponds  to  the 
strike,  and  about  to  the  dip;  of  the  enclosing  shales.  All  the 
dimensions  of  this  segregation  are  very  great,  so  that  there  is 
enough  ore  to  last  for  several  centuries.  It  has  been  opened- 
up  for  a  length  of  286  fathoms,  a  height  of  45—50  fathoms,  and 


COPPER-ORE-DEPOSITS.  325 

a  breadth  of  11  —  22  fathoms;  which  are  of  course  much  less, 
near  its  extremities,  from  gradually  rounding  off.  The  mass 
is,  however,  known  to  have  a  total  length  of  957  fathoms.  It 
is  very  difficult  to  observe  within  the  mine  the  relations  of  the 
bedding  of  such  a  large  mass,  whose  outer  limits  are  so  seldom 
distinctly  opened-up  by  the  workings.  It  would  appear,  from 
the  plan  of  the  mine,  that  there  are  many  inequalities,  irregu- 
larities, and  even  indentations  at  the  limits;  which  appear  to 
be  generally  rounded  on  all  sides,  especially  in  the  lower  portion. 
The  mass  of  pyrites  is  almost  everywhere  surrounded  by  a  light- 
colored  talcose,  at  times  also  quartzose  shaler  which  "corresponds 
to  the  Skolars  of  Fahlun  in  Sweden;  it  occasionally  also  forms 
irregular  ramifications  in  the  pyrite  mass,  and  is  often  pene- 
trated by  iron  pyrites.  Its  thickness  is  very  variable,  being  at 
times  a  few  inches,  and  again  several  feet,  or  even  fathoms. 
Beyond  the  white  shale  commences  the  dark  argillaceous  miea- 
schist,  containing  numerous  masses  .of  quartz,  also  containing 
impregnations  of  pyrites;  it  passes  at  a  farther  distance  from 
the  segregation  into  a  more  grayish-green  slate. 

Somewhat  of  gypsum  has  been  found  below  the  pyrites, 
southwest  of  the  Pizzini-shaft  and  above  the  Barbara-adit,  con- 
cerning whose  relations  of  bedding  I  was,  unfortunately,  unable 
to  obtain  nearer  particulars.  According  to  the  vertical  section 
of  the  mine  (Fig.  2)  the  gypsum  must  belong  to  the  argillaceous 
shale.  Bauer,  however,  considers  it  as  belonging  to  the  red 
sandstone;  and  says,  it  occasionally  contains  crystals  of  rock- 
salt.  According  to  this  observer,  it  lies  between  the  slate  and 
limestone,  which  does  not  agree  with  the  map  of  the  mine. 

The  mineralogical  composition,  of  this  immense  mass  of  ore, 
is  simple  and  uniform.  The  original  ores  are  sulphurets,  accom- 
panied by  a  little  quartz.  Iron  pyrites  predominates,  containing 
somewhat  of  copper,  probably  arising  from  an  intimate  mixture 
with  somewhat  of  copper  pyrites.  At  times,  especially  near  the 
quartz,  somewhat  of  distinct  copper  pyrites  is  added,  and  in  a  few 
places,  also  very  quartzose,  are  mixed  in  argentiferous  galena 
and  blende.  From  older  reports,  argentiferous  tetrahedrite  has 
also  occurred;  and  from  the  accurate  analyses  of  the  ores,  and 
smelting  products,  small  quantities  of  cobalt,  arsenic,  antimony, 
and  tin,  are  present,  whose  ores  it  is  impossible  to  recognise. 
Von  Zepharowich  mentions  goslarite  as  a  product  of  decom- 


326  SLICKEN-SIDES. 

position.     The  pyrites  crop-out  very    distinctly   at    one   point  in 
the  bed  of  the  Imperina  brook,  and  even  form  a  waterfall. 

There  are  numerous  friction- surfaces,  or  slickeri-sides,  tra- 
versing this  mass  of  pyrites  in  various*directions,  which  mostly  ex- 
hibit very  distinct  grooves,  and  are,  according  to  Fucks,  sometimes 
covered  with  somewhat  of  the  friction-powder.  They  are  particu- 
larly interesting,  from  often  exhibiting  on  cabinet-specimens 
various  directions  of  the  parallel  scratches;  and  from  the  fact, 
that  the  amount  of  copper  is  frequently  very  different  on  the  two 
sides.  Fuchs  has  attempted  to  prove,  in  his  peculiar  manner, 
that  these  slicken-sides  were  not  formed  by  dislocations,  but  are 
rather  the  result  of  a  peculiar  property  of  the  pyrites;  as  reasons 
for  this  view,  he  states: 

1.  that  their  directions  are  too  varied   for   friction-surfaces; 

2.  that  they   suddenly   cease   at   times   in   the   mass   of  the 
pyrites;  and 

3.  that  quartz,  galena,  and  blende,  are  never  found  on  their 
surfaces,  but  only  pyrites. 

With  regard  to  the  first  reason,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that 
the  single  separated  portions,  here  masses  of  pyrites,  can  be 
moved  by  an  immense  pressure  in  the  most  different  directions, 
as  is  seen  in  other  cases  of  this  kind;  thus  in  serpentine,  alum 
shale,  coal,  and  even  in  argillaceous  shales. 

The  second  reason  may  rest  on  insufficient  observations. 
Mining-captain  Somariva,  who  accompanied  me  in  the  mine,  has 
not  observed  a  single  case  of  this  sudden  cessation. 

The  same  is  much  more  true  for  the  third  reason;  since 
the  principal  mass  of  the  segregation  consists  of  pyrites,  the 
appearance  of  quartz,  galena,  etc.  on  the  friction-surfaces  must 
necessarily  belong  to  the  exceptions.  Mr.  Stelzner  has  observed 
such  an  exception,  where  galena  occurs  on  a  friction-surface. 
Not  only  the  circumstance,  that  there  is  no  other  satisfactory 
explanation  for  the  parallel-grooved  slicken-sides,  between  which 
the  powder  produced  by  the  friction  is  occasionally  observed,  is 
in  favor  of  their  having  been  formed  by  dislocations ;  but  also 
the  fact,  so  prominantly  mentioned  by  Bauer,  that  the  amount  of 
copper  in  the  pyrites  is  different  on  both  sides,  and  that  they 
intersect  and  cut  off  the  lamina?  of  talc-schist  penetrating  into 
the  pyrites.  Both  facts  can  be  most  simply  and  satisfactorily 
explained  by  faults,  of  which  these  slicken-sides  were  the  planes 
of  dislocation  and  friction. 


BRIXLEGG  SILVER  AND  COPPER.  327 

SILVER  AND  COPPER  DEPOSITS  IN  ALPINE  LIMESTONE 
AT  BRIXLEGG  IN  THE  TYROL. 

§  188.  Near  Brixlegg  l  the  lowest  division  of  the  Alpine 
limestone,  the  so-called  Guttensteiner  limestone,  forms  a  rocky 
ridge  on  the  right  side  of  the  Inn-valley.  Its  stratification 
appears  to  be  much  disturbed,  since  it  projects  to  the  surface 
between  the  red  sandstone  of  the  Werfner  beds,  properly  be- 
longing beneath  it,  and  the  crystalline  clay-slate  of  the  central 
ridge  itself  containing  similar  beds  of  limestone,  often  difficult 
to  distinguish  from  the  fine  granular,  and  mostly  magnesian, 
Guttensteiner  limestone.  Pichler  recently  stated,  that  the  metal- 
liferous limestone  of  Schwatz  (and  Brixlegg)  was  older  than  the 
Triassic  Period.  The  same  belt  of  limestone  extends  to  beyond 
Schwatz,  and  there  also  contains  similar  deposits. 

On  the  Kleinkogel  numerous  but  irregular  veins  occur, 
which  often  contract  to  small  clefts  or  form  branches  in  the 
common  joints,  mostly  striking  N. — S.  and  dipping  55°  in  S.  in  the 
much  fissured  limestone,  they  at  times  attain  a  breadth  of  several 
feet.  They  consist  of  irregular  mixtures  of  heavy  spar,  quartz, 
calc-spar,  argentiferous  tetrahedrite,  and  copper  pyrites,  with 
azurite  and  malachite.  These  last  ores  occur  in  the  reddish  lime- 
stone, the  sulphurets  chiefly  in  the  gray  limestone,  which  rela- 
tion, with  regard  to  the  color  of  the  limestone,  may  also  be  a 
consequence  of  the  decomposition.  The  ores  are  very  irregularly 
distributed  in  the  veins,  which  often  contain  little  or  none  at  all. 
Trinker  states,  that  the  distribution  of  the  ores  follows  a  certain 
law,  the  so-called  'Adelsvorschub'.  This  is  still  an  enigma; 
and  it  appears  to  me  entirely  incomprehensible,  that  the  same 
mysterious  cause  should  have  produced  this  peculiar  distribution 
of  the  ore,  under  so  very  different  relations,  as  on  the  Heinzen 
Mt.  (§  183)  and  on  the  Kleinkogel;  although  I  by  no  means 
intend  to  doubt  the  fact  -of  such  a  distribution,  which  I  was  not 
sufficiently  able  to  observe. 

The  lodes  of  the  other  mines  around  Brixlegg  are  similar 
to  these,  except  that  on  the  Grosskogel  still  other,  even  cobalt 
and  nickel,  ores  occur. 

1  See:  Stapff,  in  Bergr  u.  Mttenm.  Zeit.  1862,  p.  134;  Cotta,  in  same, 
1858,  p.  107;  Trinker,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanst.  1850,  p.  213; 
Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Uebersicht  d.  Bergbau,  p.  39. 


328  SCHWATZ,  TYROL.  CHALANCIIES,  IS&RE. 

SILVER  AND  COPPER  DEPOSITS  IN  ALPINE  LIMESTONE 
AT  SCHWATZ  IN  THE  TYROL. 

§  189.  In  the  western  prolongation  of  the  same  limestone- 
belt,  which  contains  the  ores,  mentioned  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph, similar  ores  occur  at  Schwatz,1  only  in  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent form.  They  here  form  segregated  masses,  whose  chief 
ores  also  occur  in  a  so-called  'Adelsvorschub'-,  that  is,  they  lie  in 
and  alongside  of  a  plane,  which  dips  in  W.  at  an  angle  of  27°. 
These  curious  aggregations  of  ore  form,  according  to  von 
Gumppenberg,  prismatic  chimneys,  which  are  no  where  over 
7  feet  in  diameter,  but  have  been  followed  60 — 120  fathoms  in 
a  perpendicular  direction.  The  ore  here,  as  at  Brixlegg,  pre- 
dominantly tetrahedrite,  containing,  in  part,  considerable  quan- 
tities of  mercury,  appears  to  be  firmly  united  to  the  wall-rock. 
The  tetrahedrite  occurs,  combined  with  calc-spar  and  heavy  spar ; 
while  azurite,  malachite,  and  chrysocolla,  have  been  formed  by 
its  decomposition. 

SILVER  DEPOSITS  OF  CHALANCHES  NEAR  ALLEMONT, 

DEPT.  OF  ISERE. 

i 

§  190.  The  probably  Jurassic-limestone-district  (according 
to  Schreiber  a  crystalline  schist-district)  is  traversed  at  Cha- 
lanches2  by  numerous  veins,  which  are  in  part  lodes.  Guey- 
mard,  and  Graff,  distinguished  five  varieties  of  veins: 

1.  Diorite,    or  diabase   dikes,    partly    bedded,    upwards   of 
12A/2  fathoms  broad:  they  are  the  oldest; 

2.  Veins;  striking  N.— S.  and  dipping  in  W.,   consisting  of 
limestone  with  argentiferous  iron  ochre; 

3.  Champion-lodes;  partly  also  striking  N. — S.,  but  dipping 
in  E.;   partly   striking   E.— W.,  and    dipping  towards  N.:    their 
principal    vein-stones    are    calc-spar    and   dolomite;    which    are 


1  See:    Pichler,   Beitrage  z.  Geoguosie  Tyrols,    1859,   p.  10;    Hauer 
and  Fotterle,   Uebers.  d.  Bergbau,  p.  40;   Trinker,   in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog. 
Reichsanst.  1850,  p.  219;  Von  Gumppenberg,   in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  18H6, 
p.  50. 

2  See:    Gueymard,   and  Graff,   in  Bullet,  de  la  societ.  de  Stat.  des 
sciences  natur.  du  Dept.  de  FIsere,  I.  p.  27;   Schreiber,  in  Kohler's  berg- 
mannisch.  Journal,  1788,  p.  22. 


LEAD  AND  ZINC  OF  CARINTHIA.      ;/..;-  329 

accompanied  by  argentiferous  cobalt,  nickel  and  antimony  ores, 
iron  ochre,  and  some  other  minerals;  such  as,  native  silver, 
galena,  blende,  cinnabar,  and  iron  pyrites:  sometimes  a  sym- 
metrical arrangement  of  the  minerals  can  be  observed,  consisting, 
from  the  selvages  towards  the  middle,  of: 
1  Quartz; 

2.  Spathic  iron; 

3.  Dialogite,  with  cobalt  and  antimony  ores ; 

4.  Cobalt,  nickel  and  antimony  ores. 

Breithaupt  has  observed  the  following  successions  on  cabinet- 
specimens  : 

Smaltine— erythrine  —  ganomatite ; 
Copper  nickel — chloanthite ; 
Smaltine— native  silver — erythrine. 

Fragments  of  limestone  also  occur  in  the  veins  and  appear 
to  have  been  subsequently  penetrated  by  ores ; 

4.  Broad  fissures,  upwards  of  2 '/a  fathoms  broad,  filled  with 
large  fragments  of  rock;  and  between  these  with  micaceous  clay: 
they  contain  no  ores:    Schreiber  calls  them  'filons  sauvages' ; 

5.  Still  more  recent  and   narrower  fissures,   also  filled  with 
rock-fragments  and  clay:   they  intersect  the  fissures  No.  4,   and 
are,  therefore,  of  course  younger. 

THE  LEAD  AND  ZINC  DEPOSITS  OF  CARINTHIA 

§  191.  Certain  limestones  of  the  Carinthian  l  Alps  contain 
lead  and  zinc  deposits  in  various  localities ;  which,  notwithstand- 
ing slight  differences  in  detail,  are  so  analogous  to  one  another, 
and  have  so  many  common  characteristics;  that  there  can  be 
no  doubt  of  their  being  geologically  united. 

The  principal  localities,  where  these  ores  are  exploited,  are, 
going  West :  Bleiberg,  Kreuth,  Raibl,  Windisch-Bleiberg,  Kappel, 


1  See:  Cotta,  in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1863,  pp.  9,  33,  41 ,  53;  Peters, 
in  same,  1863,  p.  13:3,  and  in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanst.  1856,  p.  67; 
Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Uebers.  d.  Bergb.  p.  41;  Niederrist,  in  Leonhard's 
Jahrb.  1852,  p.  769;  Morlot,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanst.  1850,  p.  255; 
Melling,  in  Haidinger's  Berichten,  1843,  vol.  V.  p.  31;  Fuchs,  Beitrage 
z.  Lehre  d.  Erzlagerstatten,  pp.  19,  22;  von  Buch,  in  Leonhard's  Taschenb. 
1824,  p.  408;  Mohs,  in  Moll's  Ephemeriden  d.  Berg-  u.  Huttenkunde,  1807, 
vol.  III.  p.  201;  Potiorek,  in  Oesterreich.  Zeitsch.  f.  Berg-  u.  Hiittenw. 
1863,  pp.  373,  382;  Phillips,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1845,  vol.  VIII.  p.  2395 
Boue,  in  Memoires  de  la  societ.  geolog.  de  France,  1835. 


330 


TABLE  OF  ALPINE  TRIASSIC  STRATA. 


Miss,  and  Schwarzenbach  near  Bleiburg.  They  occur  in  a  belt 
of  Alpine  limestone,  about  75  miles  long  and  a  few  broad ;  in 
which,  according  to  the  examinations  of  the  Viennese  geologists, 
the  Alpine  Triassic  is  -represented,  from  the  Werfner  beds 
upwards  to  the  Dachstein  limestone. 

For  the  information  of  the  reader,  it  seems  proper  to  give 
the  subdivisions  of  the  Alpine  Triassic  strata,  now  generally 
used,  since  its  separate  members  will  be  repeatedly  mentioned. 
I  extract  the  subjoined  table  from  Gumbel's  t  Bayerische  Alpen- 
gebirge',  1861,  p.  116. 


Subdivisions. 


Names. 


Synonyms  and  parallel  Strata. 


Upper 

Upper  Keuper  limestone, 

Lithodendron  limestone. 

Keuper 

or  Dachstein  limestone, 

(Lias  of  the 

containing 

Viennese),    j-     Megalodon  triquater. 

• 

Upper     Muschelkeuper, 

Kossener    beds,    upper    St. 

containing 

Cassian  beds,  Gervillia  beds, 

Avicula  contorta. 

Bonebed. 

Middle 

Principal  dolomite 

Dolomite   of  the  Dachstein 

Keuper. 

of  the  Alpine  Keuper. 

limestone. 

«J 

Gypsum  and  cellular 

1 

limestone. 

i 

Lower  Muschelkeuper     i  Raibl  beds,  St.  Cassian  beds, 

M 

of  the  Alps,  containing 

Esino  limestone. 

Cardita  crenata. 

Lower 

.  .  •  —  —  
Lower  Keuper  limestone, 

Hallstatter   limestone, 

Keuper.        and  dolomite  of  the  Alps, 

Arlberg  or  Wetterstein 

containing  Monotis    sa- 

limestone,   Wenger  beds, 

linaria   and  Ammonites 

St.  Cassian  beds,   Partnach 

globrus.    Clay-Keuper  of 

beds.  Cardita  beds. 

the  Alps,  containing  Pte- 

rophyllum     longifolium 

and  Halobia  Lommeli. 

"»     ! 

Fossiliferous 

containing 

Virgloria  limestone, 

11 

limestone 

Encrinus  liliiform  is  . 

Guttensteiner  limestone. 

3 

Haselgebirgs 

containing 

Roth. 

_d 

strata 

gypsum  and  rock-salt. 

A     q^ 

a  to 

Werfner  beds 

=3   T3 
*1 

Variegated 

containing                        containing  rock-salt. 

5 

sandstone 

Meyophoria  vulgaris&nA. 

Myacites  Fassaensis.                      Verrucano. 

BLEIBERG-KREUTH  DEPOSITS.  331 

1.  B  lei  berg  and  Kreiith.  The  metalliferous  deposits 
occur  here  in  a  group,  coursing  N. — S.,  and  about  5  miles  long, 
within  thick  beds  of  limestone.  The  separate  ore- deposits, 
although  they  belong  to  a  common  group,  show  slight  differences 
of  form,  and  even  of  composition,  in  the  eastern,  western,  and 
middle  portion  of  the  entire  group. 

The  metalliferous  limestone  is  very  pure,  with  but  slight 
admixtures  of  extremely  line  crystallized  quartz.  It  is  not  very 
distinctly  stratified,  but  somewhat  more  so  at  the  surface  than 
in  the  mines. 

Its  strata,  or  planes  of  stratification,  incline  30° — 80°  towards 
8.  Their  tilting  gradually  encreases  from  East  to  West  All 
of  the  ore-deposits,  worked  by  the  mines,  lie  in  the  same  lime- 
stone; while  none  of  them  have  been  followed  out  of  this  into 
another  rock,  although  the  slate  and  stinkstone  have  been  pierced 
by  numerous  adits.  Until  recently  the  metalliferous  limestone 
has  been  commonly  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Dachstein  lime- 
stone, since  it  often  contains  casts  of  the  interior  of  so-called 
Dachstein  bivalves.  These  have  been  subdivided  by  Giimbel, 
in  his  recent  examinations,  into  several  species,  of  which  Mega- 
lodon  triquater  and  M.  columbella  have  been  found  in  the  Blei- 
berg  metalliferous  limestone.  Both  kinds  do  not  seem,  in  the 
southern  Alps,  to  be  exclusively  confined  to  the  Dachstein 
limestone,  but  reach  down  to  the  Hallstatter  limestone;  their 
presence  cannot  therefore  altogether  decide  for  the  Dachstein 
limestone.  The  metalliferous  limestone  is  overlaid  by  a  dark 
bituminous,  clayey  marl-slate,  containing  comparatively  few  and 
small  beds  of  so-called  l  fossiliferous  marble ' ;  in  which  are  found 
Ammonites  floridus,  A.  Jarbas  and  A.  Johannis  Austrice,  causing 
a  beautiful  play  of  colors. 


D.  Dachstein  limestone,  containing  the  metalliferous  deposits. 
L.  Black  slate.  —  S.  Bituminous  limestone.   —  a.  Alluvium. 


332  BLEIBERG,  KREUTH,  FUGGERTHAL. 

Potiorek  has  represented  the  bedding,  as  seen  in  the  preceding 
woodcut,  the  local  repetitions  of  the  black  slate  being  omitted. 

Lipold  on  the  contrary  has  represented  the  bedding,  as  in 
the  following  woodcut: 


D.  Dachstein   limestone. 

L.  Black   slate. 

-~f[       S.  Bituminous  limestone. 

a.  Alluvium. 


SL 

The  majority  of  the  metalliferous  deposits  in  all  three  of  the 
sub-districts,  Bleiberg,  Kreuth,  and  Fuggerthal,  are  long-extended, 
irregular,  and  pipe-shaped,  without  definite  limits.  These  ore- 
pipes,  or  chimneys,  extend  locally  in  the  depth  at  a  determined 
angle;  their  direction  is  dependent  on  the  junction  of  certain 
fissures  with  the  stratification-fissures  of  the  limestone,  the  prin- 
cipal axes  of  these  deposits  following  such  lines  of  junction. 
The  fissure-junctions  form  the  ideal  axes  of  the  deposits,  without 
the  strata  being  themselves  filled  with  ore. 

In  the  Fuggerthal,  and  in  the  western  portion  of  the  Kreuth 
sub-district,  the  strata  of  limestone,  and  consequently  the  strati- 
fication-fissures, course  SE.— NW  ,  and  dip  60° — 80°  in  SW.; 
while  the  cross-fissures,  whose  lines  of  intersection  the  deposits 
generally  follow,  strike  NNW.—SSK,  and  incline  but  50°  in  SW. 
Every  junction  is  not  accompanied  by  a  metalliferous  deposit, 
nor  is  it  possible  to  distinctly  recognise  the  fissure-junction  in 
every  deposit;  the  presence  of  these  last  can  sometimes  only  be 
recognised  from  the  general  conditions. 

In  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Kreuth  sub-district,  the  strata 
course  ESE. — WN  W.,  and  have  an  average  dip  of  52°  in  S.;  while  the 
cross-fissures  strike  NNE.-SSW.,  and  incline  60°--70°  in  E.  The 
inclination  of  the  deposits  is  therefore  here  a  south-easterly  one. 

In  both  the  divisions  of  this  sub-district,  18  such  chimneys 
are  known,  whose  diameter,  or  breadth,  varies  between  1  -- 15 
fathoms,  and  whose  lengths  are  known  to  extend  for  more  than 
200  fathoms  in  the  direction  of  dip. 

Within  the  Bleiberg  sub-district  the  stratification  of  the  lime- 
stone changes  its  direction,  so  that  the  fissures  of  stratification  again 
strike  N  W — SE.;  but  only  dip  about  30°  in  S  W.  They  are  traversed : 


FORM,  AND  COMPOSITION,  OF  DEPOSITS.  333 

1.  by  veins;  which  strike  E. — W.,  and  have  a  considerable 
dip  in  N.  or  S. ; 

2.  by,  so-called,  Dr  ei  er  fissures,  which  strike  NE.     SW.;  and 

3.  by  other  fissures,  which  strike  NNE.— SSW. 

The  ore-chimneys  here  usually  follow  the  line  of  junction 
of  the  veins  with  the  stratification-fissures,  and  dip  in  SW.; 
they  also  follow  other  lines  of  junction,  and  then  dip  in  S. : 
they  exist  in  greater  numbers,  but  are  smaller  than  in  the 
western  sub-districts.  Besides  these,  the  veins  striking  E. — W. 
also  contain  ores,  especially  galena,  as  true  fissure-fillings,  1  —  6 
inches  broad.  Seven  of  these  larger  veins  are  known  to  exist, 
besides  several  smaller  ones. 

The  Dreier  fissures  fault  not  only  the  strata,  but  also  tire 
ore-deposits,  at  times  upwards  of  20  fathoms.  Potiorek  states, 
that  the  fissures  coursing  NNE. — SSW.  encrease  the  richness  of 
the  deposits,  where  already  existing. 

I  have  thus  far  only  attempted  to  describe  the  form  of  the 
Bleiberg-Kreuth  deposits;  from"  which  it  appears  that  they  are 
partly  irregular,  but  often  very  massive,  impregnations,  following 
certain  fissure-junctions;  partly  true  fissure-veins. 

I  now  pass  to  their  mineralogical  composition:  this  is  for 
the  most  part  very  uniform.  The  principal  ore  is  every  where 
galena,  containing  either  very  little  or  no  silver ;  while  only  in 
the  western  subdivision,  called  the  Fuggerthal,  does  enough 
smithsonite  occur  with  it  to  render  the  same  an  object  of  exploi- 
tation. This  zinc-ore  is  perhaps  merely  an  alteration  from  blende, 
which  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  the  other  subdivisions  com- 
bined with  the  galena.  Pyrites  occur  but  in  small  quantities, 
and  the  gang-stones  found  are;  calc-spar,  heavy  spar,  flu  or  spar, 
and  a  very  little  quartz.  Von  Zepharowich  enumerates  the  fol- 
lowing minerals,  as  having  been  found  at  Bleiberg: 

1    Anglesite,  in  geodes  of  smithsonite,  accompanied  by  yellow  ochre ; 

2.  Asbestos    (mountain  leather),   in   fissures  of  the   metalliferous 
limestone ; 

3.  Asphaltum,  in  the  Asling  mine; 

4.  Heavy  spar,  with  calc-spar  and  brown  spar; 

5.  Blende,    yellowish-brown,  with  cerusite,    wulfenite,   fluor  spar, 
calc-spar,  and  iron  pyrites; 

6.  Calc-spar; 

7.  Cerusite; 

8.  Dolomite,  in  geodes; 

9.  Fluor  spar; 
10.  Galena; 


334  COMPOSITION  OF  BLEIBERG, 

11.  Gypsum,  in  slate; 

12.  Calamine; 

13.  Zinc  bloom; 

14.  Anhydrite;    graiiular,  blue,^masses ;   with  gypsum,  blende,  and 
galena,  in  metalliferous  limestone'; 

15.  Naphtha  (mineral  oil),  in  bituminous  shale,  and  limestone; 

16.  Iron  pyrites,  with  galena; 

17.  Smithsonite;  globular,  reniform,  botryoidal;  stalactitic,  concen- 
tric, and  in  small  crystals; 

18.  Wulfenite,  as  tabular  crystals,  in  geodes. 

As  a  rule,  the  ores  mentioned  have  penetrated  in  such  a 
manner  into  the  limestone,  that  they  traverse  it  in  the  most 
irregular  manner.  They  form  irregular  strings,  spots,  or  grains; 
surround  fragments  of  the  limestone,  but  fill  no  regular  connected 
fissures  in  it,  except  in  the  eastern  subdivision.  The  ores  occur 
only  alongside  of  the  fissures,  or  rather  alongside  of  their  lines 
of  junction,  enclosing  them  on  one  or  both  sides;  not  alongside 
of  all  fissures  or  junctions,  but  only  alongside  of  some  of  them, 
and  even  of  these  not  always  constantly.  Their  entire  occur- 
rence gives  the  impression  of  impregnations  from  fissures. 

It  is  worth  noticing,  that  the  ores,  in  these  irregular,  and 
by  no  means  sharply  defined  metalliferous  deposits,  occasionally 
have  a  concentric  structure,  as  if  they  had  been  successively 
deposited,  one  over  another.  This  structure  is  often  of  such  a 
kind,  that  an  irregular  kernel  of  galena  is  surrounded  by  a 
layer  of  brownish-yellow  blende,  a  few  inches  thick ;  over  which 
follows  calc-spar;  which  last,  at  the  same  time,  cements  the 
former  .together. 

Friction-surfaces,  or  slicken-sides,  frequently  occur  in  these 
deposits.  They  are  also  here  distinctly  the  result  of  friction, 
and  occur  not  only  in  the  galena,  blende,  and  pyrites,  but  very 
frequently  also  on  the  fissure-planes  of  the  limestone.  They 
even  occur  in  the  stratification-fissures ;  which  circumstance 
caused  Mohs  to  assert,  that  these  could  not  be  fissures  of  strati- 
fication; but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  subsequent  dislocations 
followed  the  fissures  of  stratification,  leaving  friction-planes 
behind  them. 

That  very  considerable  dislocations  must  have  taken  place 
in  the  Bleiberg  district,  is  evident;  not  only  from  the  faults 
observed,  but  also  from  the  jagged  projections,  which  the  marl- 
slate  has  formed  in  the  metalliferous  limestone. 

I  would  call  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the  ores  by  no  means 


KREUTH,  AND  FUGGERTHAL,  DEPOSITS.  335 

occur  at  every  junction  of  two  fissures ;  but  it  can  be  only  said, 
that  these  junctions  are  often  metalliferous,  and  that  ore-chim- 
neys, thus  far  discovered,  follow  nearly  all  the  recognisable 
lines  of  junction,  frequently  even  several  at  the  same  time,  or 
in  succession;  in  the  last  case  springing  over  from  one  line  of 
junction  to  the  other.  A  farther  rule  for  this  peculiar  distribu- 
tion of  the  ore  cannot  be  given. 

Mohs ;  wh6  considered,  in  accordance  with  the  then  know- 
ledge of  the  Alps,  the  metalliferous  limestone  as  belonging  to 
the  transition-rocks;  thought,  that  the  ore-deposits  in  this  origi- 
nally formed  a  continuous  bed.  This  bed  was  subsequently  inter- 
sected, and  faulted,  by  numerous,  mostly  parallel,  fissures.  He 
explains  the  true  veins  in  the  eastern  portion,  as  fissures  filled 
during  the  original  formation  of  the  bed. 

Phillips  explained  the  metalliferous  limestone,  as  probably 
corresponding  to  the  Muschelkalk  ;  the  ores,  as  distinctly  of  more 
recent  formation. 

Fuchs  asserts,  that  somewhat  of  galena  occurs  in  all  the 
magnesian  Alpine  limestones,  often  indeed  imperceptibly,  and 
that  the  Carinthian  lead-deposits  were  deposited  contemporane- 
ously with  the  limestones,  being  only  local  concentrations  of  this 
general  ore-content.  He  appears  to  consider  the  very  constant 
connection  with  the  fissures,  as  being  altogether  unessential, 
or  accidental. 

Lipold,  from  the  verbal  statements  made  by  him,  considers 
the  Hallstatter  limestone  contained  the  ore  when  deposited; 
although  locally  this  was  unequally  distributed.  The  exploitable 
deposits,  he  considers  to  be  of  secondary  origin,  from  the  con- 
centration of  the  ore  in  certain  points,  either  by  chemical,  or 
mechanical  action. 

With  regard  to  myself  (Von  Cotta),  it  appears  to  me;  the 
influence  of  the  various  fissures,  and  their  junctions,  on  the 
distribution  of  the  ores,  is  so  evident;  that  I  cannot  but  think 
these  were  deposited  by  solutions,  which  have  penetrated  these 
fissures,  and  their  adjoining  wall-rock,  for  a  long  period,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  ore-deposits  have  taken  place,  partly  in 
the  fissures  as  true  lodes  (at  Bleiberg),  partly  as  impregnations, 
on  a  grand  scale,  in  the  wall-rock  of  the  fissures:  of  course,  most 
frequently  at  those  points,  where  the  means  of  circulation  were 
rendered  more  easy  by  numerous  fissures;  which  at  the  same 
time  encreased  the  surface  of  rock,  that  could  be  attacked. 


336 


MISS,  SCHWARTZENBACH,  etc. 


2.  Neighborhood  ofBleiburg.  (Miss,  Schwarzenbach, 
etc.)  According  to  the  examination  of  the  Viennese  geologists, 
the  metalliferous  limestone  is  here  every  where  the  Hallstatter; 
in  which  the  separate  deposits  da  not  form  a  continuous  group, 
as  at  Bleiberg;  which  may  arise  from  the  fact,  that  it  is  here 
much  more  disturbed,  than  there. 

In  the  Friedrich-mirie,  at  Miss,  there  are  numerous  so-called 
Dreier  fissures;  which  are  partly  vertical,  partly  dip  about  40° 
in  "NW.  The  last  appear  to  be  stratification-fissures,  and  are 
intersected  by  other  fissures  striking  NE. — SW.,  E. — W.,  and 
N.  —  S.  The  ore  is  foijnd,  as  at  Bleiberg,  collected  at  the  junc- 
tions thus  formed;  it  always  ceases,  where  the  slate  in  the 
hanging-wall  commences. 


(The  form  of  the  workings  is   indicated  by  the  shaded  portions.) 

The  preceding  woodcut  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  ore- 
deposits  are  distributed  in  the  limestone  of  the  Friedrich-mine: 
the  following  altogether  ideal  representation,  the  manner  of  ore- 
distribution  in  the  limestone  of  the  deposit.  In  this  mine,  be- 

sides  the  ore-deposits  following 
the  lines  of  junction,  there  also 
occur    some     more     horizontal 
_  ones,    which   have   no   distinct 

4^"*^  connection    with    the    fissures. 

The  only  ore  is  galena,  with  some  of  the  minerals  already  men- 
tioned under  the  Bleiberg  deposits. 

In  the  Herz-Jesu  mine,  the  intersecting  fissures  are  wanting; 
and  the  collections  of  ore  here  follow  the  Dreier  fissures,  dip- 
ping about  40°  in  SE.,  at  times  having  very  smooth  and  parallel 


RAIBL 


337 


grooved  friction-surfaces.  The  ores  generally  occur  irregularly 
distributed  in  the  limestone  below  these  fissures,  as  shown  in 
the  woodcut. 


-6' 


a,  a.   Fissures  frequently  covered  with  friction-scratches, 
b.  A  very  ferruginous  bed. 

c.  Bunches  of  ore. 

% 

These  zones  of  ore  do  not  extend  into  the  overlying  stink 
stone,  but  suddenly  stop,  as  shown  in  the  woodcut. 


3.  Raibl.  The  ore-deposits  of  Raibl,  south  of  Tarvis;  in 
Carinthia,  are  also  found  in  Triassic  limestone ;  which,  according 
to  the  recent  examinations  of  the  Viennese  geologists,  corre- 
sponds to  the  Hallstatter  limestone,  like  the  metalliferous  lime- 
stone of  Bleiburg,  and  perhaps  also  of  Bleiberg.  Niederrist  says 
of  these  deposits:  'They  occur  in  Alpine  limestone,  strike  E. — W., 
dip  in  S.  not  altogether  parallel  to  the  strata,  but  are  still  to 
be  regarded  as  beds  (?),  having  the  Alpine  limestone  as  floor, 
and  the  slate  as  roof. 

A  peculiarity  of  these  beds  consists  in  their  being  accom- 
panied by  veinlike  formations;  so  that  the  ore- occurrence 

22 


338  RAIBL,  WINDISCH-BLEIBERG,  AND 

appears,   as  a  combination    of  veins   and  beds.     If  the   ore-bed 
is  followed  from  East  to  West,  it  is  found :     *^> 

1.  That   a  calamine^    and    a  lead-belt   can  be   recognised; 
which  join  one  another,  and  occur  together; 

2.  That  the   same  do   not   consist   of  continuous    masses  of 
ore,    but  several   portions,   or    masses,    separated   by   barren   or 
unexploitable  intervals ; 

3.  These  separate  masses  not  only  differ  in  regard  to  breadth, 
extent,  and  enrichment;  but  are  arranged  in  a  row. 

The  lenticular  form  is  seen  in  the  separate  deposits,  and 
in  their  masses  of  ore:  it  is  even  found  in  the  smallest  portions 
of  ore,  down  to  the  individual  crystals  of  galena. 

The  bed-  and  vein-formations  differ,  both  in  strike  ancj  dip, 
as  well  as  breadth  and  extent:  the  former  strike  about E. — W.  and 
dip  10° — 50°  in  SSW.,  the  latter  course  nearly  N.~-  S.  and  incline 
60°— 80°  towards-  SE.  or  S. 

The  beds  vary  in  breadth,  from  a  few  feet  to  several 
fathoms,  readily  splitting  up  in  the  hanging-  and  foot-bedis :  they 
are  much  more  confined  in  the  direction  of  length,  than  that 
of  depth. 

The  extent  of  the  thickness  is  partly  occupied  by  ores, 
partly  by  barren  rock.  The  composition  of  the  ores  is  very 
simple.  The  proper  and,  so  to  speak,  only  lead-ore  is  galena; 
while  cerusite  only  occurs  in  the  geodes  of  the  upper  portions, 
already  penetrated  by  calamine.  The  galena  occurs  crystal- 
lized, only  in  octahedrons,  in  these  same  geodes;  otherwise 
massive,  disseminated  and  as  incrustation,  frequently  presenting 
a  graphic  or  mosslike  appearance.  The  minerals  accompanying 
the  galena  are :  blende,  calc-spar,  dolomite,  heavy  spar,  and 
iron  pyrites.  Mixed  with  the  galena,  or  separated  in  ribbons, 
they  mostly  appear  to  have  a  pipe-form,  with  a  kernel  of  barren 
rock;  which  is  a  clear  proof  of  the  consistency  of  Nature  in 
her  formations,  from  the  least  to  the  greatest,  even  in  the  first 
stages  of  the  structure  of  the  elongated  octahedral  crystals. 

The  deposits,  forming  the  belt  of  calamine,  are  clefts ;  which 
course  NE.— SW.,  dip  at  decreasing  angles  (45°— 35°)  in  NW. 
or  SE.  and  are  so  arranged,  in  a  certain  zone,  as  to  form  a  len- 
ticular whole.  The  breadth  of  the  fissures  is  very  variable ; 
they  decrease  from  a  fathom  to  a  few  inches;  contractions  and 
expansions  are  by  no  means  rare;  the  ores  occur  as  short 
masses,  extending  much  farther  in  the  depth  than  in  length, 


SIMILAR  ORE-DEPOSITS.  339 

like    the    lead-deposits:     the    ores    are    calamine,     more     rarely 
smithsonite/ 

From  this  description,  there  is  a  certain  resemblance  to  the 
deposits  of  Bleiberg. 

4.  Windisch-B  leiberg.     According   to  von  Hauer,  and 
Fotterle,  the  lead- ores  occur  in  Hallstatter  limestone.     A  greater 
or  less  subdivision  of  its  strata  is  metalliferous,   and  is  limited, 
both  in  the  roof,  and  floor,  by  barren  limestone.     This  contains 
galena,    disseminated   in   greater,    and    smaller   masses;    but  the 
principal  richness  in  ore  occurs  in  the  vertical  veins,  or  fissures, 
striking    E.  — W.,    which    traverse    the    metalliferous    limestone 
without  extending  into  the   barren  roof,    or  floor.     These   gash- 
veins  are  filled  with  a  brown  clay,   often  mixed  with  numerous 
angular  fragments  of  limestone:  they  contain  the  galena,  partly 
in  strings  about  3  inches  broad,   partly  in  nests,  or  pockets,    at 
times  attaining  a  diameter  of  several  feet,  and  lying  isolated  in 
the    clay.     The    veins    but    seldom    extend    through    the    entire 
thickness  of  the  metalliferous  limestone  without  any  break.    The 
ore  is  argentiferous  galena. 

The  metalliferous  rock  is  again  the  Hallstatter  limestone,  i-n 
which  a  zone  of  ore  occurs  together  with  gash- veins. 

5.  Similar  Deposits  in  the  northern  Alpine  lime- 
stone.    The   most   important   localities   are,    the   lead   mines  in 
the  Hollen  valley  near  Garmisch,  the  calamine  mines  on  the  Sil- 
berleithan  near  Bieberwirr,  and  the  lead-zinc  mines  on  the  Fei- 
genstein  near  Nassereit. 

Gtimbel  says  of  these:  'all  the  localities,  where  the  lead 
and  zinc  ores  occur,  so  entirely  agree  with  one  another,  that  a 
description  of  one  suffices  for  all ;  the  amount  of  ores,  and  their 
mutual  mixture,  is  however  variable  at  each  point,  so  that  poor 
and  rich  spots  can  be  distinguished. 

The  principal  ores  are  galena,  and  calamine ;  nearly  every 
where  accompanied  by  cerusite  and  blende,  more  rarely  by 
wulfenite  (in  the  Hollen  valley  near  Garmisch,  as  at  Bleiberg). 
The  ores,  when  in  their  original  condition,  occur,  without 
gang-stones,  or  with  calc-spar,  in  pockets  distributed  in  beds 
of  the  Wetterstein  limestone.  By  subsequent  decomposition 
they  have  united,  as  threads  and  strings,  in  fissures  and  clefts 
of  the  limestone;  and  their  occurrence  then  has  both  a  veinlike 
and  bedlike  appearance.' 

22* 


340  X-  ALPINE  DEOPSITS. 

It  is  worth  noticing,  that  the  lead  and  zinc  deposits,  of  the 
northern  Alpine  limestone,  occur,  like  the  southern  deposits,  in 
the  Hallstatter  limestone;.,  so  that,  if  the  metalliferous  limestone 
of  Bleiberg  also  belongs  to  this  subdivision,  as  Lipold  supposes, 
all  these  Alpine  deposits  occur  in  the  same  subdivision  of  the 
strata :  a  circumstance,  which  must  lead  to  the  idea,  that  these 
ore-deposits  must  in  some  manner  be  connected  with  this  special 
formation,  and  are  not  merely  accidental  subsequent  penetrations. 
Such  a  combination  can  be  explained  in  two  ways :  either  the 
metallic  deposits  were  originally  deposited  contemporaneously 
with  the  limestone,  and  have  afterwards,  following  certain  fis- 
sures, merely  been  re-distributed  and  concentrated;  or  the 
metallic  solutions  penetrating  from  without  have,  caused  by  some 
peculiar  property  of  the  rock,  been  distributed  especially  in  the 
Hallstatter.  This  particular  property  of  the  rock  must  then, 
indeed,  have  been  extended  over  the  whole  extent  of  the 
eastern  Alps,  from  southern  Bavaria  to  Carinthia,  in  such  a 
manner,  that  wherever  the  metallic  solutions  came  in  contact  with 
the  limestone,  they  had  a  favorable  reception.  These  deposits 
cannot  have  been  formed  originally,  and  in  the  limestone,  in 
their  present  form  and  distribution.  The  form  and  distribution 
of  the  same  are  much  more  the  result  of  an  event  subsequent 
to  the  deposit  of  the  limestone  named;  whether  the  metalliferous 
solutions  have  penetrated  from  without,  or  have  been  formed  by 
dissolution  from  the  rock  itself. 

The  copper  and  silver  deposits,  between  Schwatz  and  Brix- 
legg,  in  the  Tyrol,  belong  to  Alpine  deposits,  of  a  similar  form 
and  manner  of  occurrence,  but  different  composition.  Here  the 
ores  are  chiefly  copper  pyrites,  and  tetrahedrite ;  which  form 
irregular  aggregations  alongside  of  the  fissures  in  a  limestone; 
commonly  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Guttensteiner  limestone; 
but  which,  Pichler  states,  probably  belongs  to  an  older  formation. 

These  deposits  bear  a  certain  resemblance  to  those  in 
Muschelkalk,  of  Wiesloch  in  Baden,  and  of  Tarnowitz-Beuthen 
in  Upper  Silesia,  in  the  Devonian  limestone  of  Westphalia, 
in  the  mountain-limestone  of  Eupen  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  the 
Chalk  of  the  Province  of  Santander  in  Spain;  also  to  those  of 
Derbyshire  and  Cumberland  in  England. 

When  all  these  analogous  cases  are  compared ;  which  belong 
to  such  different  geological  periods,  and  in  some  of  which  the 
subsequent  penetration  of  the  metallic  solutions  has  been  most 


COBALT,  AND  NICKEL,  DEPOSITS  341 

clearly  proved;  it  is  found  to  be  probable,  that  only  the  special 
chemical,  and  perhaps  mechanical,  properties  of  the  magnesian 
limestone  were  the  cause  of  this  class  of  lead-  and  zinc-deposits. 
These  also  differ  in  a  very  marked  manner  from  the  lead- 
deposits  of  other  regions,  by  the  extremely  small  amount,  or 
absence,  of  silver,  in  the  galena  they  contain.  Their  origin 
evidently  appears  to  be  entirely  independent  of  the  geological 
age  of  the  limestone,  in  which  they  occur.  This  is  in  favor  of 
the  view,  that  the  solutions  have  penetrated  the  limestones  sub- 
sequent to  their  formation,  and  impregnated  them  from  fissures; 
depositing  sulphurets,  in  place  of  the  carbonate  of  lime  dissolved, 
in  such  a  manner  that  these  deposits  may  be  regarded  as  pseu- 
domorphs  by  replacement  on  the  largest  scale.  It  is  under  these 
circumstances  easily  comprehensible,  that  such  kinds  of  deposits 
chiefly  followed  fissures,  and  their  lines  of  junction,  without 
forming  true  lodes. 

It  is  as  difficult  to  say,  whence  the  solutions  came  that 
formed  these  deposits,  as  in  other  cases.  But  we  must  not 
forget,  that  only  very  dilute  solutions  (mineral  springs)  were 
necessary  to  deposit  particle  after  particle,  if  we  suppose  the 
period  of  their  activity  to  be  sufficiently  great,  against  which 
there  is  nothing  to  object.  \ 

From  the  preceding  remarks,  it  is  evident,  that  these  metal- 
liferous deposits  belong  to  a  common  group,  or  class,  which 
are  chiefly  united  to  magnesian  limestones;  whose  ores  are,  ga- 
lena (containing  very  little  silver),  blende,  smithsonite,  or  cala- 
mine;  but  whose  forms  vary  according  to  local  circumstances. 


COBALT-   AND  NICKEL-DEPOSITS,   AT  SCHLADMING 

IN  STYRIA,  ON   THE  NOECKEL  MOUNTAIN  IN  THE 

LEOGANG  VALLEY,  AND  IN  THE  VAL  D'ANNIVIERS 

IN  THE  CANTON  OF  VALAIS. 

§  192.  The  mica-schist  in  the  neighborhood  of  Schladming 1 
contains  zones,  upwards  of  8  fathoms  broad :  which  are  impreg- 
nated with  iron  pyrites,  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  Scandinavian 
Fallbands.  These  fallbands,  or  zones,  of  pyrites  are  intersected, 
on  the  zinkwarid,  and  in  Wettern,  by  veins;  which  contain,  at 


1  See:  Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Uebers.  d  Bergb.  p.  34;  Ehrlich,  Nord- 
ostliche  Alpen,  1850,  p.  84;  Tunner,  in  his  Jahrbuch,  1841,  p.  220. 


34^  QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS'  OF 

their  junctions  with  these,  cobalt  and  nickel  ores,  with  mispickel, 
and  tetrahedritc.  Khrlich  mentions  especially  smaltine,  and 
copper  nickel.  This  occurrence  offers  another  interesting  contri- 
bution to  the  peculiar  influence  otVthe  wall-rock  on  the  metal- 
liferous contents  of  lodes. 

The  Leogang  r  valley  is  one  of  the  largest  side-valleys  of 
the  Mitterpinzgau.  The  Nockel  Mt.  rises  on  th£  north  side  of 
the  Schwarzleo  valley,  one  of  the  side-gorges  of  the  Leogang 
valley,  and  consists  of  Devonian  strata.  The  Sebastian-Michael 
adit  has  been  driven  into  the  mountain,  through  the  black 
Devonian  slate,  to  the  hanging-wall  of  a  ferruginous  dolomite, 
at  a  height  of  1000  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  This 
dolomite,  in  which  greenish  talcose  and  black  graphitic  schists 
occur,  contains  the  ore-deposits.  They  are  irregular  threads, 
branches,  or  lenses,  of  ore,  entirely  surrounded  by  the  dolomite ; 
and  consist  of  quartz  or  bluish-gray  dolomitic  ankerite,  with 
niccoliferous,  and  other  ores.  The  principal  one  is  ullmannite, 
with  which  occur  copper  nickel,  erythrine,  iron  and  copper 
pyrites.  The  iron  pyrites,  which  occurs  implanted  on  quartz- 
geodes,  has  also  penetrated  into  the  fine  cracks  of  the  wall-rock. 

Rich  cobalt  and  nickel  ores  occur  in  chloritic  mica-schist 
high  up  on  the  mountains  in  the  region  of  perpetual  snow,  especially 
in  the  mountain-ridge,  which  separates  the  Val  d'Anniviers  2  from 
the  Turtmann  valley.  They  form;  according  to  Girard,  veinlike 
pockets  striking  about  ENE. — WSW.  They  consist  of  gersdorf- 
fite,  with  somewhat  of  copper-nickel,  iron  pyrites,  and  a  variety  of 
tetrahedrite,  in  which  the  antimony  is  partly  replaced  by  bismuth, 
called  annivite.  A  similar  occurrence  is  repeated  at  the  edge  of 
the  Duran  glacier;  while  at  a  distance  of  9  miles,  a  vein  of  mis- 
pickel with  cobaltine  and  aikinite  (?)  crops  out,  on  the  slope  of 
the  Reschi  valley,  above  the  hamlet  of  Painsec. 

QUICKSILVER  DEPOSITS  OP  IDRIA  IN  CARNIOLA. 

§  193.  The  high  mountains,  in  which  the  valley  of  Idria3 
lies,  mostly  consist  of  limestones,  whose  age  has  not  been  deter  - 

1  See:  Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Uebers.  d.  Bergb.  p.  30;  Lipold,  inJahrb. 
d,  geolog.  Reichsanst.  1854,   p    148;    Ehrlich,  Nordost   Alpen,  pp.  49,    79. 

2  See:  Deicke,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1859,   p.  177;    Girard,  in 
Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1851,  p.  332. 

3  See:    Huyot,    in  Annal.  d.  mines,   V.  p.  7;    Lipold,    in  Oesterreich. 


IDRIA  IN  CARNIOLA. 

mined.  Still  less  determined,  than  the  limestones,  are  the  strata 
containing  the  quicksilver-ores,  which  crop-out  in  the  valley. 
The  Viennese  geologists  have  recently  considered  these  strata  to 
belong  to  the  Carboniferous,  or  still  older  period;  since  the 
Werfner  beds  occur  in  their  hanging-wall,  while  they  .were 
formerly  considered  to  be  more  recent. 

The  following  is  the  descending  succession  of  the,  partly 
metalliferous,  strata : 

1.  Variegated  sandstone  (Werfner  beds); 

2.  Dark  gray  to  black  slates,  so-called  'silver-slates',    containing  ores 
of  mercury; 

3.  Lime-breccia,  impregnated  with  cinnabar; 

4.  Black,    lustrous,    bituminous   shales,    so-called     'bed- shales',    con- 
taining crystals  of  gypsum:    these  contain  the  greatest   richness  in  ores  of 
cinnabar,  which  are  known  under  the  names  of  corallinerz,  stahlerz,   ziegel- 
erz,  lebererz,   idridlith,   homers,  etc.;  according  to  Huyot,   a  green,  partly 
fissile,  sandstone  containing  pyrites,  follows  beneath  these;  then 

5.  Limestone,  passing  into  a  light-colored  sandstone,  often  marly,   with 
traces  of  cinnabar;  and 

6.  Brownish-gray  limestone. 

All  these  strata  are  inclined  30°— 50°  in  E.  or  SE.,  but 
strike  and  dip  very  irregularly ;  their  thickness  is  also  very 
variable.  Both  the  black  ones,  2  and  4;  which  are  to  be  regarded 
as  true  or  impregnated  ore-beds,  and  are  strata  principally  ex- 
ploited; are  very  irregular;  their  thickness  varies  between  1  and 
28  fathoms ;  Huyot  states,  the  silver-slate  even  attains  47  fathoms. 

Lipold  states,  that  a  similar  formation  of  quicksilver  ores 
occurs  near  St.  Anna  in  the  Laibel  valley,  correspondiug  in 
age  to  the  Carboniferous  Period.  All  the  strata  here  are  almost 
tilted  on  end,  and  course  E. — W.  The  succession  begins,  on 
the  side  originally  on  top,  with  Gruttensteiner  limestone;  under 
this  (in  reality  alongside  of  it)  follow  the  Werfner  beds,  then 
the  Gail-valley  beds.  The  last  consist  of  upper  limestone;  of 
black  metalliferous  limestone,  traversed  by  veins  of  calc-spar; 
and  of  gray,  brownish,  ferruginous  marls,  and  slaty  limestones. 
The  cinnabar  occurs  in  the  middle  limestone;  partly  dissemi- 
nated in  the  white  calc-spar;  partly  as  pockets,  in  the  black 
limestone,  or  as  fillings  of  its  fissures  of  stratification ;  principally, 
however,  in  one  fissure,  hence  called  the  metalliferous  crack. 


Zeitsch.  f.  Berg-  u.  Hiittenwesen,  1855,  p.  364;  Hauer  and  Fotterle. 
Uebers.  d.  Bergb.  p.  38;  Von  0  dele  ben,  in  Leonhard's  Taschenb.  1819, 
p.  25,  and  1822,  p.  235. 


344  IRON-DEPOSITS  IN 

IRON-DEPOSITS  IN  THE  CRYSTALLINE  SCHISTS 
OF  THE  EASTERN  ALPS. 

§  194.  Of  the  numerous  iroBs-ore-deposits  l  in  the  crystal- 
line schists,  Carboniferous,  Triassic,  Post-Triassic,  Tertiary,  and 
Post- Tertiary,  strata  of  the  eastern  Alps;  none  are  so  remarkable, 
or  interesting,  as  to  need  description.  There  is^  one  exception 
to  this,  that  of  Pitten  in  Austria. 

The  iron  ores  here  form  a  bed  in  gneiss,  which  is  overlaid 
by  limestone  and  mica-schist.  It  has  a  considerable  dip  at  the 
outcrop,  which  becomes  somewhat  more  gentle  at  a  greater  depth 
towards  W.  The  deposit  is  subdivided  into  two  portions  sepa- 
rated by  a  bed  of  gneiss,  4 — 5  feet  thick;  their  thickness  is 
very  variable,  attaining  12  feet  in  the  upper,  but  only  4  feet  in 
the  lower  bed. 

The  upper  subdivision  consists  of  mostly  decomposed  spathic 
iron,  passing  into  hematite;  in  which  are  found  traces  of  mag- 
nesia, iron  and  copper  pyrites.  The  lower  subdivision  consists 
of  spathic  iron,  hematite,  and  magnetite ;  which  seem  to  pass 
one  into  another,  and  are  so  intimately  combined,  that  cabinet- 
specimens  sometimes  contain  all  three  kinds  of  iron-stone;  which 
indeed  renders  the  explanation,  by  alteration,  much  more  dif- 
ficult. In  the  upper  portions,  hematite  and  specular  iron  pre- 
dominate ;  at  a  depth  of  70  fathoms  below  the  surface,  very  fresh 
spathic  iron  occurs,  passing  into  magnetite.  As  accessory 
minerals,  are  found:  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  azurite,  chryso- 
colla,  and  traces  of  cinnabar.  The  bed  is  frequently  separated 
from  the  country-rock  by  thin  layers  of  clay,  and  is  also  inter- 
sected and  faulted  by  clay-fissures  with  friction-surfaces.  Calc- 
spar  and  quartz  occur  in  geodes. 

IRON-DEPOSITS  OF  THE  LOWER  PALEOZOIC 
IN  THE  EASTERN  ALPS. 

§  195.  The  strata  of  the  lower  Palaeozoic  Era,  in  the 
eastern  Alps,  which  are  principally  Devonian,  although  partly 

1  For  further  information  on  the  iron-deposits,  in  the  above  mentioned 
formations,  see:  Munichdorfer,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog.  Reichsanst.  1855, 
p.  619;  Hauer  and  Fotterle,  Uebers.  d.  Bergb.  p.  72;  Leithe,  in  Kraus' 
Jahrb.  f.  d.  Berg-  u.  Huttemnann,  1852,  p.  234;  Haidinger,  in  Leonhard's 
Jahrb.  1848,  p.  63. 


THE  EASTERN  ALPS.  345 

also  Silurian.,  contain  a  large  number  of  extensive  iron  *  deposits. 
The  most  of  these  are  composed  of  spathic  iron,  and  form  long 
groups  of  beds,  locally  of  very  variable  thickness ;  besides  these, 
also  veins.  Von  Co.tta  then  gives  a  list  of  60  of  these  deposits; 
and  states,  that  52  of  them  lie  in  a  zone  from  E.  to  W.,  whose 
length  is  about  185  miles.  With  one  exception,  they  all  appear 
to  lie  between  the  same  strata,  or  members  of  the  Devonian 
formation,  near  to  its  junction  with  the  Werfner  beds,  and 
Alpine  limestone  The  majority  of  these  deposits  are  belonging 
to  a  certain  niveau  of  the  Devonian,  as  von  Schouppe  has 
proved,  contrary  to  the  former  views,  which  considered  them 
to  be  igneous  segregated  masses.  But  these  beds,  even  when 
locally  very  thick,  are  often  very  irregular  in  their  shape, 
forming  as  it  were  a  number  of  lenticular  bodies,  within  the 
level  of  the  same  strata,  like  the  spherosiderites  in  the  Carpa- 
thians (§  159),  the  only  difference  being  that  their  breadth  is 
often  much  greater.  These  lenticular  beds ;  which,  if  observed 
separately,  would  be  often  mistaken  for  recumbent  segregations ; 
are  also  accompanied  by  veins  of  spathic  iron,  which  obliquely 
intersect  their  wall-rock. 

The  spathic  iron,  of  which  these  beds  and  veins,  ^re  com- 
posed, is  at  times,  partially,  or  altogether  altered  into  limonite 
or  hematite  ;  it  is  contaminated  by  an  intermixture  of  limestone, 
or  slate;  and  contains  besides  these,  as  accessory  minerals; 
specular  iron,  iron  pyrites,  galena,  copper,  and  traces  of  cinnabar, 
also  quartz,  and  heavy  spar. 

The  best  known,  and  most  important  of  all,  is  the  Erzberg 
(Ore  Mountain).  This  mountain,  between  Eisenerz  and  Vordern- 
berg  in  Styria,  rises,  as  a  large  cone,  about  1000  feet  above 
the  Erzbach  valley  into  which  it  projects.  It  consists,  on  its 
northwest  flank,  from  its  peak  almost  to  its  base,  of  more  or  less 
pure  spathic  iron.  Still  the  entire  mountain  does  not  consist  of 
ironstone,  but  only  a  thick  outer  shell.  The  depth  to  which  the 


1  For  further  information,  see:  Kudernatsch,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geolog. 
Reichsanst.  1852,  p.  4;  Von  M  or  lot,  in  same,  1850,  pp.  104,  118;  Von 
ScLouppe,  in  same,  1854,  p.  369;  Tunner,  in  Jahrb.  f.  d.  osterreich.  Berg- 
u.  Jliittenmann,  1843— 184(i,  p.  388,  and  1851,  p.  91;  Haidinger,  in  Leon- 
hard's  Jahrb.  1849,  p.  209;  Pichler,  Beitrage  z.  Geognosie  Tyrols  (2  series). 
1859,  p.  7;  linger,  Einfluss  d.  Bodens,  p.  39;  Von  Miller  considers  these 
ironstones,  as  belonging  to  the  Triassic.  in  Berg-  u.  Huttenmann.  Jahrb.  d. 
k.  k.  Bergakademien,  1864,  No.  12. 


346 


KRZHERG. 


Ij 
11 


ironstone  penetrates  the  mountain  is,  measured  horizontally,  700 
feet,  or  the  thickness  of  its  shell  630  feet.  Beneath  this  follows 
limestone,  or  Devonian  slate.  The  limestone,  sometimes  con- 
taining the  remains  of  Crinoids,  is  not 
sharply  defined  at  its  junction  with  the 
ironstone,  but,  as  it  were,  passes  into  the 
same  by  an  admixture  of  spathic  iron. 
Limonite,  or  at  least  a  brownish  coloring 
of  the  spathic  iron,  has  been  formed  by 
§  „  alteration;  the  mass  also  contains  in 
S  |  places,  quartz  and  calc-spar,  more  rarely 
«  J  specular  iron,  mispickel,  iron  arid  copper 
^  g  pyrites ;  while  stibnite,  and  cinnabar,  are 
if-J  extremely  rare.  The  coralloidal  aragonite, 
j?  |  which  occurs  very  finely  in  cavities,  is  of 
.>>J  secondary  formation. 

J  bb         Von    Schouppe,    who    first    distinctly 
%^    showed  the  bedded  character  of  this  de- 
a  |     posit,    has  given  the   following   profile  of 
1 1     the  Erzberg.    We  there  see  the  ironstone, 
1 1     towards  Reichenstein,  embedded  between 
£&    two  limestones;  towards  Eisenerz,  on  the 
°*  -S     contrary,    where    limestone    is    wanting, 
S  "°     immediately  between  Devonian  slate,  over 
|  J     which    the    Werfner    beds    soon    follow. 
J  j|     Von  Schouppe   has   recognised  the    same 
J  ^     relations    of  bedding   in   numerous    other 
localities  of  the  same  region,  in  which  the 
ironstone,  sometimes,  immediately  overlies 
limestone-breccia.     From    the    uniformity 
in   these  relations  of  bedding,    it  follows 
that  these  masses  of  ironstone  belong  to 
a  particular  niveau  of  the  Devonian  for- 
/^  ^H^     "II     mation,  corresponding  to  the  limestone  in 
which    the    Crinoids    are    found;     conse- 
quently,   these   iron-deposits   must   be   ir- 
regular beds. 


Q 


a  I 


The  origin  of  these  deposits  is  still  very  enigmatical.  In 
so  far  as  they  form  true  beds,  the  mineral  matter  composing 
them  must  have  been  deposited,  during  the  Devonian  Period, 
between  the  beds  enclosing  them.  But  in  what  condition? 


ITALY.  347 

hardly  as  crystalline  spathic  iron.  It  might  be  supposed,  that 
they  were  formerly  spherosiderite,  and  had  become  crystalline, 
through  a  long  continuing  period  of  pressure  and  warmth.  Such 
a  hypothesis  would  also  allow  the  consideration,  that  the  neigh- 
boring veins  of  spathic  iron  had  been  pressed  in  a  softened 
condition  from  the  veins  into  the  fissures.  But  where  do  such 
thick  beds  of  spherosiderite  occur?  and,  in  any  case,  the  manner 
in  which  the  spherosiderite  was  formed  still  remains  an  unsolved 
problem. 

When  spathic  iron  has  once  been  formed,  it  is  then  easy 
to  explain  the  formation  of  limonite,  hematite,  and  even  mag- 
netite, by  alteration.  These  occur  in  the  eastern  Alps,  under 
similar  relations  of  bedding.  It  would  not  be  strange,  if  analo- 
gous ironstones  were  found  in  lower  strata  of  the  Silurian  and 
Devonian  formations,  or  even  in  the  crystalline  schists;  since  the 
same  process  of  formation  may  have  been  repeated  several  times. 


I  T  A  L  Y, 

PRELIMINARY  REMARK. 

§  196.  Italy  contains  much  fewer  metalliferous  deposits 
than  Germany,  and  those  which  do  occur  have  been  much  less 
opened  up.  I  shall  only  notice  the  more  interesting  of  those 
known. 


XVill.    MOUNTAINS  OF  MODENA  AND 

TUSCANY. 

CINNABAR  DEPOSITS  AT  RIPA  IN  MODENA. 

§  197.     The   mountains   at  Ripa, '    near  the   small    town  of 
Pietra  Santa,  consist  of   crystalline  schists;    mica-schist,    chlorite 


1  See:    Russegge-r,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1845.  p.  565;   Coquand,  in 
Bulletin  geologique,  vol    VI.  p.  102. 


348  CINNABAR,  LEAD,  AND  COPPER, 

schist,  and  talc-schist.  Within  the  common  mica-schist,  occurs 
a  white  silky  variety,  passing  into  talc-schist,  containing 
numerous  layers  of  quartz.  In  these  last  cinnabar  is  found, 
which  penetrates  the  entire  massy  especially  the  fissures  of 
foliation. 

The  cinnabar  has  probably  penetrated  the  rock  long  sub- 
sequent to  its  formation;  so  that  the  deposit  must  be  regarded, 
as  an  impregnation,  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term.  The  dif- 
ferent character  of  the  mica-schist  containing  the  cinnabar,  from 
that  free  of  the  same,  is  possibly  a  consequence  of  the  same 
process  by  which  the  impregnation  was  formed. 

LEAD  AND  COPPER  ORES  IN  THE  APUANIAN  ALPS. 

§  198.  The  Tamburra,1  a  portion  of  the  highest  central  ridge 
of  the  Apuanian  Alps  east  of  Carara,  mostly  consists  of  granular 
limestone,  or  white  marble;  and  the  schists,  observed  here  and 
there,  are  probably  only  subordinate  contemporaneous  rocks. 
A  fine  lead-lode  occurs  close  under  the  crest,  near  the  so-called 
Campanelli  di  Garfagnana;  it  strikes  NNE.— SSW.,  dips  in  SW., 
is  several  feet  broad,  and  contains  argentiferous  galena. 

Crystalline  schists  crop-out,  southerly  of  this  marble  district, 
in  which  the  deep  valley  of  the  Versitia  is  excavated.  In  this 
valley,  somewhat  to  the  south  of  Ruosina,'-  is  a  mass  of  chlorite 
schist,  entirely  penetrated  by  fine  threads,  and  pockets,  which 
consist  of  quartz  with  sulphurets.  Argentiferous  galena  and 
blende  predominate;  but  stibnite,  iron  and  copper  pyrites  also 
occur.  These  threads  of  ore  are,  in  turn,  traversed  by  strings, 
and  veins,  of  specular  iron;  while  the  same  schists  contain,  in 
the  neighborhood,  broad  veins  of  hematite,  specular  iron,  and 
magnetite.  Hoffmann  states,  they  all  appear  as  injections,  and 
sublimations.  The  last  may  be  true  for  the  veins  of  specular 
iron ;  but  those  containing  sulphurets,  seem  to  be  rather  the 
results  of  infiltration. 

The  rock  at  Val  di  Castello3  is  mica-schist  and  limestone. 
The  schist,  near  its  junction  with  the  latter,  contains  parallel 

1  See:  Russegger,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1845,  p.  565. 

2  See:  Hoffmann,  in  Karsten's  Archiv,  1833,  vol.  VI.  p.  238. 

3  See:  Fiedler,  in  Poggendorfs  Annalen,  1846,  vol.  67,  p.  428,  and  in 
Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1848,   p.  600;    Russegger,    in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1845, 

>    566. 


ORES  OF  MODENA.  -  349 

beclded-veins,  essentially  consisting  of  argentiferous  galena.  At 
times  several  of  them  unite  to  form  a  so-called  Stockwerk;  from 
which  it  would  seem,  that  they  are  not  beds,  as  Russegger 
thought,  but  bedded  veins. 

Not  far  from  these  deposits,  at  Castello  on  the  Angina  canal, 
occurs  a  limestone  with  indistinct  organic  remains.  This  is  tra- 
versed by  veins,  a  few  inches  broad,  consisting  of  heavy  spar, 
calc-spar  and  flu  or  spar,  with  tetrahedrite,  and  iron  pyrites. 
Very  remarkable  is  the  fact,  that  the  masses  of  the  veins  are  at 
times  separated  by  empty  fissures,  resembling  selvages,  from  the 
wall-rock,  so  that  it  stands  free.  This  is  the  same  case,  which 
Fiedler  once  described,  and  thought  the  cavity,  traversed  by  the 
lode,  had  existed  previous  to  the  formation  of  the  vein.  It  is 
evident,  that  the  easily  assailable  wall-rock  has  been  washed 
awav  on  both  sides  of  the  firmer  lode. 


COPPER  ORES  IN  THE  SERPENTINE  OF  MODENA. 

§  199.  The  mountain  masses,  on  both  sides  of  the  Roz- 
zena,  consist,  at  Ospitaletta, l  of  serpentine;  which  here  traverses 
Maciyno  and  Alberese  and  appears  to  have  considerably  meta- 
morphosed them.  Within  the  serpentine  are  found  great  irregu- 
lar masses,  of  red  and  green  jasper,  and  a  talcose  slaty  clay; 
which  are  much  decomposed,  and  in  part  reduced  to  argillaceous 
variegated  masses.  In  these  decomposed  masses  occur  small 
masses,  of  native  copper,  and  psilornelane;  which  both  appear 
to  penetrate  the  jasper  and  clay  in  irregular  strings,  but  so 
unequally  and  irregularly,  that  no  idea  of  working  them  can  be 
entertained.  Russegger  thinks,  the  jasper-clay  masses  are  altered 
portions  of  Cretaceous  marl  and  Macigno  slate. 

The  Monte  Nero  at  Rochetta  consists  of  serpentine,  sur- 
rounded by  crystalline  schists.  Large  segregations  of  red  and 
green,  compact  or  slaty  jasper,  occur  in  the  serpentine,  on  its 
northern  flank.  These  are  traversed  by  peculiar  lenticular  veins, 
which  swell  out  to  a  breadth  of  3  feet,  and  are  united  by  small 
empty  fissures.  These  lenticular  bodies  consist  of  manganite, 
with  native  copper,  and  malachite;  a  very  peculiar  combination 
of  minerals. 


1  See:  Russegger,   in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1S44,  pp.  771,  773,  781,  782. 


350  COPPER,  AND  LEAD, 

THE  COPPER  AND  LEAD  DEPOSITS  OF  TUSCANY. 

§  200.  The  metalliferous  mountain-districts  of  Tuscany * 
consist  of  sedimentary  strata,  traversed  and  upheaved,  by  ser- 
pentine, gabbro,  and  feldspathic  rock  (quartz-porphyry,  etc.). 
The  eruptions  of  serpentine  appear  to  have  preceded  the  Ter- 
tiary Period ;  those  of  the  feldspathic  rocks,  to  have  followed  it. 
These  sedimentary  strata,  whose  stratification  is  very  frequently 
destroyed,  consist,  in  descending  order,  of: 

I.  Tertiary  deposits: 

1.  Subapennine  marl; 

2.  Pliocene  limestones;   alternating  with  ophiolithic  conglomerates: 

II.  Cretaceous  (or  eocene?)   deposits: 

1.  Macigno,  thick  clayey  and  micaceous  sandstones; 

2.  Alberese,  thick  limestones  and  marl  shales: 

III.  Jurassic  (and  Triassic?)  Deposits: 

1.  Red  limestones,  and  variegated  slates; 

2.  White  granular  limestone  (marble  of  Carara); 

3.  Verrucano,  sandstones,  and  slates;  the  last  partly  crystalline. 
The  ore-deposits,    which    are  in  part   very   intimately   com- 
bined  with   these    rocks,    form   irregular   veins,   and    segregated 
masses,  consisting  of  hematite,  copper  pyrites,  erubescite,  blende, 
galena,    cinnabar,    and   various    argentiferous   sulphurets.     Some 
of  them   are   intimately   combined    with   the   serpentines,    others 
with    amphibolic   rocks,    and  still    others  with   the   metamorphic 
sedimentary  rocks. 

1.  Copper  Deposits  associated  with  serpentine. 
They  form  irregular  veins,  in  serpentine,  or  at  the  limits  of  the 
rocks  it  has  pierced;  especially  on  the  Monte-Catini,  Monte- Vaso, 
Monte-Castelli,  and  in  the  Rocca-Tederighi.  They  chiefly  consist 
of  copper  pyrites,  and  erubescite,  with  somewhat  of  native  copper, 
melaconite,  and  tetrahedrite. 

The  best  known,  and  most  interesting,  of  these  occurrences, 
is  that  of  Monte-Catini.  The  Cretaceous  strata  are  here  broken 
through,  and  much  metamorphosed,  by  gabbro  and  serpentine. 
The  champion-lode,  which  occurs  in  gabbro,  courses  E.—  W.  and 
is  extremely  narrow  at  its  outcrop,  being  about  an  inch  broad; 
but  it  constantly  encreases,  with  the  depth,  to  6,  9,  12,  and 


1  See:  W.  Paget  Jervis,  in  Mining  Mag.  Jan.  1861,  pp.  55,  198;  Burat, 
Traite  du  gisement  et  de  1'exploit.  des  mineraux  utiles,  1858,  p.  357; 
Pilla,  in  Compte  rendu,  1845,  vol.  XX,  p.  811 ;  Caillaux,  in  Berg-  u.  hfittenm. 
Zeit.  1858.  pp.  372,  421 ;  Von  Rath,  in  Zeitschr.  d.  deutsch.  geolog.  Gesellsch. 
1865,  vol.  XVII.  p  2^2. 


ORES  OF  TUSCANY.  351 

even,  exceptionally,  30  feet.  Its  dip  is  about  45°.  It  is  mostly 
composed  of  a  talcose  rock,  resembling  serpentine,  with  frag- 
ments, and  even  great  horses,  of  gabbro.  The  ores  occur,  scat- 
tered through  the  serpentine  rock,  consisting  of  erubescite,  and 
copper  pyrites,  very  pure  and  almost  free  of  other  admixtures. 
They  form  small  nodular  masses,  or  even  large  ones,  of  several 
cubic  feet  content,  and  encrease  in  number  with  the  depth. 
They  are  frequently  found  collected  at  the  foot- wall  of  the  lode, 
there  filling  irregular  depressions,  and  fissures  in  the  country- 
rock  ;  while  the  hanging-wall  is  much  more  regularly  defined. 
Nodular  masses  of  ore  occur  scattered,  even  in  the  middle  of 
the  lode;  while,  from  irregular  bends  of  the  vein,  the  foot-wall 
occasionally  becomes  the  hanging  one,  but  is  still  chiefly  accom- 
panied by  the  ores,  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  aggregation  of 
ore  appears  to  have  essentially  been  a  one-sided  one. 

Some  pockets  of  ore,  while  having  a  less  thickness,  are 
longer  and  higher,  being  30 — 100  feet ;  and  then  form  a  sort  of 
continuous  selvage,  at  the  foot-wall.  Other  ore-sheets  of  this 
kind  occur  more  in  the  middle  of  the  lode. 

The  lode  frequently  branches,  and  sends  out,  especially  at 
right  angles  to  its  general  strike,  droppers,  which  cannot  be 
regarded  as  cross-courses. 

Experience  has  shown,  that  the  ore  encreases,  not  only 
qualitatively,  but  also  quantitatively,  with  the  depth;  and  that 
those  places  are  particularly  rich,  where  ramifications  branch 
into  the  wall-rock.  At  such  points,  native  copper  sometimes 
occurs,  in  clefts.  As  accessory  minerals  also,  occur  somewhat  of 
mispickel,  tetrahedrite,  and  quartz. 

Burat  is  of  the  opinion,  that  the  fissure  in  the  gabbro  was 
first  filled  with  serpentine  which  received  fragments  of  the  wall- 
rock;  and  that  the  ores  came  subsequently  through  emanations, 
which  were  consequences  of  the  serpentine  eruption.  The  cavi- 
ties containing  the  ores  might  have  been  formed  by  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  serpentine. 

Similar  lodes  recur  at  Eocca-Tederighi,  where  serpentine 
and  gabbro  occur  between  quartz-porphyries;  the  veins  encrease 
here  also,  in  richness  and  breadth,  with  the  depth.  Entirely 
analogous  are  also  the  ore-occurrences  on  the  Monte- Vaso  and 
Monte-Castelli;  there  is  likewise  a  considerable  analogy  with 
the  ores  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  Serpentine  appears 
in  numerous  localities  to  be  generally  a  carrier  of  copper-ores. 


352  ORES  WITH  HORNBLENDE. 

2.  Ores  associated  with  hornblende.  A  second  very 
interesting  group  is  that  of  Combigliese.  The  rock,  of  which 
the  Monte-Calvi  consists,  is  ,for  the  most  part  granular  limestone, 
belonging  to  the  Jura  group,  and  perhaps  also  less  metamor- 
phosed Alberese.  In  these  occur  very  irregular  lodes,  cropping- 
out  with  but  slight  breadth  and  extent*,  they  ramify  irregularly 
in  the  limestone,  and  often  wedge-out  very  suddenly. 

According  to  Burat,  they  appear  to  encrease,  with  the  depth,* 
in  breadth  and  extent,  often  uniting;  from  which  he  concludes, 
that  they    represent   the   frequently   ramified   upper   portions    of 
two   igneous  veins.     Their   composition  is  locally  different;    am- 
phibole  and  lievrite,  with  somewhat  of  quartz,  every  where  form 
the  chief  mass,  the  amphibole  sometimes  forming  radiated  nodules : 
towards  the  outcrop,  both  are  much  decomposed,  and  altered  to 
an  earthy  mass.     In  this  occur,  near  Rocca-San-Sylvestre  chiefly 
iron  pyrites,  near  Temperino  principally  copper  pyrites,  at  Cava 
del  Piombo  mostly  blende  and  galena.    These  ores  are  not  locally 
distributed  in  equable  masses,  but  occur  in  rich  streaks,  15 — 30 
feet   broad    and  three   times   as   long,    which    appear   to  extend 
principally  in  the  direction  of  depth.     The  mass  of  the  lodes  is 
often  firmly  joined  to  the  wall-rock,  and  so  intimately  combined, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  state,  where  the  limits  are :  they  appear  to 
have  melted    together.      Spheroidal    secretions,    with    concentric 
structure,  are  often  found,  consisting  of  alternating  layers  of  ores 
and    vein-stone,    or   having  kernels   of   pyrites,    surrounded   by 
radiated   hornblende.     No   trace  of  a  symmetrical   arrangement, 
parallel    to    the  walls,    can   be    seen.     The    masses   of   ore    are 
irregularly  distributed,  and  from  the  manner  of  their  dissemina- 
tion, especially  of  the  concentrical  spheroids,    it  is  evident  that 
they  were  formed  contemporaneously  with  the  rest  of  the  matrix. 
Burat    concludes,    from    all    the    circumstances,    that    these    are 
igneous   dikes,    formed   like   other   similar   dikes,    containing  no 
ores.     He  states,  that  where  .parallel  zones  occur,  they  are  only 
consequences  of  an  elongation  caused  by  the  upward  movement. 
It   must    be   conceded,    that   this   view   has   much   in   its    favor; 
although,   from   a  chemical   point   of  view,   it  appears   very   dif- 
ficult to  concede,   that  all  the  minerals,   occurring  in  the  veins, 
were   formed    by    solidification   from    an   igneous-fluid    condition. 
The   nature  of  these    deposits  can    be  very   distinctly  seen  in  a 
quarry  in  the  Cava  del  Piombo,  represented  in  the  woodcut. 
The  irregular  dark   veins  here   traverse  white   marble;    the 


CAVA  DEL  PIOMBO. 


353 


concentrical  spheroids,  of  which   they  are  principally  composed, 
at  times  appear   in   the   country-rock,    as  if  separated  from  the 


vein.  A  complete  penetration  of  the  mass  appears  to  have  taken 
place.  At  this  point  the  amphibolic  rock,  essentially  mixed  with 
only  blende  and  galena,  appears  almost  black ;  where  only  blende 
is  mixed  with  it,  the  same  appears  more  yellowish;  and  where 
copper  pyrites  predominate,  of  a  more  greenish  color. 

Pilla  mentions  a  greater  variety  of  minerals,  than  Burat,  in 
the  lodes  just  described;  viz.  foliated  sahlite,  epidosite,  compact 
melaphyre,  and  lievrite,  as  principal  ingredients,  accompanied 
by  quartz,  calc-spar,  aragonite,  limonite,  epidote,  iron  pyrites, 
marcasite,  mispickel,  copper  pyrites,  malachite,  euchroite,  blende, 
buratite,  galena,  and  allophane,  as  accessory  minerals.  At  Rocca 
San-Silvestre  spheroidal  masses  occur  in  the  veins,  composed  of 
alternating  concentric  layers  of  pyroxene,  and  calc-spar;  and 
contain  quartz-crystals. 


354  ISLAND  OF  ELBA. 

XIX.     THE  ISLAND  OF  ELBA. 

rf  . 

CAPE  CALAMITA,  AND  RIO. 

§201.  The  eastern  portion  of  the  Island  of  Elba,1  contain- 
ing the  renowned  iron-deposits,  consists  principally  of  mica-schist, 
with  subordinate  layers  of  granular  limestone,  and  dolomite, 
overlaid  by  slates,  sandstones  and  limestones,  generally,  called 
Macigno  and  Alberese,  and  belonging  either  to  the  Cretaceous 
group,  or  to  the  Eocene  strata.  Dioritic  rocks,  in  part  passing 
into  serpentine,  have  broken  through  these  strata. 

The  iron-deposits  are  essentially  combined  with  the  mica- 
schist,  but  come,  also,  in  contact  with  the  serpentine.  They  are 
especially  developed  in  four  localities;  viz.  on  Cape  Calamita, 
on  Cape  Bianca  at  Terra  nera,  at  Rio,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Albano.  These  all  lie  in  a  line  drawn  from  North  to  South. 
The  largest,  and  most  developed,  are  the  deposits  of  Cape  Cala- 
mita, and  Rio;  and  as  the  conditions  of  bedding  are  every  where 
the  same,  I  shall  confine  my  description  to  these  two  localities. 


The  woodcut  represents  an  exterior  view  of  the  deposit  at 
Cape  Calamita   (from  Burat).     The   dark   mass  is  specular  iron, 

1  See:  Krantz,  in  Karsten's  Archiv,  1840,  vol.  XV.  p.  347;  Burat, 
Theorie  des  gites  metalliferes,  1845,  p.  247,  and  Geologic  appliquee,  1858, 
p.  354;  Annales  d.  mines,  1852,  vol.  I.  p.  608;  von  Rath,  in  Leonhard's 
Jahrb.  1865,  p.  98. 


CAPE  CALAMITA,  RIO. 

and  limonite ;  the  light-colored  strata  over-arching  it,  crystalline 
dolomite;  over  which  follows  mica-schist. 

Burat  describes  this  deposit  almost  as  follows.  The  Monte 
Calamita  rises  218  fathoms  above  the  sea,  and  consists  of 
schistose  strata  with  calcareous  beds.  These  strata  are  supposed 
to  have  been  formed  by  the  metamorphosis  of  Alberese  and 
Macigno  (which  Naumann  however  doubts),  and  form  an  arch. 
The  centre  of  this  arch  consists  of  hematite,  and  magnetite: 
these  are  accompanied,  near  the  junction  with  the  limestone,  by 
green  amphibole,  and  lievrite.  The  overlying  strata  are  meta- 
morphosed in  the  most  different  manners.  Magnetite  and 
hematite  penetrate  the  dolomite,  render  it  crystalline  granular, 
and  surround  fragments  of  the  same  of  all  sizes.  Burat  thinks, 
the  iron-ore  must  here  have  penetrated  upwards,  precisely  in 
the  same  manner  as  igneous-fluid  rocks.  This  supposition,  he 
thinks,  solves  the  whole  enigma  of  the  origin.  Against  which 
indeed  many  important  doubts  may  be  raised. 

Krantz  says,  on  the  contrary:  'The  iron-ore-deposit,  occur- 
ring on  Cape  Calamita,  rises,  where  most  extended,  to  a  height 
of  900  feet  above  the  sea.  The  bed  is  mostly  limonite,  and 
iron-ochre,  at  the  surface;  but,  at  a  slight  depth,  passes  into 
specular  iron.  Large  fragments,  partly  in  place,  partly  detached, 
designate  the  entire  extent  of  the  deposit;  on  whose  southeast 
side  native  magnets  are  found  near  the  sea.  I  observed,  so  far  as 
was  possible,  that  the  magnetic  iron  forms  a  bed  on  the  eastern 
limit  of  the  iron-deposits ;  in  which,  as  at  Rio,  though  less  fre- 
quently, lievrite  occurs  having  a  brown  incrustation.  Semiopals, 
less  frequent  near  the  surface,  but  there  of  a  brownish  and 
reddish  color,  probably  also  owe  their  origin  to  this  'bed  for- 
mation.' 

Krantz  says  of  the  renowned  mine  at  Rio:  'The  rocks, 
altered  to  mica-schist,  occurring  immediately  over  the  Marina 
di  Rio,  crop- out,  in  a  much  altered  condition,  from  the  influence 
of  igneous  rocks;  then,  while  specular  iron  occurs  higher  up, 
the  base  is  serpentine.  This  occurrence  is  important,  as  allowing 
the  most  certain  conclusion  (?),  that  the  formation  of  the  serpen- 
tine preceded  that  of  the  specular  iron ;  then,  while  the  elevated 
mica-schist  contains  much  specular  iron  at  its  limits,  the  serpen- 
tine is  always  free  from  it.  The  following  woodcut  represents 

this  occurrence. 

- 

23* 

•'*'v    "':i:  <p  tmTfted  ^rtftfteqa 


356 


RIO  LA  MARINA. 


Mica-schist  containing  specular 
iron. 


The  mica-schist  occurs,  at  its  junction  with  the  serpentine, 
as  a  very  soft,  now  clayey,  now  calcareous,  fissured  rock,  con- 
taining quartz  secretions.  The  nearer  it  approaches  the  specular 
iron  penetrating  it,  so  much  the  softer  does  it  become,  until  it 
is  changed  to  a  yellow  clay.  It  is  frequently,  however,  very 
hard  near  the  specular  iron. 

Finely  crystallized  iron  pyrites,  frequently  occurs  with  the 
specular  iron,  and  in  its  neighborhood  lievrite.  Krantz  gives 
the  following  instructive  profile  of  an  occurrence  of  this  last. 


M.  S.  Mica-schist. 

H.  u.  A.  Hornblende  and  Actinolith. 

G.  L.  Granular  limestone. 

The  mica-schist  here  contains  a  widely  extended  bed  of 
actinolith,  full  of  geodes,  whose  walls  are  covered  with  prismatic 
crystals.  Single  crystals  of  lievrite  occur  here  and  there  in  the 
same,  coming  from  the  chief  mass,  which  traverses  the  actinolith, 
as  a  bed,  nearly  in  the  middle.  The  lievrite  is  here  black, 
reticulated,  and  stellated.  It  contains  iron  pyrites,  and  mispickel, 
in  its  upper  portion.  In  the  foot-wall,  of  the  bed  of  amphibole, 
occurs  a  wedge  of  granular  limestone. 

Burat  says,  of  Rio  la  Marina;  which  was  the  only  locality, 
where  iron  was  exploited  in  1845;  that  this  largest  and  richest 
iron-deposit  of  the  island  has  penetrated,  parallel  to  the  strati- 
fication, between  quartzose  schist  and  limestone.  The  centre  of 


FRANCE.  GENERAL  REMARKS.  357 

the  same  consists  of  crystalline  specular  iron  and  compact 
limonite,  the  former  contains  concretions  of  iron  pyrites.  The 
limits,  towards  the  hanging-  and  foot-walls,  are  rendered  indis- 
tinct by  intermixtures,  and  transitions.  The  enclosing  strata 
have  also  become  very  crystalline  near  the  deposits,  and  contain 
amphibole  and  lievrite.  All  the  relations  tend  to  show  a  subli- 
mation, or  eruption.  When  we  call  to  mind,  that  on  Vesuvius 
newly  formed  fissures  have  been  filled,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks,  with  specular  iron  by  sublimation  •,  this  manner  of  for- 
mation becomes  very  probable  for  the  iron-deposits  of  Elba, 
although  the  island  does  not  belong  to  the  truly  volcanic  ones. 
The  apparently  massive  occurrence  of  the  specular  iron  can  be 
probably  traced  back  to  a  repeated  fissuring  and  penetration  of 
the  rocks. 

Both  these  accounts  are  unfortunately  so  contradictory,  and, 
in  part,  so  incomplete,  that  no  judgment  of  the  reader  can  be 
founded  on  them. 


FRANCE, 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

§  202.  Six  mountainous  districts  occur  on  the  borders  and 
in  the  interior  of  France,  consisting  of  older,  mostly  igneous 
or  metamorphic  rocks  ;  the  broad  intervals  between  which,  partly 
basins,  are  filled  with  Secondary  and  Tertiary  deposits.  These 
six  mountain  districts  are : 

1.  The  western  portion  of  the  Alps; 

2.  The  Vosges; 

3.  The  Ardennes; 

4.  The  Central  District  of  France; 

5.  Brittany; 

6.  The  Pyrenees. 

Of  these,  only  (4,  6,  5)  the  Central  District  of  France,  the 
Pyrenees,  and  Brittany,  will  be  more  fully  spoken  of;  the  others 
having  been  partly  already  described  with  other  districts,  partly 
containing  nothing  of  particular  importance. 


358  IRON,  AND  OOLITHIC,  DEPOSITS 

Metalliferous  deposits,  other  than  those  of  iron,  are  not  found, 
outside  of  these  mountainous  districts,  arid  their  borders ;  but 
within  these  occur  many  veins  extending  from  the  older  rocks 
up  to  the  Jura. 

The  intervals  between  the  mountain-districts,  mostly  con- 
sisting, at  the  surface,  of  recent  and  horizontal  strata,  only  con- 
tain iron-deposits,  partly  as  beds  in  the  Jura  group,  partly  as 
less  regular  aggregations  of  oolithic  ore,  nodular  ore,  and 
bog-ore. 

I  shall  first  mention  the  sedimentary  iron-ore-deposits,  of 
France  and  the  Swiss  Jura,  in  common ;  and  then  pass  to  the 
mountainous  districts;  the  general  character  of  whose  metalli- 
ferous deposits,  or  some  particularly  well  known  cases,  I  shall 
attempt  to  describe. 


XX.     IRON-DEPOSITS  OF  FRANCE. 

OOLITHIC    ORES,   AND   IRON-DEPOSITS    IN   THE 
JURASSIC  GROUP. 

§  203.  The  Jurassic  strata,  and,  in  part,  also  the  Neoco- 
mian  beds,  contain,  in  numerous  parts  of  France,  similar  deposits 
of  ironstone  to  those,  with  which  we  have  already  become 
acquainted  in  Wiirtemberg,  and  Bavaria.  From  which  follows, 
not;  indeed,  a  general  connection  of  the  separate  beds,  but  a 
great  conformity  in  the  general  lithological  character,  throughout 
the  whole  of  central  Europe  during  the  Jurassic  Period,  extend- 
ing from  the  Alps  to  the  Pyrenees,  the  Scottish  and  Scandina- 
vian elevated  plateaux. 

Secondary  aggregations  of  iron-ores  occur,  in  the  form  of 
pebbles,  nodular  masses,  or  concentric  masses  (oolithic  ores); 
together  with  the  parallel  beds  of  limonite,  hematite,  and  clay 
ironstone;  at  numerous  places,  both  in  France  and  Germany; 
between  the  strata  of  the  Jura  group.  These  fill  cavities,  fis- 
sures, and  surface-depressions,  of  the  Jurassic  and  Triassic  lime- 
stones; or  occur  in  separate  Tertiary  beds. 

These,  partly  at  least,  secondary  iron-deposits  are  in  many 
respects  still  obscure  occurrences. 


IN  THE  SWISS,  AND  FRENCH,  JURA.  359 

<tut\^'-  -Vfi 

OOLITHIC  DEPOSITS  IN  THE  SWISS  AND  FRENCH  JURA. 

§  204.  The  chain  of  the  Jura,  consisting  for  the  most  part 
of  much  tilted  limestones,  contains  in  many  places  oolithic  iron- 
ores  embedded  in  irregular  cavities  and  fissures  of  the  limestone ; 
which  bear  a  great  analogy  to  those,  with  which  we  have 
already  become  acquainted  in  the  Suabian  Alp  (§  132). 

Grossly  l  has  described  these  deposits  very  completely.  The 
ores  occur  in  a  variegated,  mostly  red  or  yellow,  clay;  which 
is  at  the  same  time  mixed  with  earthy  limonite,  and  contains 
sand  and  boulders.  They  consist  of  grains,  nodular,  and  ellip- 
soidal masses,  of  very  variable  size;  which  are  sometimes  united 
in  a  very  loose  manner. 

They  occur,  either  in  fissures  or  irregular  cavities  of  the 
Jura  limestone,  or  form  very  irregular  deposits  on  the  same, 
on  older  or  on  much  more  recent  rocks.  Fossils  are  rather 
scarce  in  the  deposits,  of  these  not  a  single  specimen  appears 
to  belong  to  the  period  of  their  formation,  but  all  belong  to 
Jura,  Cretaceous,  or  Tertiary  deposits  of  a  greater  age;  while 
the  remains  of  mammals  also  occur  among  them,  which  appear 
to  belong  to  a  very  recent  period.  Nevertheless  they  are  fre- 
quently overlaid  by  Cretaceous  and  Molasse  strata;  from  which 
Gressly  concludes,  that  they  are,  in  general,  more  recent  than 
the  Jura  formation,  but  older  than  the  Cretaceous.  Which  it  is, 
indeed,  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  occurrence  of  the  more 
recent  fossils. 

The  surfaces  of  the  limestones,  on  which  they  lie,  every 
where  exhibit  a  certain  conformable  character,  being  uneven, 
as  if  attacked  and  eaten  by  acids.  Frequently  a  breccia,  with 
fragments  and  boulders  of  the  Jura  limestone,  occurs  immediately 
under  them,  also  appearing  as  if  it  had  been  attacked  by  acids. 

Such  deposits  occur  in  innumerable  localities  of  the  Jura- 
chain,  principally  near  the  great  valleys,  and  on  their  bottoms, 
but  also  in  fissures  and  cavities  at  the  most  different  levels  of 
the  mountains;  so  that  they  might  be  regarded  as  the  remains 
of  a  general  stratum,  did  not  other  important  reasons  exist 
against  this  view. 


1  See:  Gressly,  Sur  le  Jura  souleurois,  in  the  Neuen  Denkschriften 
der  allgeraeinen  Schweiz.  Gesellschaft  der  Naturwissenschaften,  Neufchatel, 
1841,  p.  251. 


360  THIONVILLE 

Gressly  finally  considers  the  oolithic  ore-deposits  in  the 
Jura,  to  be  at  once  contemporaneous  with,  and  substitutes  for, 
the  Neocomian ;  but  also  local  consequences  of  the  upheaval  of 
the  chain,  and  in  particular  of  ho^*  mineral  springs,  which  owe 
their  origin  to  plutonic  upheavals.  When  he  terms  them  'semi- 
plutomV  formations,  and  places  other  plutonic  iron-lodes  at  their 
side,  this  is  certainly  a  somewhat  uncommon  Use  of  the  term 
plutonic.  He  also  speaks,  in  the  same  uncommon  manner,  in 
his  memoir,  of  craters  and  elevation-craters  in  the  Jura-chain. 
He  thinks,  that  the  formation  of  the  oolithic  ores  has  continued, 
from  the  Neocomian  Period  probably  into  the  Tertiary;  and  that 
in  this  manner,  as  well  as  by  subsequent  washing-in,  may  be 
explained  the  tolerably  rare  occurrence  of  fossils  more  recent 
than  the  Jurassic  or  Neocomian.  Nevertheless,  it  appears  to 
me,  that,  in  the  Jura,  as  in  the  Black  Forest  and  Suabian  Alp, 
iron-ores,  originally  formed  at  some  previous  period,  were  again 
deposited,  by  repeated  denudations,  at  various  points,  and  under 
various  conditions. 

Gressly's  work  is,  however,  the  most  complete  extant  on 
the  oolithic  iron-deposits,  and  is  accompanied  by  numerous 
instructive  plates. 

IRON-DEPOSITS  NEAR  THIONVILLE. 

§  205.  In  the  Ottange  valley,  especially  at  Thionville, 
various  iron-deposits  occur  in  the  Jura  and  Lias  formations, 
which  somewhat  resemble  those  of  the  Suabian  Alp  (§  132). 

Eugene  Jacquot 1  distinguished  in  this  region  the  following 
varieties  of  iron  deposits,  whose  occurrence,  and  bedding,  will 
be  best  understood  from  the  accompanying  three  woodcuts. 

According  to  the  profile,  at  least  three  kinds  of  iron-deposits 
occur ;  one  parallel  bed  e,  between  the  Jura  and  Lias  formations, 
corresponding  to  the  iron-ore-beds  in  the  Brown  Jura  of  the 
Suabian  Alp ;  a  parallel  overlying  deposit  of  oolithic  iron  ore  i; 
and  the  fillings  of  irregular,  or  funnel-shaped,  cavities  by  oolithic 
ore  in  the  Jura  formation,  also  very  analogous  to  that  mentioned 
in  the  Suabian  Alp. 


1  See:  Jacquot,  in  Annales  d.  mines,  1849,  vol.  XVI.  p.  427;  Langlois 
and  Jacquot,  in  same,  1851,  vol.  XX.  p.  109;  Levallois,  in  same,  1849, 
p.  241 ;  and  Memoires  de  la  societe  de  Nancy,  1850,  p.  810. 


OOLITHIC  IRON-DEPOSITS. 


361 


a.  Oolithic  iron-ore. 

b.  Coral  limestone,   containing   Ostrea  Marshii. 

c.  and  d.   Slaty,  sandy  limestone,  with  interbeddings  of  marl, 
which  frequently  contain  considerable  oolithic  limonite. 

e.  Oolithic  limonite;  the  small  grains  lie  in  a  brownish-red, 
clayey,     calcareous,     ochreous    mass  |     the    upper    portion 
passes  into  gray,  micaceous  marl. 

f.  Upper  Lias  sandstone,   brown  from  strings  of  limonite. 

g.  J^larl,  containing  concretions  of  limestone  and  spherosi- 
derite,  the  last  surrounded  by  incrustations  of  limonite. 
These  concretions  often  contain  fossils.  In  the  upper  por- 
tion a  more  quartzose  marl. 

h.  Fissile  marl,  with  nodular  masses  of  pyrites  and  crystals 
of  gypsum. 

i.  Oolithic  iron-ore. 

In  the  group  of  strata,  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Brown 
Jura  in  Suabia,  several  iron- ore-beds  frequently  occur,  one  above 
another,  as  can  best  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  woodcut. 


c.  Limestone,  like  c.  and  d.  in  the  preceding  woodcut. 

d.  Gray,  micaceous  marl. 

e.  Upper,  oolithic  bed  of  limonite,  like  e.  in  the  former  woodcut. 


362  TERTIARY  IRON-ORKS. 

'  3k  ' 

f.  Marly  and  sandy  limestone, 

g.  Sandy  limestone  and  oolithic  limonite. 

h.  Limestone,  containing  nodular  masses  of  limonite. 

i.  Upper  Lias  sandstone. 

The  peculiar  occurrence  of  the  oolithic  ores,  in  depressions 
or  holes  in  the  surface  of  the  Jura  limestone,  is  particularly 
characterized  by  the  following  occurrence  near  Ville  Houdlemont  : 


It  is  not  improbable,  that  the  oolithic  ore-deposits  of  this 
district,  like  those  in  many  other  places,  have  been  partly  formed 
by  ore  being  washed  out  of  the  Jurassic  strata,  and  afterwards 
redeposited. 

TERTIARY  IRON-ORES  IN  THE  DEPARTMENT 
OF  THE  LOT. 

§  206.  Very  peculiar  iron-deposits  occur,  with  the  Ter- 
tiary strata,  in  the  Lot  valley.  They  are  compact  masses  in 
red  clay,  nodular  masses  or  grains  united  by  an  argillaceous 
cement,  which  fill  fissures  in  limestone,  or  occur  on  its  surface. 

I  extract  the  following  from  Coquand's  *  description.  A  bed 
of  brown  clay  with  quartz-pebbles,  ferruginous  sandstone,  and 
ochreous  iron,  overlies  the  plateau  of  Jura  limestone  north  of 
Montbrun;  which  bed  has  also  penetrated  into  the  fissures  of 
the  limestone,  and  filled  all  its  irregular  depressions.  The  bed 
contains,  in  addition  to  the  quartz-pebbles  of  1—3  pounds,  a 


1    See:    Coquand,   in   Bulletin   de   la    societe    geologique   de   France, 
1848-49,  vol.  VI.  p.  340. 


CENTRAL  FRANCE.  GENERAL  REMARKS.          363 

large  quantity  of  much  larger  rounded  masses  of  limonite  in- 
cluding some  of  20  pounds,  which  at  tirst  sight  might  easily 
be  mistaken  for  boulders.  A  more  careful  examination  soon 
shows,  that  they  cannot  be  such.  They  not  only  at  times  con- 
sist of  the  botryoidal  or  reniform  combination  of  several  rounded 
masses,  but  their  interior  texture  is  also  radially  filiform,  and 
has  at  the  same  time  a  concentric  banded  structure.  The 
interior  texture  corresponds  to  the  outer  form,  and,  in  the 
botryoidal  ones,  shows  as  many  interior  central  points,  as  there 
are  outer  protuberances.  This  cannot  possibly  be  the  result  of 
a  process,  like  that  by  which  boulders  have  been  rounded;  but 
the  masses  must  have  been  formed,  in  their  present  positions, 
by  the  concentration  of  limonite.  Besides  these  reniform  masses, 
there  are  others,  outwardly  resembling  river-boulders;  they  con- 
sist of  compact  limonite,  with  small  cavities;  and,  when  larger 
than  a  fist,  contain  near  their  surfaces  grains  of  quartz,  sand, 
and  clay;  while  their  interior  is  free  from  these  impurities; 
which  fact  is  also  opposed  to  their  being  boulders.  They  are 
very  frequent  in  many  fissures  of  the  Jura  limestone. 


XXI.    CENTRAL  DISTRICT  OF  FRANCE. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

§  207.  With  regard  to  this  district,  I  shall  first  reproduce 
the  principal  portions  of  a  memoir;  in  which  Baron  von  Beust1 
mentions  the  results  of  Grr  uner's2  examinations,  and  compares 
them  with  those  made  in  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge.  I  reproduce 
the  views  advanced  in  this  memoir,  without  any  comments;  but 
shall  return  to  this  subject  at  the  end  of  the  book.  Baron  von 
Beust  says:  '  The  Central  Plateau  of  France,  with  its  immediate 
neighborhood;  being  the  district  enclosed  between  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Alps,  the  Vosges,  and  the  Paris  basin;  has  a  very  compli- 


1  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeitung,  1860,  p.  73. 

2  Essai  cl'unc  Classification  des  principaux  filons  du  plateau  central  de 
la  France,  in  Annales  de  la  soc.  impe'riale  de  Lyon,   1856,  vol.  VIII.  p.   168. 


364  VEIN-FORMATIONS, 

cated  geological  composition.  In  which  not  only  all  the  plutonic 
rocks  from  the  oldest  to  the  most  recent,  as  well  as  the  old 
crystalline  schistose  rocks,  and  Carboniferous  formation;  but 
also  all  the  sedimentary  strata,  up  4o  and  including  the  Jura 
limestone,  are  represented:  of  the  last  the  Lias  appears  to  be 
the  most  developed,  while  the  Triassic,  on  the  contrary,  is  less 
extensive  in  comparison  to  its  great  development  in  Germany. 
Gruner  shows  the  occurrence  of  the  following  vein-formations 
within  this  district,  passing  from  the  oldest  to  the  more  recent: 

1.  Lenticular   masses   and   strings  of  quartz  in    mica-schist, 
recognisable  as  having  penetrated,  and  in  so  far  veinlike  forma- 
tions,   but  nowhere   found  as   true   fissure-veins ;    containing   no 
ores,  or  at  the  most  somewhat  of  iron  pyrites; 

Period  of  formation :    the  outbreak   of  the  igneous  garnite : 

2.  Quartz-veins  containing  stibnite,  also  tin  and  wolfram; 
Period  of  formation :  eruption  of  the  pegmatites : 

3.  Narrow  quartz-veins,  partly  containing  argentiferous  ga- 
lena, as  in  the  Lozere  Department; 

Period  of  formation:  occurrence  of  the  granitic  porphyries 
at  the  close  of  the  Subcarboniferous  Period: 

4.  Large  vein-like  and  segregated  masses  of  quartz,  in  im- 
mediate succession  to  the  eruption  of  the  quartz-porphyries; 

5.  Quartz-veins,  containing  rich  argentiferous  galena; 
Period  of  formation:  outbreak  of  the  eurites. 

In  this  classification  of  the  older  vein-formations  of  France, 
a  certain  analogy  can,  in  many  ways,  be  recognised  with  the 
positions  of  the  older  vein-formation  in  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge. 
Here,  as  there,  the  occurrence  of  lenticular  quartz,  barren  of 
ores,  appears,  as  the  oldest  formation,  in  the  older  schistose 
rocks;  then  follow  the  tin,  and  wolfram  veins;  finally  the  quartz- 
veins,  with  rich  argentiferous  galena.  Especially  analogous  is  the 
occurrence  of  large  segregated  quartz-masses,  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  outbreak  of  the  quartz-porphyries ;  which  in  Saxony 
probably  preceded  the  formation  of  the  so  numerous  and  mani- 
foldly composed  formations  of  older  silver-veins. 

But  the  principal  portion  of  Gruner's  memoir  is  devoted  to 

6.  the   group  of  the   barytic  veins;    which  occur  exten- 
sively  developed   in   central   and   southern  France;    and  whose 
comparison   with   the    like-named    vein-formation   in   Saxony   is 
interesting  in  more  ways  than  one. 

I  (von  Beust),  28  years  ago,    characterised  the  chalcedonic 


^FRENCH,  AND  SAXON,  SIMILAR.  365 

masses;  traversed  by  heavy  and  fluor  spar  and  galena,  poor  in 
silver;  which  cement  the  Arkose  in  the  neighborhood  of  Avallon; 
as  an  equivalent  of  the  Halsbriicke  vein-formation;  and  am 
convinced,  every  one  would  have  recognised  this  conformity 
at  first  sight;  so  distinctly  does  it  occur.  But  what  I  did  not 
know  at  that  time,  and  which  is  so  fully  treated  of  in  Gruner's 
memoir,  is  the  circumstance,  that  this  very  characteristic  vein- 
formation  is  extensively  developed  at  many  points  in  the  large 
Central  Plateau  of  France;  which  has  given  rise,  in  several 
localities,  to  a  lasting  and  by  no  means  unimportant  exploitation. 
One  learns  in  this  connection;  that,  besides  the  mines  which 
Count  de  Forez  exploited  on  such  veins,  the  family  de  Blumen- 
stein  alone  extracted  almost  250,000  hundredweight  of  lead 
during  the  preceding  and  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
by  the  exploitation  of  the  barytic  lead-veins  in  the  county  of 
Forez;  partly  as  product  from  the  smelting- works,  partly  as 
glazing  ore. 

Such  a  production,  even  though  it  should  only  be  the  result 
of  a  robbing  of  the  mines  for  a  long  period,  is  still  too  consi- 
derable, for  the  deposits  from  which  it  came  to  be  called  other 
than  true  lodes ;  and  there  appears  in  this  connection  also  to  be 
no  great  difference  between  tke  likenamed  formations  in  France, 
and  in  Saxony.  When  it  is  also  considered,  that  this  French 
exploitation  was  confined  to  very  slight  depths,  without  machin- 
ery, and  apparently  even  without  a  washing  of  the  ores  (which 
is  so  particularly  important  for  this  class  of  veins);  it  is  by  no 
means  impossible,  that  many,  of  the  now  abandoned  French 
mining  points  of  this  class,  might  give  good  results  by  an  active 
exploitation;  although  the  generally  dissuasive  and  very  prac- 
tical remarks  of  Gruner  deserve  full  attention. 

With  particular  regard  to  the  similarity  of  this  vein-forma- 
tion, so  widely  extended  in  France,  with  that  in  Saxony;  it  is 
really  not  asserting  much  too,  when  it  is  said,  that  the  same  are 
related  to  one  another,  like  the  original  to  a  very  good  photo- 
graph; so  great  is  in  all  ways  the  similarity. 

A  partly  sandy  crystalline,  partly  chalcedonic  quartz  forms 
the  gang  combined  with  heavy  and  fluor  spar;  more  rarely 
spathic  iron,  brown  spar,  and  calc-spar;  with  which  plumose 
galena  (poor  in  silver)  occurs  as  a  characteristic,  and  never- 
failing  ore;  it  contains  but  0,0002,  0,0003  to  0,0010  per  cent  of 
silver ;  besides  this,  brown  blende,  at  times  in  'considerable  quan- 


366  SIMILARITY  OF  FRENCH,  AND 

titles,  more  rarely  a  rich  argentiferous  tetrahedrite,  and  copper 
pyrites.  Can  a  greater  conformity  be  well  found  between  two 
vein-formations,  so  far  apart,  than  is  here  the  case  ? 

Another  conformity  is,  that  in  France,  as  in  Saxony,  these 
barytic  lead-veins  occur  as  true,  widely  extending  fissure-veins ; 
and  thus  form  a  contrast  to  the  older  lodes,  which  do  not  bear 
so  distinct  a  stamp  of  widely  extended  geological  action.  Ac- 
cording to  Gruner,  some  of  these  veins  can  be  followed  for  a 
distance  of  14,000  fathoms;  and  he  also  mentions  belts  full  of 
veins,  10,500  fathoms  long,  and  2,300  fathoms  broad. 

If  it  can  be  accepted  as  certain ;  under  such  circumstances, 
and  by  the  undoubted  coincidence  of  the  most  important  geolo- 
gical periods  in  both  countries;  that  the  same  event  has  caused 
the  same  vein-formations  in  France  and  Saxony ;  then  the  proofs, 
which  Gruner  brings  forward  with  regard  to  the  epochs  of  for- 
mation of  those  veins  in  the  former  country  also  have  a  special 
interest  for  the  latter.  The  Lias  Period,  including  the  lower 
Jura  limestone,  is  named  with  great  certainty,  as  being  that 
within  which  the  barytic  lead-veins  were  formed  in  France. 
And  in  fact,  if  it  be  considered,  that,  as  every  where  in  France, 
where  such  veins  occur  near  the  Lias  strata,  the  latter  are  tra- 
versed by  the  former,  partly  as  true  fissure-veins,  partly  as  ore- 
deposits  passing  from  the  vein-fissures  into  the  country-rock  (in 
the  arkoses  of  Burgundy,  in  the  Lias  of  the  Aveyron  Department, 
as  also  in  that  of  the  Alps  [Argentiere  near  Brian9on] ) ;  and,  if 
the  same  veins  do  not  extend  into  more  recent  strata,  than  those 
of  the  lower  Jura,  one  must  concede  the  determination  of  the 
age  to  be  a  very  exact  one. 

This  determination  of  the  age  attains,  for  the  similar  veins 
of  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge,  a  so  much  greater  importance ;  as  a 
direct  means  for  such  is  here  wanting,  since  the  corresponding 
more  recent  sedimentary  formations,  within  which  such  a  proof 
were  perhaps  possible,  do  not  exist.  One  might  certainly  expect 
to  see  the  barytic  lead-veins  well  developed  in  the  Thuringian 
Muschelkalk:  which  might  be  regarded  as  being  a  favorable 
wall-rock,  and  shows  besides,  in  many  localities,  distinct  traces 
of  very  considerable  vein-fissures.  It  would,  however,  be  scarcely 
possible  to  conclude;  from  the  circumstance,  that  the  barytic 
veins  are  wanting;  that  these  last  are  of  so  much  greater  age. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  might  well  be  imagined,  that  the  broad 
masses  of  plastic  clay,  which  every  where  underlie  the  Muscliel- 


SAXON,  VEIN-FORMATIONS.  367 

kalk  of  Thuringia,  as  well  as  the  clay-masses  in  the  lowest 
member  of  the  Bunts  and  stein,  and  even  the  plastic  iron-clays 
of  the  Rothliegendes,  could  have  been  such  impediments  to  the 
formation  of  the  veins,  that  these  last  were  unable  to  penetrate 
up  to  the  MuschelkaJk.  It  appears,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  an 
advantage  of  the  conditions  of  bedding  in  France,  that  the  Lias 
strata  lie  almost  directly  on  the  old  crystalline  schists,  so  that 
the  continuation  of  the  veins,  from  these  into  those,  had  no 
difficulties  to  contend  with. 

Gruner  designates  the  upheaval  of  the  Morvan  Mountain 
in  France,  and  the  Thuringian  Forest  in  Germany,  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  period,  in  which  the  barytic  lead- veins  were 
formed;  and  states,  the  certainly  curious  coincidence,  that  the 
axes  of  both  these  mountain  systems — NW. — SE — is  repeated  in 
the  general  strike  of  the  veins  mentioned,  both  in  France  and 
Germany.  He  supports  this  assertion,  with  regard  to  France, 
by  numerous  cases;  and,  as  regards  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge,  k 
must  certainly  be  conceded  to  be,  for  the  most  part,  fully 
grounded.  This  is  especially  true  for  those  lodes  of  this  forma- 
tion, in  Saxony,  which  occur  independently;  while,  in  those 
cases,  where  they  appear  as  a  more  recent  filling  of  older  veins, 
deviations  naturally  occur. 

If  it  be  considered,  in  what  extraordinary  frequence,  and 
at  what  a  number  of  localities,  in  the  Central  French  Plateau, 
the  barytic  veins  occur;  and  if  it  be  also  remembered,  how  con- 
siderably this  vein-formation  is  represented  in  Saxony  (where 
the  Halsbriicke  vein  perhaps  represents  the  most  considerable 
lode  now  known  on  the  continent),  the  idea  naturally  presents 
itself,  that  there  may  still  be  many  points  in  the  Saxon  Erz- 
gebirge, where  metalliferous  and  exploitable  veins  of  this  kind 
exist,  which  have  not  yet  been  discovered. 

A  remarkable  case  of  this  kind  is  the  Drei-Prinzen  lode, 
at  the  Churprinz-mine  near  Freiberg.  This  lode  was,  40  years 
ago,  still  unknown,  although  the  exploitation  on  the  champion- 
lode  of  the  mine,  187  fathoms  off,  had  reached  a  depth  of  230 
fathoms.  It  was  only  with  considerable  trouble,  that  its  course 
could  be  discovered  at  the  surface.  Now  it  has  been  followed 
to  a  depth  of  200  fathoms,  with  a  breadth  of  2—4  fathoms, 
and  ores  worth  400,000  dollars  have  been  extracted  from  it 
within  the  last  25  years.  There  may  still  be  many  cases  of 
this  kind/ 


368       FRENCH,  AND  SAXON,  VEINS  COMPARED. 

The  writer  then  mentions  the  fact,  that  mining  was  exten- 
sively carried  on  in  the  granulite  district  of  Saxony;  and  thinks, 
there  may  still  be  many  undiscovered  veins  in  the  same.  He  thinks, 
that  the  occurrence  of  rich  argentiferous  tetrahedrite  and  fine 
granular  galena,  together  with  the  common  galena  of  these  veins, 
in  a  mine  at  Schonborn,  may  have  been  caused  by  the  favor- 
able influence  of  mica  and  hornblende  schist,  at  their  junction 
with  the  granulite.  He  then  continues:  'The  hypothesis,  that 
the  barytic  lead -veins  were  formed  during  the  Lias  and  Lower 
Jurassic  Epochs,  is  conformable,  both  for  the  older,  and  more 
recent  vein-formations,  in  Saxony,  with  those  which  have  been 
deduced  from  the  actual  examination  of  these  other  vein-forma- 
tions. There  is  no  sort  of  doubt,  that  the  barytic  lead-veins 
stand,  in  regard  to  age,  between  the  numerous  older  vein-for- 
mations, principally  containing  massive  quartz,  and  various  car- 
bonates, as  gangs  (pyritic  lead-veins,  brown-spar-veins,  noble- 
quartz-veins),  and  the  evidently  much  more  recent  veins  of  the 
Upper  Erzgebirge,  which  contain  cobalt,  nickel,  and  rich  silver 
ores,  in  a  quartzose,  hornstone  matrix,  resembling  recent  spring 
deposits. 

Those  older  vein-formations  are  traversed  by  the  barytic 
veins,  which  sometimes  enclose  fragments  of  the  first;  while  the 
more  recent  age  of  the  silver  veins  of  the  Upper  Erzgebirge, 
distinguished  by  their  cobalt  and  nickel  ores,  as  well  as  that  of 
the  lodes  of  ironstone  and  psilomelane  in  that  region,  is  shown 
by  pseudomorphs,  after  heavy  spar  and  fluor  spar,  being  found, 
on  a  large  scale,  in  those  veins.  So  that  the  hypothesis  seems 
to  be  confirmed,  that  they  are  altered  veins  of  the  barytic  type. 

But  the  period,  of  the  above-mentioned  older  veins,  hardly 
began  before  the  epoch  of  the  Rothliegendes ;  this  is  recognised, 
both  from  the  fact,  that  the  eurite  dikes  (quartz-porphyry) 
around  Freiberg  are  traversed  by  them;  as  also  from  the  cir- 
cumstance, that  the  lodes  of  Erbendorf  in  Bavaria,  stated  to  be 
analogous  to  the  pyritous  lead-veins  of  Freiberg,  extend  into 
the  strata  of  the  Carboniferous  (according  to  a  verbal  communi- 
cation of  Capt.  Giimbel).  It  is  true,  that  the  possibility,  of  a 
more  recent  formation  of  these  veins,  is  not  refuted;  but  it  can 
hardly  be  assumed,  that  the  period  of  their  formation  extended 
beyond  the  commencement  of  the  Triassic  Period;  since  at  least 
one  case  is  known,  in  the  Freiberg  district,  of  one  of  these 
lodes  being  traversed  by  a  younger  quartz-porphyry,  and  since 


LEAD-LODES  OF  THE  FOREZ.  369 

a  geological  connection,  of  the,  so  very  important,  period  of  the 
red  porphyries,  with  the  lodes,  may  be  regarded  as  very  probable. 

In  any  case,  there  are  no  facts  opposed  to  the  hypothesis, 
that  the  groups  of  the  older  Freiberg-lodes  occupy  the  above 
designated  geological  niveau.  .  ' 

Miiller  has,  with  great  probability,  shown,  that  the  younger 
lodes  of  the  Upper  Erzgebirge  are  closely  connected  with  the 
eruption  of  basalt.  If  we  must  distinguish,  in  Saxony,  three 
principal  periods  of  vein-formations  (the  tin-lodes  being  left  out 
of  account,  which  are  the  oldest  of  interest  to  a  miner),  of  which 
the  barytic  veins  occupy  the  middle  position,  there  is  nothing 
against  the  supposition,  that  these  last  were  formed  in  the  epoch 
of  the  Lias,  and  consequently  were  formed  contemporaneously 
with  the  like  lodes  in  France.' 


LEAD-LODES  OF  THE  FOREZ. 

§  208.  The  granitic  chain  of  Forez,  and  its  immediate 
neighborhood,  is  traversed  by  numerous  barytic  lead-lodes,  which 
Gruner1  has  described  in  the  just  mentioned  memoir.  According 
to  the  maps  accompanying  the  same  there  are  two  vein-districts: 

1.  The  district  of  St.  Julien,  between  the  Mount  Pilat 
and  the  Rhone.  The  Mount  Pilat  consists  of  granite  joined  at 
the  SE.  by  gneiss,  traversed  in  several  places  by  serpentine. 
About  40  veins  are  known,  generally  striking  WNW. — ESE. 
These  converge  in  their  strike  towards  a  point  in  the  granite, 
north  of  St.  Julien,  which  appears  to  be  actually  reached  by  but 
one  of  the  lodes,  that  of  Mizerieux.  The  majority  of  these  are 
only  known  to  extend  for  short  distances,  partly  in  granite,  but 
a  far  larger  number  in  gneiss;  while  those  occurring  in  granite 
have  been  followed,  in  part,  to  its  limits,  but  not  into  the  gneiss. 
Those  in  the  gneiss  do  not  extend  to  its  junction  with  the 
granite. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  these;  and  the  only  one, 
which  Gruner  has  described  mineralogically,  while  the  others 
appear  to  resemble  it;  is  the  vein  of  la  Pause  in  granite. 
The  same  consists  of  two  leaders,  which  at  times  unite,  but 


1  See:  Gruner,  Anciennes  mines  de  plomb  du  Forez,  in  Annales  de 
la  societe  imperiale  de  Lyon,  1857,  vol.  VIII;  and  Annales  d.  mines,  1841, 
vol.  XIX.  p.  150. 

24 


370  AVEYRON  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

are  occasionally  6  feet  apart.  Both  consist,  predominantly,  of 
quartz,  with  but  little  heavy  spar.  Argentiferous  galena  occurs  in 
the  quartz,  with  somewhat  of  blende  and  pyrites,  distributed  in 
pockets  or  chimneys;  which  can  bie  followed  30 — 80  meters  in 
a  horizontal  or  perpendicular  direction.  Each  of  these  leaders 
is  1  —  8  inches  broad;  and  when  they  unite,  their  maximum 
breadth  is  18  inches.  The,  so-called,  white  loader  consists  of 
white,  somewhat  chalcedonic  quartz,  with  very  little  heavy  spar; 
the  so-called  red  leader,  of  quartz,  colored  red  by  peroxide 
of  iron. 

2.  The  district  of  St.  Just,  and  St.  Germain,  lies  between 
these  two  places  and  the  Bois  de  1'Hermitage,  a  granitic  spar 
of  the  Forez  chain.  The  granite  is  joined,  in  a  nearly  north- 
west-southeast line,  by  granitic  porphyry,  mountain-limestone, 
and  sandstone  containing  anthracite;  which  are  traversed  by 
numerous  dikes  of  quartz-porphyry.  The  Tertiary  deposits,  and 
a  few  basaltic  domes,  have  no  connection  with  the  lodes.  These 
last  occur  especially,  as  contact-veins,  at  the  junction  of  the 
granite,  as  well  with  the  porphyry,  as  also  with  the  limestone  and 
sandstone.  They  also  occur  altogether  in  these  last-mentioned  rocks, 
much  more  rarely  in  the  granite.  The  composition  of  the  veins 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  lodes  in  the  St.  Julien  district. 

ORE-DEPOSITS  IN  THE  AVEYRON  DISTRICT. 

§  209.  The  Aveyron,1  with  its  branches,  drains,  between 
the  Lot  and  the  Tarn,  a  district  of  old  crystalline  rocks,  partly 
overlaid  by  Triassic  and  Jurassic  strata.  The  old  crystalline 
rocks  are  partly  metamorphic  schists;  as  gneiss,  mica-  and  talc- 
schist;  partly  igneous  rocks;  as  granite,  diorite,  serpentine,  eurite, 
and  quartz-porphyry.  The  Carboniferous  is  but  slightly  repre- 
sented ;  and  Tertiary  strata  are  very  subordinate. 

A  large  number  of  various  kinds  of  ore-deposits  occur  in 
this  region ;  which  should,  according  to  Fournet  and  Boisse,  be 
co-ordinated,  in  part,  with  certain  plutonic  rocks.  Boisse  has 
separated  the  ore-deposits  into  the  following  classes: 


1  See:  Fournet,  Essai  suf  les  filons  metallif.  d  Depart,  de  1' Aveyron; 
Boisse,  Annales  d.  mines,  1852,  vol.  II.  pp.  489,  501,  507,  519;  Coquand, 
Bulletin  de  la  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  1848—49,  vol.  VI.  p.  328;  Elie  de  Beau- 
mont,  Explicat.  de  la  carte  geol.  de  la  France,  1841,  p.  124. 


VILLEFRANCHE,  NAJAC.  371 

1.  Manganese  lodes; 

2.  Magnetite  lodes; 

3.  Veins,  or  segregations,  of  hematite; 

4.  Limonite  lodes,  usually  forming  merely  the  outcrop  (gossan)  of 
other  lodes; 

5.  Spathic  iron  lodes; 

6.  Mispickel,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  combined  with  other  ores  and 
vein-stones  in  lodes; 

7.  Chronic    iron,    with    magnetite,    irregularly    distributed    in   the 
serpentine ; 

8.  Blende,  and  calamine,  with  lead-ores  in  lodes; 

9.  Lead-lodes,  very  common,  and  mostly  argentiferous; 

10.  Copper-lodes,  often  argentiferous; 

11.  Antimony  lodes; 

12.  Nickel-ores,  only  found  in  one  lode. 

Besides  which,  several  rocks  are  somewhat  metalliferous; 
and  iron  ores  occur  in  beds. 

1  shall  here  confine  myself  to  the  lead,  silver,  and  copper 
lodes,  in  the  neighborhoods  of  Villefranche,  and  Najac,  Asprieres, 
Corbieres  and  Milhau. 

1 .  V  i  1 1  e  f  r  a  n  c  h  e;  and  N  a j  a  c.  The  neighborhood  of 
Villetranche  consists,  to  the  West,  of  granite  traversed  by  por- 
phyries, extending  to  the  valley  of  the  Aveyron.  This  granite- 
region  is  eastwardly  bounded  by  gneiss  and  mica-schist,  and  is 
also  traversed  by  porphyries;  while,  still  farther  east,  Triassic 
deposits  overlie  these  rocks.  The  mica-schist  surrounds,  in  some 
places,  masses  of  diorite,  and  serpentine ;  while  a  small  fragment 
of  the  Carboniferous  formation,  which  stands  in  no  connection 
with  the  ore-deposits,  overlies  the  gneiss  near  Najac. 

The  ore-deposits  of  this  district  are  lodes ;  which,  according 
to  Fournet,  are  intimately  related,  partly  to  eruptions  of  euritic 
porphyry,  partly  to  serpentines ;  or,  in  other  words,  which  seem 
to  owe  their  formation  to  these  igneous  rocks.  These  lodes,  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  occur  in  mica-schist,  and  strike  SE.— NW. 
almost  at  right  angles  to  the  limits  of  the  granite,  extending 
from  NNE.  to  SSW.,  into  which  but  few  of  them  extend.  Some 
of  them  penetrate  into  the  Trias,  and  traverse  its  strata.  A  few 
of  them  appear  to  have  a  considerable  deviation  from  the  general 
strike,  coursing  N. — S. 

Fournet  states,  that  the  veins,  to  be  co-ordinated  with  the 
euritic  porphyries,  consist  predominantly  of  quartz,  mostly  sac- 
charoidal  crystalline;  partly  also  hyaline.  The  non-metallic 
minerals,  combined  with  it,  are  heavy  spar,  red  and  yellow 

24* 


372  ASPRIERES.  CORBIERES. 

jasper,  and  traces  of  carbonates  The  ores  are  argentiferous 
galena,  bournonite,  mispickel,  copper  nickel,  iron  and  copper 
pyrites.  As  products  of  decomposition,  occasionally  forming  a 
gossan,  occur  limonite,  -cerusite,  jind  anglesite.  The  galena, 
forming  the  principal  ore,  is  finely  disseminated  in  the  saccharo- 
idal  quartz,  and  at  times  so  intimately  combined  with  it,  that 
the  quartz  appears  as  if  colored  by  the  galena.  The  bournonite, 
and  various  pyrites,  form  small  particles  or  crystals  scattered 
through  the  mass;  a  combed  texture  is  very  rarely  perceptible. 
The  veins,  to  be  co-ordinated  with  the  serpentines  and 
diorites,  occur,  partly  in  the  serpentines,  partly  in  veined  mica- 
schist.  A  characteristic  example  of  this  class  is  the  Maillors  lode, 
in  the  diorite  of  the  Cassagne  plateau.  It  strikes  NW. — SE. ; 
its  breadth  is  about  7  feet;  its  matrix  chiefly  cryptocrystalline, 
waxlike  quartz,  jasper,  and  hornstone,  traversed  by  strings  of 
calc-spar,  and  spathic  iron,  which  last  often  predominates.  The 
original  ores  are  copper  pyrites,  bournonite,  and  blende,  with 
but  slight  traces  of  galena.  By  the  decomposition  of  these  have 
been  formed,  malachite,  azurite,  and  limonite;  which  occur 
especially  in  the  clefts  of  the  calc-spar.  The  other  veins,  in 
the  serpentine,  are  quite  similarly  composed;  in  such  a  manner, 
that  they  are  all  distinguished  by  a  more  waxlike  quartz,  more 
frequent  occurrence  of  carbonates,  and  by  the  predominance  of 
copper  ores  from  the  veins,  combined  with  the  euritic  porphyry. 
The  distribution  of  the  ores  is  also  a  much  more  unequal  one, 
both  in  the  various  lodes,  and  in  different  portions  of  the 
same  lode. 

2.  Asprieres.     The  numerous  veins  of  this  region   have, 
in  general,  the  same  character  as  those  of  Villefranche,  the  only 
difference    being   that   heavy    spar  is  more   predominant.     Their 
principal    matrix   is   quartz   and   heavy   spar,    frequently   almost 
entirely  the  latter;  in  which  are  found  galena,  and  pyromorphite ; 
to  a  more   subordinate  degree,    blende,    cupriferous   iron-pyrites, 
copper-pyrites,  and  carbonates  of  copper.  The  lodes  mostly  course 
NW. — SE.  and  appear   to  be  combined  with  granites,    feldspar- 
porphyries,  diorites,  and  other  amphibolic  rocks.    Their  wall-rock 
is  at  times  much  impregnated  with   pyrites. 

3.  C  o  r  b  i  e  r  e  s.     The  mountainous  region  of  Corbieres  con- 
sists  principally  of  talcose  clary-schist,    of  the  Cambrian   forma- 
tion,   and  of  gneiss,    in  which   granular   limestone   is  embedded. 
These   rocks   are   traversed    by   porphyritic   granite,    quartz-por- 


MILHAU  ON  THE  TARN.  373 

phyry,  euritic  porphyry,  basalt,  and  numerous  lodes.  Triassic 
strata  overlie  the  edges,  and  numerous  mineral  springs  occur 
in  the  same  region. 

The  lodes  are  mostly  very  irregular.  They  consist  princi- 
pally of  quartz,  and  heavy  spar,  with  copper,  lead,  antimony, 
and  iron  ores;  the  copper  ores  predominate.  Where  the  lodes 
traverse  igneous  rocks,  the  vein-stones  are,  at  times,  entirely 
wanting;  in  other  places  the  quartz  often  predominates,  and  forms 
a  wall-like,  projecting  outcrop,  which  can  be  readily  traced. 
They  lie,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  belt  extending  from  N.  to  S.? 
but  the  strike  of  the  separate  veins  is  frequently  very  irregular 
and  variable.  The  veins  usually  traverse  calcareous  slates  and 
porphyries  within  these,  but  also  penetrate  into  the  Triassic 
strata. 

4.  Milhau  on  the  Tarn.  The  Levezou  Mountain  rises 
west  of  Milhau,  consisting  of  mica-schist,  granite,  and  amphibolic 
rocks.  Bordering  on,  and  overlying  these  crystalline  rocks,  is 
first  a  zone  of  Buntsandstein,  about  3  miles  broad,  whose  lower 
subdivisions  consist  of  black  slate;  this  is  overlaid,  to  the  east, 
by  Muschelkalk-,  and  over  this  follow,  still  farther  east,  near 
Milhau,  Lias  deposits. 

The  lodes  of  this  region  are  divided  into  two  groups ;  near 
Minier  in  the  black  slates  belonging  to  the  Bunt  sand  stein,  and 
near  Gales  in  the  Muschelkalk.  Fournet  even  thinks,  they  may 
have  first  been  formed  during  the  Jurassic  Period;  as  the  neigh- 
boring Lias  exhibits  corresponding  tiltings.  But  the  veins  them- 
selves have  not,  according  to  the  same  observer,  been  traced 
into  these  strata. 

Several  veins  exist  near  Minier;  of  which  two,  however, 
are  the  champion-lodes  which  intersect  each  other.  They  con- 
sist of  quartz  with  fine  granular  galena,  often  finely  disseminated; 
more  rarely  of  heavy  spar.  Fournet  observed  the  following 
combed  texture,  without  a  symmetrical  arrangement,  in  the  vein 
of  Douziliencques : 

1.  Quartz,  galena,  and  pyromorphite ; 
2    Galena,  and  blende; 

3.  Pure  quartz; 

4.  Galena,  bournonite,  and  quartz. 

The  three  principal  veins,   near  Gales  and  Creissels,    occur 
in  the  Muschelkalk,  whose  strikes  form  a  triangle:    viz. 
The  lode  of  Gales  strikes  NNW.-SSE. 
The  lode  of  Fons  courses  NW.— SE. 


374  RESULTS  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

The  lode  of  Limasette  generally  strikes  E.— W ,   but,  in  portions 
of  its  course,  often  strikes  WNW.— ESE. 

The  matrix,  in  all  three  veins,  is  quartz,  and  heavy  spar; 
with  which  are  combined  galena,  ^copper-pyrites,  and  blende. 
As  products  of  alteration  are  here  and  there  found  cerusite, 
azurite,  and  limonite;  but  the  ores  are  very  unequally  distri- 
buted; and  only  scattered  bunches  appear  to  be  exploitable, 
^ing-ores  are  very  common  in  the  vein  of  Gales-,  either,  a  kernel 
of  limestone  is  surrounded  by  concentric  layers  of  quartz;  or  line 
granular  galena  forms  a  binding  medium  for  a  limestone  breccia ; 
or  finally,  a  quartz  kernel  is  concentrically  surrounded,  first  by 
blende,  and  then  by  quartz. 

Fournet  not  only  thinks,  that  these  veins  are  more  recent 
than  the  Jura  formation,  and  have  caused  the  local  tilting  of  its 
strata ;  but  he  even  supposes  them  to  have  been  formed  shortly 
previous  to  the  Diluvial  Period.  It  seems  to  me  to  be  only 
certain,  that  they  are  more  recent  than  the  Muschelkalk. 

Boisse  maintains  the  following  principles,  as  the  results  of 
his  investigations. 

The  nature  of  the  igneous  rocks,  and  their  local  obtrusion, 
exerted  an  influence  on  the  filling  of  the  vein-fissures,  and  the 
distribution  of  the  minerals  in  the  same. 

The  veins  containing  copper  ores  appear  to  be  principally 
associated  with  the  serpentines  and  amphibolic  rocks. 

The  lodes  containing  lead  and  zinc  ores,  with  but  little 
copper  ores,  accompany  the  euritic  rocks. 

The  same  ores  occur  in  the  igneous  rocks,  partly  dissemi- 
nated through  the  mass,  partly  as  fine  strings,  or  even  as  true 
veins,  but  without  vein-stones. 

Similar  phenomena  also  occur  in  the  other  rocks  near 
the  igneous  ones ;  but  here  the  vein-stones  accompany  the  ores, 
and  encrease  in  quantity  with  the  distance  from  the  igneous 
rocks. 

The  breadth,  continuance,  and  regularity,  of  the  veins 
appear  to  depend  on  the  firmness  of  the  country-rock. 

The  ores  generally  occupy  the  middle  of  the  lodes.  They 
are  seldom  regularly  distributed  throughout  their  whole  extent. 
The  richest  portions  appear  to  form  chimneys,  which  follow  the 
direction  of  dip. 

The  most  frequent  vein-stone  is  quartz  ;  it  usually  contains 
but  little  ore,  where  compactly  filling  the  broad  fissure;  while 


PONT-GIBAUD  LODES  NEAR  CLERMONT.  375 

a  combed  texture,  -and   the  occurrence  of  geodes,   are  regarded 
as  favorable  signs  of  an  encreased  abundance  of  ore. 

It  will  scarcely  be  necessary  to  remark,  that  these  veins 
are  evidently  of  the  same  character,  as  the  barytic  and  quartz- 
ose  veins  of  the  Erzgebirge,  and  many  other  localities  in  Ger- 
many; and  that  this  type  of  lodes  appears  to  be  altogether  the 
most  common. 


LODES  IN  THE  NEIGHBORHOOD  OF  PONT-GIBAUD 
NEAR  CLERMONT. 

§  210.  The  district  around  Pontgibaud  consists  of  gneiss, 
and  granite,  traversed  by  porphyries  and  basalts;  which  last 
have  also  partly  overflowed,  as  slaggy  lavas. 

The  numerous  lodes,  which  traverse  this  district,  strike 
NE. — SW.,  from  which  there  are  some  exceptions;  and  they 
are  frequently  bent  and  branched.  They  do  not  penetrate  into 
the  basaltic  rocks,  and  are,  therefore,  probably  older  than  these. 
The  chief  ore  is  argentiferous  galena.  Rivot  and  Zeppenfeld  l 
distinguish  two  kinds  of  vein-formations.  Only  one  vein  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  quartz  with  a  little  disseminated  galena;  this 
strikes  almost  N. — S.  The  rest  consist  of  mixtures  of  feldspar, 
varying  but  little  from  the  enclosing  granite.  This  mass,  as  well 
as  the  enclosing  granite,  is  much  decomposed  to  a  depth  of  150 
feet,  being  almost  reduced  to  clay ;  and  the  rock,  in  each  deeper 
gallery  opened,  also  decomposes  very  rapidly.  The  indistinct 
mixture  consists  of  quartz,  and  feldspar,  with  a  little  mica ;  in 
which  occur  argentiferous  galena,  somewhat  of  blende,  iron- 
pyrites,  tetrahedrite,  and  in  some  veins  also  heavy  spar.  The 
galena  is  generally  distributed  as  small  crystals  or  grains,  rarely 
arranged  in  layers  or  strings.  Iron-pyrites  is  principally  found 
near  the  numerous  intersecting  veins  of  pyrites.  Near  Vernede 
somewhat  of  fluor  spar  also  occurs  in  the  lodes. 

The  ores  are  distributed  in  chimneys,  extending  150 — 180, 
at  the  outside  450  feet  in  a  horizontal  direction,  but  descending 
in  the  depth  like  columns.  The  barren  portions  of  the  veins 
are  generally  more  distinctly  separated  from  the  country-rock 


1  See:  Rivot  and  Zeppenfeld,  in  Annales  d.  mines,  1850,  vol.  XVIII. 
p.  137;  Gueniveau,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1822,  vol.  VII.  p.  163;  Kosmann, 
in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1865,  p.  281. 


376  MANGANESE  OF  ROMANECHE. 

by  selvages,  than  those  portions  containing  ores.  All  these  lodes 
are  occasionally  traversed,  near  Pontgibaud,  by  clay-fissures 
containing  but  traces  of  galena. 

The  chief  mines  are  at  Pranal  in  the  Sioule  Valley,  where 
twelve  champion- lodes  occur,  and  near  Roure,  where  there  are 
eight  veins ;  both  groups  lie  in  the  same  direction  of  strike,  and 
thus  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  group,  which  has  only  not 
been  exploited  in  the  intermediate  region. 

The  circumstance  is  certainly  very  remarkable,  that  the 
principal  mass  of  these  lodes  consists  of  a  granite-like  and,  there- 
fore, possibly  igneous  rock.  The  ores  and  minerals  accom- 
panying them  perhaps  subsequently  penetrated  these. 


MANGANESE    DEPOSITS    OF    ROMANECHE    IN    THE 
DEPT.   OF   SAONE-ET-LOIRE. 

§  211.  Dolomieu1  first  designated  the  deposits,  as  segrega- 
tions lying  on  granite:  they  were  afterwards  considered  to  be 
broad  veins  in  granite.  Bonnard  has  described  them  nearly  as 
follows: 

The  neighborhood  of  Romaneche  is  composed  of  granite, 
partially  overlaid  by  a  granitic  arkose,  probably  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  the  former.  The  chief  deposits  occur  in  this 
arkose,  they  strike  N. — S.,  dip  about  45°  in  E.,  and  their  breadth 
alternates  between  7 — 10  fathoms.  Their  immediate  foot-wall 
is  a  more  porphyritic  arkose,  while  their  direct  hanging-wall  is 
composed  of  a  marly  clay,  containing  nodular  masses  of  man- 
ganese ores,  and  traversed  by  strings  of  such.  The  deposit 
itself  consists  of  compact  manganese  ore,  intimately  combined 
with  quartz,  fluor  and  heavy  spar;  and  surrounds  numerous 
nodules  and  fragments  of  clay,  hornstone,  the  hanging-rock, 
granite,  grains  of  quartz,  etc. ;  so  that  the  entire  mass  represents 
a  breccia,  cemented  together  by  manganese  ore.  This  deposit  is 
known  to  extend  a  length  of  150—200  fathoms.  To  the  South 
of,  and  in  the  prolongation  of  its  strike,  occurs  a  true  vein  of 
manganese  in  granite,  one  fathom  broad. 


1  See:  Dolomieu,  in  Journal  d.  mines,  1796;  Bonnard,  in  Annales  d. 
sciences  naturelles,  1829,  p.  285;  and   Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1833,  p.  562. 


CHESSY    COPPER-DEPOSITS. 


COPPER-DEPOSITS  AT  CHESSY  NEAR  LYON. 


377 


§  212.  These  ore-deposits,  so  well  known  to  all  mineralo- 
gists, for  the  splendid  specimens  of  azurite  formerly  obtained 
from  them,  are  also  very  interesting  in  a  geological  point  of 
view,  and  give  a  certain  insight  into  the  manner  of  the  forma- 
tion of  a  whole  class  of  metalliferous  deposits.  Raby1  has 
described  these  deposits  quite  completely;  and  the  following  is 
condensed  from  what  he  says. 

Old  crystalline  rocks  are  here  immediately  in  contact  with 
Buntsandstein  and  more  recent  formations,  which  recline  on 
them  with  a  steep  southeasterly  dip.  The  crystalline  rocks  are ; 
granite,  gneiss,  mica-schist,  clay-slate,  and  an  aphanitic  rock. 
The  last-mentioned  predominates  near  the  metalliferous  deposits. 

The  various  kinds  of  copper-ores  occur  in  the*  following 
manner : 

a,  called  'mine  jaune',  represents  a  segregation  of  pyrites 
surrounded  by  aphanite:  it  consisted  of  a  mixture  of  iron  and 
copper  pyrites,  and  blende ;  the  irregular,  lenticular  mass  dipped, 
tolerably  parallel  to  the  enclosing  strata,  about  60°  in  SE.  ;  its 
greatest  thickness,  at  a  depth  of  10  fathoms,  was  7l/2  fathoms; 
its  extent,  in  a  horizontal  direction,  60  fathoms,  and  in  that  of 
dip,  about  100  fathoms.  This  was  evidently  the  original  manner 
of  the  ore-occurrence  in  this  region,  from  which  the  others  have 
been  formed  by  alteration: 

Vertical  section. 


Buntsandstein. 


1  See:  Raby,  in  Annales  d.  mines.  1833,  vol.  IV.  p.  393;  Cordier,  in 
same,  182—,  vol.  VI.  p.  16;  Gueniveau,  in  Journal  d.  mines,  1806,  No.  118; 
Fournet,  in  Plnstitiit.  1837,  p.  246. 


378 


COPPER-MINES  AT 
Horizontal  section. 

Ancient  rocks. 


Lias 


The  accompanying  woodcuts  represent  a  vertical,  and  a 
horizontal  section,  of  the  relations  of  bedding,  in  so  far  as  they 
have  been  opened-up  by  the  mines  at  Chessy: 

b,  and  c,  the  'mine  grise',  and  'mine  noire',  were  rounded 
masses,  consisting  of  intimate  mixtures  of  iron  and  copper  py- 
rites, melaconite  (?),  silica,  and  some  other  substances,  forming 
a  sort  of  contact-deposit,  between  the  crystalline  rocks  and  the 
Buntsandstein  •  or,  more  clearly  expressed,  in  a  wedge-shaped 
intermediate  bed,  upwards  of  10  fathoms  broad,  consisting  of  a 
grayish-white  rock  of  undetermined  character;  which  appears 
on  one  side  to  pass  into  aphanite,  on  the  other  to  be  separated 
from  the  sandstone  by  clay,  containing  ramifications  of  this  un- 
determined rock.  This  mass  has  perhaps  been  formed  by  meta- 
morphosis from  aphanite.  The  largest  of  the  ore-masses  occur- 
ring in  it,  had  a  length  of  6,  breadth  of  lT/2,  and  depth  of  21/a 
fathoms : 

dy  the  'mine  rouge',  a  vertical  bed  of  red  clay,  1 — 2  fathoms 
broad,  containing  angular  fragments  of  quartz,  and  aphanite,  pene- 
trated by  red  copper.  This  bed  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  contact- 
vein  ;  i.  e.  the  mostly  mechanical  filling  of  a  fissure,  between 
the  aphanite  and  Buntsandstein. 

The  layers  of  the  Bnntsandstein  locally  contain,  alongside 
of  this  bed  d}  a  fourth  kind  of  ore,  called  'mine  bleu',  repre- 
sented in  the  woodcuts  by  zigzag  lines.  This  consists  of  azurite 
with  somewhat  of  malachite;  and  forms  a  kind  of  impregnation 


CHESSY  NEAR  LYON.  379 

in  the  sandstone.  The  ore  forms,  partly  parallel  beds  in  sand- 
stone, a  few  inches  thick,  at  times  containing  grains  of  sand, 
and  passing  into  sandstone  cemented  together  by  azurite;  partly 
geodes,  covered  with  crystals  of  azurite;  partly  round  balls 
of  azurite,  hollow  within.  The  distribution  of  these  ores  in 
sandstone  occupies  a  space  about  200  fathoms  long  in  the 
direction  of  strike,  2  fathoms  broad  in  the  direction  of  dip, 
and  10  fathoms  thick.  Beyond  this  ores  are  barely  traceable 
in  the  sandstone,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  properly  regarded 
as  having  been  formed  contemporaneously.  These  blue,  as 
well  as  the  red,  copper-ores  have  evidently  been  formed  by 
the  decomposition  of  pyrites,  and  are  of  much  more  recent  for- 
mation than  these,  probably  also  than  the  Buntsandstein]  since 
traces  of  them  can  be  found  in  the  fissures  of  the  Lias-limestone, 
overlying  the  sandstone.  The  sandstone  strata  are  also  locally 
much  impregnated  by  peroxide  of  iron;  to  so  great  an  extent, 
that  one  of  the  beds  of  sandstone  gave  30  per  cent  of  iron  on 
being  smelted.  It  is  very  comprehensible,  that  this  iron  also 
came  from  the  decomposition  of  the  pyrites. 

It  may  therefore  be  accepted,  that  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Chessy  a  number  of  pyrite  segregations,  rich  in  copper,  first 
existed  in  the  older  crystalline  rocks:  these  have  been  partially 
decomposed  with  their  enclosing  rock,  while  remaining  in  place ; 
from  which  action  have  been  formed  the  black  and  gray  masses, 
b  and  c,  occurring  in  the  problematical  contact-rock.  After 
this  the  Buntsandstein  and  Lias  formations  were  deposited.  The 
decomposition  of  the  pyrite  segregations  still  continued ;  perhaps 
during,  and  certainly  after  the  deposit  of  these  formations,  by 
which  the  red  and  blue  copper-ores  were  formed ;  these  are 
found  to  contain  fewer  admixtures  of  pyrites,  the  farther  removed 
they  are  from  the  crystalline  rocks.  Perhaps  the  upheaval  and 
tilting  of  the  strata  were  still  later  occurrences.  The  red  vein- 
like  contact-bed  cf  is  the  most  difficult  to  explain.  The  entire 
occurrence  of  these  copper-ore  impregnations  in  the  sandstone 
somewhat  resembles  those  of  Bohmisch-Brod  (§  143)  and  Hohen- 
elbe  (§  145);  except  that  here  their  origin  is  much  more  evident, 
the  original  ore-deposit  lies  nearer,  and  the  impregnation  is  lo- 
cally more  concentrated.  Ferret1  has  found  1  per  cent  of  gold 
in  the  copper  obtained  from  the  Chessy  ores. 


1  See:  Compte  rendu,  1849,  vol.  XXIX.  p.  700. 


380  BRITTANY.  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

The  mixtures  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites  near  Sain-Bel  occur 
in  the  continuation  of  the  same  geological  conditions,  but  here 
as  numerous  veins  in  a  talcose  schist. 


XXII.  BRITTANY. 

GEOLOGICAL   FORMATION. 

§  213.  Brittany,  the  westernmost,  mountainous  portion  of 
France,  projecting  into  the  ocean  like  a  peninsula,  consists  prin- 
cipally of  granite,  crystalline  schists,  and  Palaeozoic  strata ;  which 
are  irregularly  distributed,  and  do  not  rise  to  distinct  mountain- 
chains.  . 

Tin  and  lead  deposits  are  known  to  occur  in  the  old 
crystalline  rocks  of  this  district;  of  which  a  few  will  be  here 
described.  Iron  ores  also  occur;  but  I  pass  them  over,  as  in  no 
way  particularly  interesting. 

TIN-DEPOSITS. 

§  214.  Durocher1  has  divided  the  tin-deposits  into  five 
classes:  occurring  in  the  gneiss-granite  portion, 'or  on  its  borders; 
which  all  lie  in  a  belt,  lying  N. — S.,  whose  northern  prolongation 
touches  the  tin-district  of  Cornwall: 

1.  Stanniferous  quartz- veins,  which  also  contain  white  mica, 
beryl,  tourmaline,  and  mispickel;  on  the  edge  of  a  granite  district 
between  the  valleys  of  the  Oust  and  Claye; 

2.  Stanniferous  quartz-veins,  with  tourmaline,  and  mispickel, 
near  Questembert ;  partly  in  granite,  partly  in  mica-schist :  they 
strike    WNW.  — ESE.    and    appear    to    be   richest   in  the  mica- 
schist,  and  in  this,  chiefly  near  granite  dikes; 


1  See:  Durocher,  in  Compte  rendu,  1851,  vol.  32,  p.  902,  and  1857, 
vol.  45,  pp.  502,  522;  Mallard,  in  same,  1866,  vol.  62.  p.  223;  Simonin,  in 
same,  p.  364;  Elie  de  Beaumont,  Explicat.  de  la  carte  geol.  de  la  France, 
1841,  pp.  202,  204;  Audibert,  in  Amiales  des  mines,  1845,  vol.  VII.  p. 
181;  Daubre"e,  in  same,  1841,  vol.  XX.  p.  96;  Blavier,  and  Lorieux, 
in  same,  1834,  vol.  VI.  p.  381;  Dufrenoy,  in  same,  1828,  vol.  III.  p.  55. 


TIN-DEPOSITS.  381 

3.  Stanniferous  quartz- veins,  with  feldspar :  they  traverse  the 
granite,    and    mica-schist    on   the    borders   of   the  granite,    near 
Piriac;    and    form    a   network    of   veins    intersecting  in  various 
directions ; 

4.  Tin-ore-impregnations,     resembling    Fallbands,    in    horn- 
blende-schist, which  also  contains  epidote  and  garnet:  the  tin-ore 
is  distributed  in  strings,  parallel  to,  or  intersecting  the  foliation  : 
the  impregnated  rock  is  also  traversed  by  quartz-veins  containing 
tourmaline ; 

5.  Tin-placers,    nearly   always  containing  somewhat  of  gold ; 
near  the  deposits  in  place. 

The  principal  deposits  are  those  near  Piriac,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Loire ;  and  near  Villeder,  in  the  Dept.  of  Morbihan.  I 
have  in  the  following  description  mostly  followed  the  memoirs 
of  Elie  de  Beaumont,  arid  Blavier;  which  do  not,  however,  al- 
together coincide  with  the  more  recent,  but  shorter  memoir  of 
Durocher. 

The  tin-deposits  at  Piriac  are  very  irregular,  and  occur  in 
gneiss  and  mica-schist  near  their  junction  with  granite. 

The  ores  occur  in  two  ways: 

1.  in  veins  of  hyaline  milk-quartz; 

2.  as  pockets  in  gneiss. 

The  cassiterite  forms  isolated  and  irregularly  distributed 
masses  in  the  quartz-veins;  all  of  which  veins  do  not  Contain 
tin-ore,  but  only  those  which  are  parallel  to  the  foliation;  while 
those  at  right  angles  do  not  contain  any  ore.  The  question 
may,  therefore,  arise,  whether  they  should  not  be  considered  as 
ore-beds. 

The  pockets  occur  in  a  decomposed  gneiss,  whose  feldspar 
is  altered  to  kaolin.  The  cassiterite  forms  small  concretions  in 
this  kaolin,  occasionally  crystallized;  while  no  crystals  occur  in 
the  quartz-veins. 

Near  these  deposits,  but  only  in  valleys,  or  basins,  with 
which  the  granite-gneiss  district  is  connected,  occur  numerous 
tin-placers;  in  which  are  also  found  crystals,  or  rounded  frag- 
ments, of  zircon,  spinel,  tourmaline,  beryl,  and  magnetite. 

There  is  one  champion-lode,  in  particular,  in  the  granite 
near  Villeder,  which  strikes  NW.— SE.  and  dips  60°  in  NE. 
The  same  attains  a  breadth  of  13  feet,  and  consists  of  white 
hyaline  quartz,  having  a  somewhat  greenish  color  where  it  con- 
tains tin-ore.  This  quartz  is  generally  very  free  from  foreign 


382  TIN-PLACERS. 

admixtures,  but  shows,  in  places,  the  imprint  of  destroyed  acieu- 
lar  crystals.  Near  the  tin-ore,  on  the  contrary,  it  contains 
small  pockets  of  clay,  with  mispickel,  and  crystals  of  beryl,  and 
topaz.  Threads  of  limonite,  traversp  it,  parallel  to  the  selvages. 
It  is  also  somewhat  divided  into  layers,  which  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  thin  layers  of  sand.  The  vein  is  only 
found  in  granite,  and  does  not  pass  into  the  surrounding  schist. 

The  still  older  description  of  Blavier  does  not  altogether 
agree  with  this  of  Elie  de  Beaumont;  without  its  being  perfectly 
clear,  whether  they  do  not  refer  to  two  different  lodes.  The  vein, 
near  the  mill,  of  Villeder,  strikes,  according  to  Blavier,  N'NW. — 
SSE.,  dips  but  25°  in  NNE.  aud  attains  a  breadth  of  26—33 
feet.  It  consists  of  quartz  with  somewhat  of  cassiterite,  mispickel, 
beryl,  tourmaline,  and  limonite. 

To  these  deposits  must  be  added  a  more  recent  discovery, 
described  by  Audibert. 

To  the  South  of  Ploermel  the  granite  joins  the  somewhat 
metamorphosed  Silurian  slates  in  the  Oust  valley,  forming  a 
projection  into  the  slates;  in  which  projection  it  is  inter- 
sected, near  its  limits  at  Maupas,  by  5  or  6  stanniferous 
quartz-veins.  They  strike  NE.— SW.  and  have  a  considerable 
dip  in  NW. ;  their  breadth,  between  9  and  18  inches;  while 
they  frequently  split  up  into  branches,  often  again  uniting.  They 
can  only  be  followed  for  a  distance  of  4  fathoms  (a  single  case 
11  fathoms)  in  the  direction  of  strike,  when  they  disappear  in 
the  granite,  which  is  medium-grained  and  very  micaceous.  The 
white  hyaline  quartz,  of  which  they  consist,  contains  here  and 
there  somewhat  of  cassiterite,  in  small  bunches,  or  isolated  crys- 
tals, at  times  so  little,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  recognise 
it,  being  collected  in  considerable  quantities  at  one  of  the  sel- 
vages in  but  a  single  lode.  The  granite,  alongside  of  these 
veins,  also  contains,  in  places,  somewhat  of  cassiterite,  porphy- 
ritically  disseminated;  while,  contrary  to  the  usual  manner  of 
occurrence,  it  is  in  these  places  particularly  rich  in  feldspar, 
and  contains  but  little  quartz,  as  if  the  last  had  been  displaced 
by  the  tin-ore.  The  cassiterite  is  accompanied  by  considerable 
mispickel,  occasionally,  also,  by  mica,  beryl,  and  limonite.  These 
lodes  are  not  rich  enough  to  be  exploited,  but  appear  to  be  con- 
nected with  those  at  Villeder. 

Tin-placers  are  found  along,  almost,  the  whole  extent  of 
coast,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Loire  and  the  Vilaine,  they 


LEAD-LODES.  383 

are,  also,  frequent  between  the  Oust  and  the  Claye;  finally, 
southward  of  Josselin  in  Morbihan,  on  granite  and  around  the 
district  it  occupies.  The  cassiterite  forms  partly  crystals,  partly 
rounded  pebbles.  These  pebbles  lie  in  the  lowest  portion  of 
the  Alluvium,  immediately  on  the  granite,  or  crystalline  schists. 
They  originated  in  the  veins,  or  impregnations,  within  these 
rocks.  Curiously  enough,  somewhat  of  tin-ore  is  also  washed 
out  of  the  Miocene  strata,  with  which  it  must  have  been  con- 
temporaneously deposited,  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  tin-ores  in 
the  more  recent  placers.  This  is  especially  the  case,  on  the 
coast  of  Penestin,  southerly  of  the  mouth  of  the  Vilaine.  This 
is  a  similar  case  to  that,  with  which  we  have  already  become 
acquainted  in  the  gold  of  the  Rhine,  which  has  been  formerly 
deposited  in  the  Molasse  strata  of  Switzerland. 

The  following  minerals  are  commonly  found  in  the  tin-pla- 
cers of  Brittany :  magnetite,  ilmenite,  micaceous  iron,  garnet,  spinel, 
zircon,  and  native  gold  in  scales;  thus  near  Piriac,  Penestin, 
and  Josselin.  Durocher  found  in  the  Haie  valley  somewhat  of 
native  mercury,  partly  in  fluid  drops,  partly  amalgamated  with 
gold  and  silver.  The  original  deposit  of  these  metals  has  not 
been  discovered. 

Tin-ore  is  found  in  three  localities,  in  the  granite,  near 
Vaury  and  Puy-les-Vigner.  According  to  De  Cressac,  quartz- 
veins,  a  few  inches  broad,  occur  in  granite  passing  into  greisen, 
which  contain:  tin-ore,  wolfram,  molybdenite,  mispickel,  copper- 
pyrites,  domeykite,  melaconite,  native  copper,  fluoritic  mica,  and 
fluor  spar.  The  country-rock  is  also  somewhat  impregnated  by 
these  minerals.  This  is  a  mode  of  occurrence  very  analogous 
to  that  of  Zinnwald  in  the  Erzgebirge. 


THE  LODES  OF  POULLAOUEN  AND  HUELGOAT. 

§  215.  The  broad  and  rich  argentiferous  lead-lodes  of  Mor- 
laix 1  occur  in  Silurian  clay-slate.  In  addition  to  several  less 
important  ones,  two  champion-lodes  are  known,  those  of  Poul- 
laouen,  and  Huelgoat. 


1  See:  Daubuisson,  in  Journal  des  Mines,  1806,  No.  119,  p.  347 ;  1807, 
No.  122,  p.  81;  Elie  de  Beaumont,  Explicat.  de  la  Carte  geolog.  de  la 
France,  p.  237. 


384  POULLAOUEN  AND  HUELGOAT. 

The  lode  of  Poullaouen  has  been  opened,  for  a  length  of 
more  than  750  fathoms,  and  depth  of  about  100  fathoms;  it  forms 
a- curve,  coursing  NW. — SE.  and  dips  45°  in  NE. ;  while  the 
clay-slate,  containing  quajtzite  and.  greenstone,  which  forms  its 
wall-rock,  strikes  ENE.— WSW.  a£d  dips  40°-50°  in  S. 

The  breadth  of  this  lode  is  very  variable,  it  widens  in  places 
to  25  fathoms,  and  contracts  in  others  to  a  few  inches,  averaging 
about  1  fathom.  Its  real  breadth  is  very  difficult  to  determine ; 
since  distinct  selvages  are  wanting,  and  it  is  often  split  into  side- 
branches,  which  can  be  regarded  ad  libitum',  as  forming  a  por- 
tion of  the  lode,  or  not;  since  the  matrix  is  mostly  a  sort  of 
clay-slate,  mixed  with  quartz;  which  frequently  passes  into  sili- 
ceous slate,  or  black  hornstone ;  frequently  traversed,  in  turn, 
by  quartz-strings. 

The  principal  ore  is  argentiferous  galena,  combined  with 
somewhat  of  blende,  and  iron-pyrites.  The  ores,  like  the  quartz, 
form  a  network  of  threads,  or  strings,  in  which  the  galena  is 
but  rarely  combined  with  the  quartz,  generally  with  the  clay- 
slate  ;  the  separate  threads  are  only  a  few  lines  to  several  inches 
broad,  they  often  separate,  and  again  unite.  Grains  of  ore  are 
sometimes  found,  through  the  slate  forming  the  matrix;  and  even 
the  wall-rock  is  often  somewhat  impregnated.  The  lode  is  con- 
sidered rich,  when  the  galena  forms  l/10  of  the  total  mass. 

The  ores  are  by  no  means  equally  distributed;  but  are 
collected  in  chimneys,  40—50  fathoms  long,  and  extending  at 
variable  angles  in  the  depth.  Whether  the  wall-rock,  in  these 
portions,  is  of  a  peculiar  kind,  is  not  stated.  The  similarity  of 
this  lode,  with  those  of  Clausthal,  is  very  great. 

The  champion-lode  of  Huelgoat  is  much  more  regular,  than 
that  of  Poullaouen.  It  has  been  developed  for  a  length  of  500 
fathoms,  and  depth  of  135  fathoms.  It  strikes  NW.— SE.  and 
dips  70°  in  SE.;  its  country-rock  is  a  black  clay-slate.  Its 
breadth  averages  l1/^ —  2  fathoms,  but  occasionally  reaches  13 
fathoms.  The  same  contains,  besides,  argentiferous  galena,  some- 
what of  native  silver,  and  kerargyrite  in  a  kind  of  iron  ochre. 
The  principal  matrix  of  the  lode  is  quartz,  besides  which  are 
found:  pyrites,  blende,  pyromorphite,  cerusite,  plumbo-resinite, 
and  laumontite ;  blende  and  quartz  sometimes  form  ring-ores,  the 
kernel  consisting  of  blende.  Fragments  of  the  wall-rock,  and 
even  rounded  portions,  are  very  frequently  found  in  the  mass 
of  the  lode. 


PYRENEES.  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION.  385 

XXIII.   THE  PYRENEES. 
GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION  ' 

§  216.  Granitic  rocks,  combined  with  crystalline  schists,  crop- 
out,  especially  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  chain ;  while,  towards 
the  West,  they  form  more  isolated  central  points,  in  a  large 
district  of  Paleozoic  rocks,  extending  throughout  the  whole 
mountain-chain.  Triassic  deposits  also  occur  in  the  interior  of 
the  mountains;  while  strata  of  the  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous 
Periods  occur  in  the  outer  portions. 

The  granites,  in  part  porphyritic  from  large  crystals  of 
feldspar,  are  frequently  traversed  by  fine-grained,  or  very  coarse- 
grained dikes  of  granite.  Similar  dikes  also  frequently  traverse 
the  Palaeozoic  strata.  Certain  granitic  rocks  have  even  penetra- 
ted into  the  limestones  of  the  Jurassic  group ;  and  others  appear, 
according  to  Durocher,  to  have,  at  least,  altered  the  adjoining 
Cretaceous  deposits. 

The  Paleozoic  slates,  and  limestones,  are  every  where  much 
altered,  to  considerable  distances  from  the  granites.  The  slates 
contain  chiastolith,  and  pass  into  mica-schist,  talc-schist,  etc.,  with 
numerous  accessory  minerals.  The  limestones  have  become  crys- 
talline, and  contain  numerous  silicates. 

Traces,  of  at  least  six  successive  upheavals,  can  be  recog- 
nised. Durocher  called  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the  metalli- 
ferous deposits,  like  those  of  Brittany,  are  mostly  found  near  the 
limits  of  igneous  rocks.  In  the  Pyrenees,  the  ore-deposits  gener- 
ally occur,  at  the  junctions  of  the  igneous  with  the  stratified 
rocks;  occasionally  also  in  the  granites. 

Thus  iron-ores,  often  consisting  of  mixtures  of  hematite  and 
limonite,  occur  very  commonly,  with  quartz,  at  the  junctions  of 
granite  with  Palaeozoic,  Jurassic,  and  Cretaceous  limestones. 
They  occur  in  these  last,  but  owe  their  origin  to  the  granite, 
although  it  is  older  than  these  ore-deposits,  which  were  formed 


1  See:  Durocher,  in  Aim  des  mines,  1834,  vol.  V.  p.  307;  1844,  vol.  VI. 
p.  15(93);  Dufrenoy,  in  Ann.  des  sciences  naturelles,    1833,  vol.  30,   p.  59 
Baron  de  Dietrich,  Gites  de  mineral  des  Pyrenees,  1806;  de  Charpentier,; 
Constitution  go'ognost.  des  Pyrenees,  1823. 

25 


386  MANGANESE  IN  HAUTES-PYRKN&ES. 

between  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  Periods,  and  are  said  to  be 
connected  with  the  principal  upheaval  of  the  Pyrenees. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  majority  of  the  other  ore-deposits. 
The  veins  of  copper-pyrites  at  Fos^occur  between  granite,  and 
black  marl-slate  of  the  Cretaceous;  into  which  last  extend  rami- 
fications of  the  granite  ;  the  copper-deposit  of  Canavilles,  between 
granite,  Palaeozoic  slate,  and  limestone ;  the  veins  of  copper-pyrites 
and  galena  at  Vicdesos,  at  the  limits  of  granite  and  granitic  in- 
jections. The  iron-deposits  of  Rancie,  the  lead-deposits  of  Ar- 
gentieres,  Laquore,  and  Castelminier,  as  well  as  the  copper-de- 
posits of  Escanerades  in  Palaeozoic  limestone  at  the  limits  of 
granite.  The  veins  of  argentiferous  galena,  of  the  Luchon- 
valley,  in  Palaeozoic  slate,  near  the  granite  mass  of  the  Cra- 
biules ;  the  galena-lodes  of  the  Essera-valley  in  Palaeozoic  slate 
and  limestone  traversed  by  granite  dikes ;  the  arsenical  cobalt- 
deposits  of  the  Gistain-valley  in  Palaeozoic  slate  and  limestone, 
overlying  the  granite;  the  argentiferous  and  cupriferous  veins 
of  iron-pyrites  in  the  granite  of  the  Esterry  valley,  etc.  Be- 
sides these,  numerous  less  regular  gash-veins  of  iron-ores  occur 
in  the  Pyrenees,  as  in  Brittany,  between  sedimentary  strata,  only 
near  the  surface,  without  extending  to  any  depth.  Finally  these 
same  granite  limits  are  characterised  by  the  very  frequent  oc- 
currence of  sulphur-springs. 

I  shall  only  describe  a  few  of  the  metalliferous  deposits  in 
the  Pyrenees,  which  have  been  very  completely  examined  and 
described. 


MANGANESE  DEPOSITS  IN  THE  DEPT.  OF 
HAUTES-PYRENEES. 

§  217.  The  district  between  the  valleys  of  the  Luchon 
and  Campan;  in  which  the  manganese  deposits1  occur,  in 
a  zone  about  8200  fathoms  long,  lying  E. — W. ;  consists 
of  argillaceous,  marly,  and  by  no  means  metamorphic, 
slates;  with  numerous  thin,  embedded  layers  of  limestone,  both 
belonging  to  the  Palaeozoic.  The  strata  course  regularly  enough, 
WNW.  — ESE. ;  except  that  in  the  zone,  where  the  manganese- 
ores  are  found,  disturbances  of  the  bedding  have  every  where 


See:  Gruner,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1850,  vol.  XVIII.  p.  61. 


CULERA  IN  CATALONIA.  387 

taken  place;  so  that  it  would  appear  as  if  this  zone  were  the 
line  of  a  dislocation  of  large  dimensions. 

The  manganese-ores  are  not  combined  among  themselves, 
but  form  irregular  masses  at  the  surface,  or  fill  irregular  de- 
pressions, fissures,  cavities,  or  pockets  in  the  strata;  in  the  same 
manner  as  oolithic  ores  in  many  other  localities.  Probably  these 
variously  shaped  cavities  have  been  formed  by  the  same  causes, 
which  have  so  essentially  disturbed  the  regularity  of  the 
stratification  of  the  zone  in  question.  The  minerals  filling  these 
cavities  are,  chiefly,  a  black,  anhydrous  ore  of  manganese;  in 
compact,  cellular,  or  earthy  condition ;  mingled  towards  the  edges 
with  ferruginous  clay,  and  accompanied  at  some  depth  by  dia- 
logite,  which  is  implanted  on  the  walls  of  limestone.  Unaltered 
fragments  of  limestone  occur  in  these,  near  Soulan,  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  ore. 

The  entire  manner  of  occurrence  appears,  according  to 
Gruner,  to  indicate,  that  these  ores  have  been  deposited  by 
mineral'  springs,  containing  bicarbonate  of  manganese  in  solution, 
which  have  penetrated  to  the  surface,  through  the  numerous  fis- 
sures in  the  zone  of  dislocation,  and  deposited  a  portion  of  their 
metalliferous  contents,  under  an  escape  of  carbonic  acid,  either 
near  or  at  the  surface. 

This  explanation  has  undoubtedly  a  great  degree  of  proba- 
bility; and  even  the  anhydrous  condition  of  the  ores  cannot  be 
regarded  as  contrary  proof;  although  the  warm  springs,  in  other 
regions,  generally  deposit  hydrated  oxide  of  manganese.  The 
conditions,  under  which  the  deposit  took  place,  may  have  been 
different;  or  the  water,  at  first  present,  may  have  subsequently 
disappeared,  by  one  of  the  processes  of  alteration,  so  common 
in  ores  of  manganese.  Nothing  definite  can  be  stated  concerning 
the  age  of  the  deposit. 

The  principal  localities  where  the  ores  are  exploited  are  : 
Vielle,  Germ,  and  Soulan. 

CULERA  IN  CATALONIA. 

§  218.  The  village  of  Cul^ra,1  in  the  easternmost  portion 
of  the  Pyrenees,  lies  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  spur  forming  the 


1  See:    Mil  Her,   in   Cotta's  Gangstudien,  vol.  II.  p.  321;  Resales,  in 
Revista  minera,  Madrid,  1851,  vol.  II.  p.  725. 

25* 


388  LODES  OF  GOLD,  AND  LEAD. 

Cap  de  Cerbera,  between  the  small  town  of  Llanza  and  the 
boundaries  of  France.  The  neighboring  mountains  consist  of 
Palaeozoic  rocks,  while  granite  and  quartz-porphyry  are  the  only 
igneous  rocks  occurring  in  the  neighborhood.  The  Paleozoic  rocks 
are  often  traversed  by  veins  of  calc-spar,  and  lenticular  veins, 
and  masses  of  quartz.  These  quartz-masses  form;  in  their  shape 
and  composition,  transitions  into  the  auriferous  quartz ;  they, 
also,  occasionally  contain  traces  of  copper  pyrites. 

These  rocks  contain  two  kinds  of  lodes:  viz.  auriferous 
quartz-veins;  and,  more  recent,  lead-lodes.  The  gold-veins  strike 
KE.—SW.  and  dip  in  SE.,  more  rarely  in  NW.  Their  breadth 
varies  from  a  few  inches  to  one,  or  even  two,  fathoms.  They 
are  very  irregular  in  regard  to  their  length,  and  even  pass  into 
the  subordinate  lenticular  veins  above-mentioned.  They  consist 
mostly  of  a  white  to  dark  gray,  greasy  quartz,  in  which  some- 
what of  mispickel,  iron-pyrites,  copper-pyrites,  galena,  brown 
blende^  and  native  gold,  are  finely  disseminated.  The  quartz 
sometimes  contains,  besides  these,  fragments  of  the  wall-rock, 
and  is  but  rarely  traversed  by  strings  of  calc-spar.  It  is  firmly 
attached  to  the  wall-rock;  but  the  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  two  is  distinctly  defined,  being,  at  times,  separated  by 
friction-surfaces :  white  mispickel  is  the  most  common,  among 
the  minerals  above-mentioned,  and  contains  argentiferous  gold. 
The  galena,  and  blende,  also  contain  somewhat  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  gold  generally  forms  extremely  thin  incrustations,  or  small 
grains,  most  commonly  associated  with  galena,  blende,  and  mis- 
pickel. These  ores  are  nowhere  equally  distributed  through  the 
gang;  the  dark  gray,  greasy  quartz  being  the  richest.  No  law 
could  be  recognised  with  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  ore. 
Numerous  veins  of  this  kind  have  been  found,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  seems  to  be  that  in  the  Carolina  mine.  The  Veta 
blanca,  on  the  contrary,  which  protrudes  as  a  high  rock- wall, 
20—30  feet  high,  and  strikes  NNW.— SSE.,  appears  to  belong 
to  another,  non-auriferous,  quartz- formation,  in  which  only  traces 
occur  of  copper  and  iron  pyrites,  and  spathic  iron. 

The  lead-lodes  of  the  same  district  have  a  very  irregular 
strike,  attain,  a  breadth  of  2  inches  to  3  feet,  and  are,  for  the 
most  part,  composed  of  decomposed  country-rock,  with  calc- 
spar,  fluor  spar,  spathic  iron,  black  or  brown  blende,  galena  (con- 
taining but  little  silver  and  no  gold),  iron  and  copper  pyrites.  The 
ores  and  vein-stones  are  irregularly  intermingled  with  one  another. 


SPAIN.  GENERAL  SUMMARY.  389 

XXIV.   SPAIN.  ;; 

GENERAL  SUMMARY. 

§  219.  It  is  known,  that  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  even  until  the  discovery  of  America,  a  profitable 
metal-mining  existed  in  many  parts  of  Spain.  The  discovery  of 
America  was  the  cause  of  a  general  decline  of  the  mining  interests 
of  the  country,  nearly  all  the  forces  being  turned  across  the 
ocean  to  the  deposits,  in  part  still  richer,  there  discovered. 
It  is  principally  since  1820,  that  the  Spaniards  have  recom- 
menced looking  for  the  traces  of  the  old  works,  and  developing 
the  natural  treasures  of  their  own  country. 

The  iron-deposits  of  this  land  exhibit  nothing,  either  new 
or  interesting;  so  that  I  shall  confine  myself  to  those  deposits, 
whose  description  appeared  reliable,  in  those  French  and  Ger- 
man works  to  which  I  had  access.  Ezquerra  del  Bayo's  map 
in  Leonhard's  Jahrbuch  fur  Mineralogie  for  1851,  on  which  the 
most  important  mining  localities  are  marked,  gives  a  very  good 
idea  of  the  geological  topography.  Without  grouping  the  de- 
posits into  districts,  I  shall  describe  the  zinc-deposits  of  San- 
tander,  the  silver  lodes  of  Hiendelencia,  the  silver  and  lead 
lodes  of  the  Sierra  Carthagena,  of  the  Sierra  Almagrera,  and  of 
the  neighborhood  of  Linares ;  the  copper-deposits  of  the  Province 
of  Huelva,  and  the  quicksilver-deposits  of  Almaden.  I  pass 
over  the  Kingdom  of  Portugal,  although  it  is  not  wanting  in 
metalliferous  deposits. 

CALAMINE  DEPOSITS  IN  THE  PROVINCE  OF 
SANTANDER. 

§  220.  A  very  considerable  deposit  of  zinc- ores  occurs  in 
the  Province  of  Santander,1  on  the  north  coast  of  Spain,  between 
the  western  portion  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  sea.  They  do  not 
extend  continuously  and  without  interruption  5  but  occur  in  many 
localities  at  a  certain  niveau,  between  the  strata  of  the  Upper 


1  See:  Fel.  Banza,  in  Mining  Magazine,  1861,  p.  73;  Sullivan,  and 
O'Reilly,  in  Revue  de  Geologie,  II.  p.  102;  Schonichen,  in  Berg-  und 
huttenm.  Zeit.  1863,  p.  163;  Riviere,  in  Compte  rendu,  1858,  p.  728. 


390  CALAMINE  IN  SANTANDER. 

Jura,  in  a  very  similar  manner  to  the  zinc-deposits  of  Upper 
Silesia,  the  Ruhr  district,  and  Belgium,  in  older  strata.  The 
separate  deposits,  which  are  not  every  where  rich  enough  to  be 
exploited,  form  near  Santander,  partly  recumbent  segregations, 
partly  bedlike  impregnations;  partly  refill  irregular  fissures,  even 
in  the  form  of  oolithic  grains,  in  such  a  manner,  that  they  cannot 
be  termed  true  beds,  although  they  resemble  such  in  their 
general  geological  extension.  They  always  occur  at  the  contact 
of  ferruginous  clayey  shales  and  dolomites;  the  first  forming 
their  floor,  the  last  their  roof.  At  times  separate  portions  of 
these  are  altered  into  calamine  and  smithsonite,  while  inwardly 
still  consisting  of  dolomite. 

The  strata,  which  are  conformable  with  one  another,  although 
not  every  where  present,  consist,  in  descending  order,  of: 

1.  Dolomite,  and  magnesian  limestone,  very  thick; 

2.  foe-deposits,  consisting  of  blende  more  or  less  altered  to  calamine. 
or  galena,  combined  with  dolomite; 

3.  Ochreous  clay,  hematite,  and  limonite,  cupriferous  clay,  etc. 

4.  Argillaceous  limestone; 

5.  Argillaceous,  slaty  limestone; 

6.  Sand,  and  sandstone; 

7.  Argillaceous  shale,  and  stratified  sandstone,  with  lignite; 

8.  Stratified  limestone. 

Above  the  dolomites,  immediately  overlying  the  ore-deposits, 
more  recent  ones  occasionally  occur,  also,  containing  strings,  and 
pockets,  of  white  calamine,  and  zinc-bloom. 

According  to  Riviere,  distinct  fossils  of  the  Cretaceous 
group  occur  in  the  limestones  of  this  group;  while  Schorii- 
chen  and  O'Reilly  consider  the  same  as  belonging  to  the  Jura 
formation. 

It  has  already  been  remarked,  that  the  ores  were  not 
equally  distributed  through  the  dolomite-belt,  .  but  were  grouped 
in  irregular  deposits,  of  unequal  richness,  although  of  similar 
composition.  The  zinc-ores  are  generally  very  predominant, 
among  these  even  the  blende  (near  Cumillas),  which  usually  oc- 
cupies the  lower  portions  in  the  thicker  deposits.  The  other 
zinc-ores  are  smithsonite,  calamine,  and  zinc-bloom.  After  the 
zinc-ores,  galena  is  the  most  important;  besides  these  ores,  are 
also  found  oxides  of  manganese,  carbonates  of  copper,  arsenates 
of  nickel,  etc.,  which  cause  numerous  changes  of  color. 

These  zinc-deposits  evidently  correspond,  in  general,  with 
those  with  which  we  have  already  become  acquainted,  near  Aix-la- 


HIENDELENCIA  LODES  IN  GUADALAJARA.  391 

Chapelle,  at  Wiesloch,  and  in  Silesia.  Their  manner  of  occur- 
rence, combined  with  dolomite,  is  also  entirely  analogous,  even 
though  belonging  to  a  much  more  recent  formation;  the  only  slight 
difference  is  the  occurrence  of  blende,  and  the  presence  of  zinc- 
bloom,  copper  and  nickel  ores.  Their  origin  will  certainly  prove 
to  be  an  analogous  one,  and  not  to  belong  to  the  period,  during 
which  the  dolomites  were  formed,  but  a  subsequent  one. 

THE  LODES  OF  HIENDELENCIA  IN  THE  PROVINCE 
OF  GUADALAJARA. 

§  221.  Hiendelencia1  lies,  180  kilometers  northeast  of 
Madrid,  on  a  spur  of  the  Guadarrama  mountain-chain.  The 
rock  in  the  neighborhood  is  principally  gneiss,  whose  different 
varieties  alternate  with  other  crystalline  schists  and  quartzites. 
These  schists  are  traversed  by  two  different  systems  of  lodes,  the 
one  of  which  courses  NE. — SW.,  the  other  N.-—  S.  The  lodes  of 
the  first  are  composed  of  heavy  spar,  those  of  the  last  of  quartz : 
both  contain  silver  ores;  but  the  first,  the  most. 

The  best  known,  and,  as  yet,  most  important  of  the  barytic 
lodes,  is  the  Santa-Cecilia  or  Canto-Bianco.  Its  real  breadth 
never  exceeds  2  inches,  but  it  sends  out  numerous  and,  in  part, 
important  branches  on  both  sides,  which  frequently  re-unite  with 
the  principal  vein.  It  is  generally  almost  perpendicular,  but 
occasionally  has  but  a  very  gentle  dip.  The  gang  of  heavy 
spar  contains  silver  glance,  as  the  chief  ore,  distributed  through 
it.  From  this  last  ruby  silver,  native  silver,  as  well  as  chloride, 
bromide  and  iodide  of  silver,  appear  to  have  been  formed  by 
decomposition.  Some  portions  of  galena,  and  stibnite,  both  very 
argentiferous,  also  occur. 

A  decomposed  bed-layer  in  mica-schist,  occurs  near  Con- 
gostrina,  only  10  kilometers  distant  from  the  just  mentioned 
veins;  which  contains  small  masses  or  grains  of  silver-glance  and 
ruby  silver.  Ezquerra  del  Bayo  thinks,  that  this  layer  has  been 
formed  by  the  denudation  of  the  above  lodes,  and  that  it  is 
consequently  a  true  bed,  and  so  a  sort  of  ancient  placer.  I 


1  See:  Ezquerra  del  Bayo,  in  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  vol.  II.  p.  309, 
Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1851,  p.  46;  Ruyz  y  Leon,  in  Tlnstitut,  1845,  XIII. 
p.  381,  Bulletin  gcolog.  1846,  III.  p.  648;  Breithaupt,  in  Berg-  u  huttenm. 
Zeit.  1854,  p.  9;  De  Aldama,  in  Revista  ininera,  1851,  II.  p.  184. 


392  SIERRA  DE  CARTHAGENA. 

must  confess,  that  this  explanation  appears  to  me  scarcely 
probable;  but  reserve  any  positive  opinion,  with  regard  to  a 
fact,  of  which  I  know  so  little.  Bayo  goes  still  farther,  since 
he  supposes  the  silver  (probably  in  the  form  of  silver  glance) 
found  in  a  Tertiary  clay  near  Hita,  50  kilometers  from  Hien- 
delencia,  to  owe  its  origin  to  a  similar  erosion,  and  subsequent 
deposit. 

LODES  JN  THE  SIERRA  DE  CARTHAGENA. 

§  222.  The  Sierra  de  Carthagena1  forms  a  coast-branch 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  in  an  East- West  line.  It  consists  of  Silurian 
slates  and  limestones,  traversed  by  trachytes  and  basalts,  sur- 
rounded at  the  base  by  Tertiary  strata. 

The  Silurian  rocks  and  trachytes  are  traversed  near  Alma- 
zarron  on  the  Monte-Rajado,  east  of  Carthagena,  by  a  number 
of  lodes  having  a  predominant  N. — S.  and  E. — W.  strike,  and 
commonly  vertical.  Where  they  traverse  the  Silurian  rocks  they 
occur,  according  to  their  nature,  partly  as  regular  fissure- veins 
intersecting  the  strata  obliquely  to  their  course,  partly  separating 
into  branches,  which  strike  parallel  to  the  strata.  In  the  last 
case  they  often  form  very  narrow  branches,  or  broader  lenticular 
masses.  They  often  enclose  fragments  of  slate  or  trachyte,  and 
are  consequently  of  more  recent  age  than  this  last.  Their  matrix 
is,  according  to  Fournet,  of  especial  geological  interest.  It 
consists  of  an  irregular  mixture  of  a  ferruginous  silicate  with 
galena,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  mispickel,  magnetite,  calc-spar, 
heavy  spar,  and  quartz.  These  ingredients  penetrate  one  another 
in  a  peculiar  manner,  in  fine  strings,  threads,  nodular  masses, 
dendrites,  etc.,  also  forming  small  geodes. 

In  the  broader  veins,  or  at  the  broadest  points  of  the  same 
lode,  the  ferruginous  siliceous  mass  predominates,  while  the 
narrower  branches  and  strings  are  almost  exclusively  filled  with 
sulphurets.  Fournet  thinks,  that  the  mass  of  the  vein  has  pene- 
trated in  an  igneous-fluid  condition,  in  which  the  siliceous  and 


1  See:  Sauvage,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  4th  series,  vol.  IV.  p.  113; 
Gruner,  in  same,  1842,  vol.  I.  p.  712;  Pernolet,  in  same,  1846,  vol.  IX. 
p.  42;  Fournet,  in  Compte  rendu,  1S57,  vol.  44,  p.  12^3;  Lasala,  in  Re- 
vista  minera,  1852,  vol.  III.  p.  551;  Von  Hingenau,  in  Oesterreich.  Zeit- 
schrift  f.  Berg-  u.  Hiittenw.  1861,  p.  385;  Berggeist,  1862,  p.  414. 


SIERRA  ALMAGRERA.  393 

earthy  portions  were  prevented,  by  their  viscous  condition,  from 
penetrating  into  the  finer  clefts  with  the  more  thinly  fluid  sul- 
phurets.  Although  I  cannot  coincide  in  this  view,  I  also  refrain 
from  expressing  any  positive  opinion,  on  geological  facts,  which 
I  have  not  had  the  opportunity  to  examine  personally. 

Pernolet  describes  two  other  kinds  of  lead- deposits.  The 
one  seem  to  form  impregnations  of  galena,  pyrites,  and  blende, 
in  a  compact  green  rock;  the  other  form  beds  or  bedded  veins 
in  limestone.  In  the  last  galena  occurs,  apparently  unaccom- 
panied by  either  pyrites  or  blende. 

LODES  IN  THE  SIERRA  ALMAGRERA. 

§  223.  The  Sierra  Almagrera1  rises  in  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Province  of  Almeria,  immediately  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  about  1000  feet  above  its  surface.  The 
Small  Cordillera  (the  coast-chain)  is,  at  the  most,  15  miles  long, 
and  3  broad.  While  rising  rather  precipitously  out  of  the  sea, 
towards  the  Southeast,  it  declines  very  gradually,  at  an  angle 
of  about  6°,  on  its  northwestern  slope,  towards  the  plains  of 
Cuevas  and  Pulpi.  Both  slopes  are  intersected  by  deep  gorges 
(Barrancos).  The  principal  strike  of  its  crest  is  NE.— SW.,  it 
consists  entirely  of  mica-schist  passing  into  clay-slate.  An  igneous 
rock  is  nowhere  seen,  but  the  schist  is  traversed  by  numerous 
veins,  the  most  important  of  which  has  been  called  Jaroso  after 
one  of  the  gorges.  This  at  times  splits  up  into  numerous  branches, 
especially  towards  the  N.,  so  that  at  last  an  exploitation  of  the 
narrow  droppers  has  to  be  given  up;  while  southwardly  a. great 
fault  appears  to  cut  off  the  lode.  The  exploitable  portion,  between 
the  two,  is  about  1800—2100  feet  long.  The  strike  of  the  vein 
is  almost  due  N. — S.,  it,  therefore,  crosses  the  mountain-crest 
somewhat  obliquely,  the  dip  averages  60°  in  E.,  near  the  sur- 


1  See:  Riidiger,  in  Berg- u.  huttenm.  Zeit  1843,  p.  457;  Breithaupt, 
in  same,  1852,  p.  65;  Ezquerra  del  Bayo,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1841, 
p.  354,  1843,  p.  787,  1851,  p.  46;  Pellico  and  Maestro,  in  Annal.  des 
mines,  1841,  vol.  II.  p.  124;  Revista  minera,  1851,  vol.  II.  p.  592;  Pellico, 
in  same,  vol.  III.  p.  1;  Lambert,  Proceedings  of  the  roy.  geol.  soc.  of 
London,  1840,  vol.  III.  p.  318;  Gruner,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1842,  vol.  I. 
p.  713;  Paillette,  in  same,  1842,  vol.  II.  p.  287;  Pernolet,  in  same,  184fl, 
vol.  IX.  p.  35  (71 J. 


394  MINERALS,  AND  LODES,  OF 

face  somewhat  more,  at  a  greater  depth  somewhat  less.  The 
leaders  also  dip  somewhat  more,  while  the  schist  inclines  45°  in 
NE.  The  breadth  of  this  fine  lode  gradually  encreases  from  the 
surface  to  a  depth  of  35  fathoms,  being  about  3J/2  fathoms  at  its 
maximum;  at  a  still  greater  depth/* it  decreases,  and  only  aver- 
ages about  5  feet  at  a  depth  of  82  fathoms.  According  to  Rii- 
dinger,  the  contents  of  the  lode  show  a  similar  encrease  and 
decrease  with  the  depth.  The  same  is  chiefly  composed  of 
limonite  with  argentiferous  galena,  an  amorphous  white  substance 
called  'Molinera',  and  copper  pyrites.  Breithaupt  has  recognised 
the  following  minerals: 

1.  Spathic  iron,  upwards  of  40  separate  bands  have  been  counted; 

2.  Gelestine: 

3.  Heavy  spar,  mostly  massive; 

.V         4.     Steinmannite   (antimonial  galena),   containing    1 — ll/a   per  cent 
of  silver; 

5.  Common  galena,  argentiferous,  partly  very  fine  granular; 

6.  Crystals  of  bournonite  in  spathic  iron; 

7.  Brown    blende,    forming     thin     bands,    or     disseminated     in 
spathic  iron; 

8.  Copper  pyrites,  disseminated  in  spathic  iron. 

The  following  minerals  have  been  formed  by  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  preceding: 

9.  Hematite,  from  spathic  iron: 

10.  Limonite,  from  spathic  iron; 

11.  Anglesite,  from  galena; 

12.  Ochreous   antimonate   or  antimonite  of  lead  and  copper,  from 
bournonite : 

13.  Jarosite,  from  sulphurets; 

14.  Zinkosite,  from  blende; 

15.  Zinkazurite  from  copper  pyrites  and  blende. 

-Fragments  of  the  country-rock  are  not  wanting.  These 
minerals  often  exhibit  a  very  fine  combed  texture. 

As  a  rule,  only  decomposed  clay-slate,  heavy  spar,  limonite, 
and  hematite,  occur  from  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  18  fathoms; 
the  last  probably  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  spathic  iron 
and  pyrites.  Beneath  this  follows  the  richest  zone,  containing 
much  rich  argentiferous  galena,  also  somewhat  of  kerargyrite  in 
the  iron  ores.  Below  the  depth  of  82  fathoms,  the  amount  of 
silver  appears  to  decrease,  while  heavy  spar  and  a  variety  of 
hornstone  become  predominant;  but  at  the  time  Riidinger  wrote, 
the  greater  depths  had  not  been  sufficiently  opened-up ;  so  that 
it  is  possible  the  ores  may  again  encrease  both  in  quality  and 
quantity.  The  rich  zone,  below  the  depth  of  18  fathoms,  might 


SIERRA  ALMAGRERA. 


395 


possibly  be  explained  by  the  hypothesis,  that  the  metallic  por- 
tions, dissolved  and  washed  out  of  the  gossan,  were  concentrated 
in  this  zone. 

The  combed  texture  of  this  lode  is  very  remarkable,  in 
those  portions  which  are  still  fresh  and  undecomposed.  The  two 
following  woodcuts  are  copied  from  Riidinger. 


1  hJiM 

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£  *L  ja«  o  ,*  o  «  o  .5r  o  CL    o 
o     BaB«2OWoooccQai 


II  1 


>. 

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Eo>HC)!UO(»      02 


It  appears,  from  these  drawings,  that  the  arrangement  of  the 
single  layers  is  by  no  means  a  symmetrical  one,  and  cannot 
therefore  be  the  result  of  successive  deposits  in  a  fissure  having 


396  LINARES.  LEAD-LODES. 

the  present  breadth  of  the  lode.  It  must,  therefore,  be  concluded 
from  this  want  of  symmetry,  that  the  fissure  has  been  repeatedly 
widened,  and  then  the  repeated  filling  produced  only  one  or, 
at  the  most,  two  layers..  This  can  be  more  particularly  seen 
from  the  horses  in  the  middle  of  the  lode,  which  probably 
formed  a  wall  of  the  adjoining  layer,  at  a  certain  period  in  the 
formation  of  the  lode.  The  fragments  of  heavy  spar,  in  one  of 
the  layers  of  spathic  iron,  probably  come  from  the  partial  de- 
struction of  a  former  layer  of  heavy  spar.  The  fissure  may  have 
been  torn  open  12  times  in  order  to  receive  the  various  layers 
successively,  as  separate  veins. 

Pernolet  thinks  the  dark,  non-fossiliferous  limestone,  which 
here  overlies  the  mica-schist,  can  be  designated,  in  particular, 
as  metalliferous  limestone ;  since  it  contains,  in  numerous  locali- 
ties, deposits  of  galena  (poor  in  silver),  which  rarely  crop-out 
to  the  surface. 


LEAD-LODES  NEAR  LINARES,  IN  ANDALUSIA. 

§  224.  The  plateau  of  Linares1  consists  of  nearly  hori- 
zontal ferruginous  sandstones,  which  overlie  granite  for  a  thick- 
ness of  26  to  32  feet;  these  beds  of  sandstone  appear  to  belong 
to  the  Trias. 

Lan  has  distinguished  two  classes  of  lead-lodes,  traversing 
the  sandstone  and  granite: 

1.  A  large   number   occurring   close   together,   which   strike 
partly    NE.— SW.,    partly   ENE.— WSW.     These   are   the   most 
important; 

2.  A  small  number  of  much  broader,  and  more  complicated 
veins,  usually  coursing  E. — W.,    and  which  occur,  for  the  most 
part,  northward  of  Linares;  on  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Morena. 
Those  of  the    first  group  are  the  principal  object  of  the  former 
and  present  exploitation  near  Linares.    Old  piles  of  rubbish  show 
the  existence  of  45  such  veins,    which   are   distributed    over  an 
area  of  4000 — 4500  fathoms.     The  ferruginous   quartz,  of  which 
their   outcrop,    often   2   feet   broad,    chiefly    consists,    frequently 
forms  projecting  crests.     In  this  quartz  only  scattered  grains  of 
galena   are    observed;    at  a  greater   depth   the   galena    becomes 
more   frequent;    and   at   but  a  slight  depth,   these  lodes  contain 


1  See:  Lan,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1857,  vol.  XII.  p.  623. 


HUELVA  COPPER-DEPOSITS.  397 

considerable  galena  (poor  in  silver),  blende,  iron  and  copper 
pyrites,  carbonates  of  lime,  iron  and  lead,  as  well  as  linarite, 
in  a  predominantly  quartzose  gang,  with  but  little  heavy  spar. 
The  cerusite  sometimes  extends  to  a  depth  of  40  fathoms.  The 
blende  is  stated  to  encrease  in  quantity  with  the  depth  in  the 
'la  Crux  d'Arrayanes'  lode.  No  decrease  in  the  breadth 
of  the  veins  had  been  observed,  at  the  depth  of  about  80  fathoms, 
reached  in  1857;  the  ore-chimneys  extend  almost  vertically 
The  veins  appear  to  be  relatively  richer,  the  broader  they  are. 
Narrow  points  are  often  very  poor;  while  such  as  are  1 — iy2 
fathoms  broad,  frequently  contain  pure  masses  of  galena.  Since 
these  lodes  often  split  up  into  branches  and  again  unite,  rich 
junctions  are  formed  containing  compact  masses  of  galena.  They 
are  traversed  by  a  number  of  barren  fissures  which  strike  E. — W. 
or  ESE.-WNW. 

The  veins  of  the  second  class  consist  of  quartz  and  heavy 
spar,  with  iron  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  and  galena,  containing 
but  little  silver :  from  their  firmness,  the  outcrops  frequently 
project,  as  walls  of  rock  above  the  sandstones,'  to  a  height  of 
one  or  more  fathoms.  The  ores  are  distributed,  in  these  veins, 
in  strings,  and  not  collected  in  chimneys. 


COPPER-DEPOSITS  IN  THE  PROVINCE  OF  HUELVA, 
IN  ANDALUSIA. 

§  225.  The  Province  of  Huelva  '  is  composed,  for  the  most 
part,  of  clay-slates  belonging  to  the  Silurian  Age;  which  are 
frequently  traversed  by  dioritic  igneous  rocks ;  while  some  green 
metamorphic,  also  occurring  with  these,  might  be  easily  mistaken 
for  them;  also  by  some  quartz  porphyries  (Eurites  quartziferes). 
The  dioritic  greenstones  form  irregular,  lenticular  masses,  gene- 
rally coursing  parallel  to  the  clay-slates,  with  a  predominant 
E. — W.  direction.  Intersections  of  the  stratification  can  be  but 
rarely  observed.  The  quartz-porphyries,  which  are  accompanied 


1  See:  Figeroa,  in  Revista  minera,  4852,  vol.  III.  p.  513;  Ezquerra 
del  Bayo,  Memorias  sobre  las  minas  nacionales  de  Rio  Tinto,  1852;  Lan, 
in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1857,  vol.  XII.  p.  609:  Hausmann,  in  Leonhard's 
Jahrb.  1859,  p.  9;  Schonichen,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm  Zeit.  1863,  p.  176; 
Bellinger,  in  Odernheimer's  Berg-  u.  Huttenwesen  v.  Nassau,  1864,  No.  2, 
p.  291. 


398  COPPER  DEPOSITS  IN  ANDALUSIA. 

by  petrosilex;  and  jasper,  usually  form  veins,  and  bedded  veins, 
in  the  green  metamorphic  schists. 

Lan  distinguished  three  kinds  of  copper-deposits  'in  this 
Province: 

1.  Segregated  masses  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  very  broad; 
for  example,  at  Eio  Tinto; 

2.  Veins   united   to   floors   (stockwerks),    containing   oxides, 
carbonates,  and  sulphurets; 

3.  Veins  containing  copper  pyrites  and  tetrahedrite. 

The  segregations  of  pyrites  principally  occur  in  the  green 
metamorphic  schists  near  the  quartz  or  diorite  porphyries;  at 
times,  as  contact  deposits,  immediately  on  their  limits.  They 
form  irregular  masses  of  lenticular  shape,  generally  parallel  to 
the  stratification,  and  also  having  an  inward  parallel  stratifica- 
tion, at  times  sending  gut  vein-like  branches. 

Such  segregations  occur  at  Rio  Tinto,  Poyatos,  Tharsis, 
Calanas  and  San-Telmo  (Sant-Elmo).  They  are  surrounded  by 
broad  selvages  which  are  characterised  by  certain  peculiarities; 
either  by  particular  hardness  and  a  large  amount  of  ferruginous 
quartz;  or  by  numerous  interspersed  grains  of  pyrites,  causing 
a  slight  decomposition ;  or,  finally,  by  decomposition  of  the  schist 
into  a  white  soft,  argillaceous  mass.  The  outcrop  of  the  pyrites 
segregations  is  often  most  easily  recognised  from  these  selvages; 
and  in  some  of  the  segregations,  these  can  be  continuously  fol- 
lowed for  a  distance  of  1000  fathoms. 

The  deposits  consist  of  a  pretty  compact  iron-pyrites,  con- 
taining somewhat  of  copper,  or  of  an  intimate  mixture  of  iron 
and  copper  pyrites,  with  somewhat  of  quartz  and  clay ;  while 
somewhat  of  blende,  mispickel,  and  galena,  occurs  to  a  very 
subordinate  degree,  and  a  small  percentage  of  silver  occurs  locally. 
They  generally  contain  49 — 50  per  cent  of  sulphur,  43 — 44  per 
cent  of  iron,  3 — 4  per  cent  of  copper,  and  2 — 3  per  cent  of 
quartz,  sand,  and  clay.  Near  the  selvages,  and  in  them,  strings 
of  melaconite  sometimes  occur,  especially  near  Tharsis. 

Some  changes  are  found  to  take  place,  with  encreasing 
depth;  which  appear  to  have  been  caused  by  decomposition  from 
the  surface.  The  upper  2— -5  fathoms  usually  consist  of  an 
earthy  ferruginous  mass,  or  of  ferruginous  quartz,  consequently 
a  very  characteristic  gossan.  Beneath  this  the  pyrites  is  gener- 
ally much  fissured  and  possesses  a  sort  of  stratification  parallel 
to  the  selvages;  firm  masses,  pockets,  or  zones,  of  pyrites  alter- 


QUICKSILVER  IN  ESTREMADURA.  399 

nate  with  pulverulent  varieties,  which  resemble  a  stamped  ore. 
Still  deeper,  the  entire  mass  is  uniformly  compact,  and  very  hard. 
It  is  only  near  the  selvages,  exceptionally  intersected,  by  white 
argillaceous  veins,  or  masses,  resembling  the  white  variety  of 
the  selvages;  also  by  jasper,  and  quartzose  argillaceous  shale. 
It  has  not,  as  yet,  been  determined,  whether  the  breadth  and 
quantity  of  ore  decrease  with  the  depth,  or  not.  The  former  is- 
often  very  great:  Lan  states,  it  is  sometimes  as  much  as  75 
fathoms.  Hausmann  estimates  the  Breadth  of  the  segregation,  at 
Rio  Tinto,  to  .average  40  fathoms,  in  some  places  even  100 — 150 
fathoms.  He  found,  in  addition  to  the  principal  mixture  of  iron 
and  copper  pyrites,  more  rarely  somewhat  of  galena,  blende^ 
copper  glance,  tetrahedrite,  and  mispickel;  and  designates  the 
wall-rock,  as  clay-slate  passing  into  talc  and  mica-schist;  but 
porphyries  also  occur. 

There  is  evidently  a  great  similarity,  between  these  segre- 
gations of  pyrites,  and  those  of  Goslar  in  the  Hartz,  Agordo  in 
the  Alps,  and  Fahlun  in  Sweden;  the  most  of  which,  like  the 
Spanish  ones,  occur  in  rocks  belonging  to  the  Palaeozoic  era, 
and  are  surrounded  by  a  kind  of  selvage. 

Portions  of  these  broad  pyrites  deposits  have  been  exten- 
sively exploited  by  the  Romans  •  as  is  seen  from  the  large  quar- 
ries and  immense  piles  of  slag.  The  ancient  workings  are 
especially  extensive  near  Rio  Tinto. 

Less  important  than  these  broad  segregrated  masses,  are  the 
veins  forming  floors ;  which  contain  oxides,  carbonates,  and  sul- 
phurets,  traversing,  as  a  group,  rocks  of  the  Palaeozoic  era,  in 
the  northern  portion  of  the  Province;  whose  principal  course  is- 
WSW.— ENE.  The  veins  containing  tetrahedrite  are  found 
more  in  the  central  portion  of  the  Province ;  they  occur  singly 
with  a  predominant  strike  of  NNE. — SSW. 

In  the  same  region  occur  extensive  deposits  of  ores  of 
manganese. 

QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS    AT    ALMADEN 
IN  ESTREMADURA. 

§  226.  The  views,  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  these  famous 
quicksilver-deposits,  are  much  divided.  Willkomm  '  and  Ez- 


1  See:   Hawley,   in  American  Journ.  of  Science.  II.  Series,  vol.  XLV. 
p.  9;    Le  Play,  in  Annal.  d   mines,    1834,   vol.  VI.  pp.  319,  333,   362,  369r 


400  ALMADEN  QUICKSILVER-DEPOSITS. 

querra  del  Bayo  consider  them  to  be  true  veins;  de  Prado  and 
Hawley,  to  be  bedlike  impregnations,  comparable  to  those  of 
Idria.  The  strata,  in  which  the  deposits  occur,  belong  to  the 
Upper  Silurian ;  the  immediate  walj^-rock  is  usually  a  black  car- 
bonaceous slate,  and  quartzite;  with  which  hard,  fine-grained 
sandstones,  and  slates,  alternate,  but  contain  no  ores.  The 
deposits  incline,  at  the  surface,  60° — 70°,  then  dip  almost  ver- 
tically; they  had  been  opened,  in  1851,  to  a  depth  of  1050  feet. 
They  strike  E. — W.  The  two  broadest  of  the  deposits  are  the 
San  Francisco  and  San  Nicolas,  each  having  an  average  breadth 
of  21  feet;  which  occur  so  near  to  one  another,  that  they  are, 
in  places,  only  separated  by  a  soft  bed  of  slate,  3—4  feet  thick. 
Their  breadth  encreases  considerably,  with  the  depth,  to  nearly 
40  feet.  At  a  depth  of  135  fathoms  the  space  for  both,  exploited 
in  common,  has  a  width  of  67 '/2  feet-  These  deposits  consist 
almost  entirely  of  quartz,  and  compact  or  earthy  cinnabar; 
which  traverses  the  quartz,  and  also  forms  large  compact  masses. 
At  times  fine  geodes  of  calc-spar  occur  in  the  ore;  or  the  chief 
mass  is  traversed  by  clefts,  or  cavities,  containing  native  mer- 
cury; de  Prado  also  found  somewhat  of  galena  in  them.  Ac- 
cording to  this  la'st-mentioned  observer,  the  deposits  follow  the 
strike  and  dip  of  the  Silurian  slates,  on  which  account  he  calls 
them  beds;  but  remarks,  that  veins  of  cinnabar,  also,  occur,  to 
a  subordinate  degree,  in  the  neighborhood;  and  considers,  that 
the  ores  have  penetrated  between  the  slates  from  below  with  a 
sort  of  choice  of  way.  The  designation  as  bed,  would,  accord- 
ing to  this  view,  hardly  be  a  proper  one.  Le  Play  states,  that 
the  veinlike  character  appears,  for  other  reasons,  to  be  very 
evident;  since  he  observed  distinct  quartz-selvages;  which  sepa- 
rate the  veins,  on  both  sides,  from  the  country-rock;  and  con- 
tain merely  a  little  iron -pyrites,  and  cinnabar.  He  also  found 
fragments  of  ophite  (a  tolerably  compact  diorite)  in  the  lodes; 
which  rock  occurs  in  the  neighborhood,  and  with  whose  erup- 
tion he  believes  the  lodes  to  be  connected. 

The  uncommon    breadth  or   massiveness  of  this  quicksilver 
occurrence   is  very  remarkable.     It  is  not  very    strange   to  find 


489;  De  Prado,  in  Bullet,  ge'ol.  1855,  b.  vol  XII.  p.  24;  Willkomm,  in 
Bergwerksfreund,  1849,  vol  XIII.  p.  72,  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1850,  p.  497;  Ez- 
querra  del  Bayo,  inLeonhard's  Jahrb.  1851,  pp.47,  675;  Noggerath,  in 
same,  1863,  p  479;  Klemm,  in  Berg- u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1861,  p.  418.  1867,  p.  18. 


BRITISH  ISLES.  SUMMARY.  401 

ores,  which  occur  as  frequently  in  the  earth's  crust,  as  those  of 
iron,  copper,  lead,  or  zinc,  locally  aggregated  in  massive  depos- 
its; but  in  the  case  of  a  metal,  such  as  mercury,  and  its  ores, 
which  relatively  occur  so  rarely,  and  in  so  few  localities;  such 
&  massive  aggregation  is  certainly  astonishing.  If  the  localities, 
where  ores  of  mercury  occur,  or  are  exploited,  be  enumerated 
and  compared;  it  will  be  found,  that  after  platinum,  mercury  is 
the  rarest  metal  used  in  the  arts  and  manufactures.  It  may  be 
asked,  how  could  it  then  happen,  that  this  metal  is  collected 
in  such  masses  at  some  localities;  as  for  example,  Almaden, 
New  Almaden,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  Idria;  while  it  is  gener- 
ally altogether  wanting  in  most  of  the  geologically  examined 
regions?  Even  platinum  is  not  so  unequally  distributed,  the  least 
so  gold  and  silver.  Innumerable  deposits,  in  which  these  metals 
occur,  are  known;  but  none  so  metalliferous,  as  those  of  quick- 
silver. 


Tin  occurs,  in  Spain,  only  in  granite,  and  crystalline  schists. 
It  has  been  discovered  in  three  localities  in  Galicia,1  and  two 
in  Asturia;  also  in  the  Province  of  Aimer ia. 


GEEAT  BRITAIN  AND     IRELAND, 

SUMMARY. 

§  227.  This  kingdom  contains  numerous  metalliferous  de- 
posits, especially  in  the  districts  composed  of  older  sedimentary, 
or  metamorphic  rocks.  In  the  sedimentary  formations,  from  the 
Carboniferous  Period  upwards,  only  beds  of  iron-ore  occur. 

This  country  is  richly  blessed  with  iron-deposits  of  the  most 
various  kinds,  whose  value  is  in  part  much  encreased  by  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  rich  and  excellent  coal-fields.  The 
description  of  these  iron-deposits,  in  so  far  as  they  were  acces- 


1  See:  Schulz,  and  Paillette,  in  Bullet,  geol.  vol.  VII.  p.  16;  Revista 
minera,  1821,  vol.  I.  pp.   148,  333. 

26 


402  CORNWALL.  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

sible,  contained  nothing  either  particularly  important  or  inter 
esting,  on  which  account  I  shall  pass  them  over.  Especially 
important,  as  may  well  be  imagined,  are  the  iron-ores  of  the 
Carboniferous  Period;  which  occur  under  like  circumstances  to 
those  in  Westphalia,  Saarbriick,  and  Silesia,  only  thicker  and 
richer;  partly  as  the  so-called  ' black  bands',  partly  as  sphero- 
siderite,  or  clay  ironstone. 

While  passing  over  many  less  important  metalliferous  depo- 
sits, especially  those  of  Scotland,  I  shall  mention  those  of  Corn- 
wall, Derbyshire,  Cumberland,  and  Wicklow  in  Ireland. 


XXV.  CORNWALL. 

GEOLOGICAL   FORMATION. 

§  228.  The  peninsula  of  Cornwall1  consists  principally  of 
so-called  killas;  by  which  the  Cornish  miners  understand  every 
slaty  rock  not  belonging  to  either  granite,  or  elvans;  which 


1  See:  Berger,  in  Trans,  of  the  geol.  soc.  1811,  vol.  I.  pp.  93,  158,  161; 
Mc'Culloch,  in  same,  1814,  vol.  II.  p.  110;  J.Williams,  in  same,  1817r 
vol.  IV.  p.  138;  E.  Smith,  in  same,  p.  404;  Hawkins,  in  Trans,  of  the  roy. 
geol.  soc.  of  Cornwall,  1818,  vol.  I.  1822,  vol.  II.  pp.  29,  223,  232,  284; 
1827,  vol.  III.  p.  115;  1832,  vol.  IV.  pp.  1,  135;  Carne,  in  same,  18-22,  vol. 
II.  pp.  49,  290;  1827,  vol.  III.  p.  74;  1832,  vol.  IV.  pp.  47,  i)5;  Rashleigh, 
in  same,  1822,  vol.  II.  p.  282;  1832,  vol.  IV.  pp.  47,  59;  H.  Boase,  in  same, 
1827,  vol.  III.  p.  17,  vol.  II.  p.  383,  vol  IV.  p.  438;  Henwood  (the  most 
complete  on  the  subject),  in  the  same,  1843,  vol.  V,  Philosoph.  magaz.  1831, 
vol.  X.  p.  358;  1846,  vol.  XXIX.  p.  359;  Trans,  roy.  geol.  soc.  of  Cornwall, 
vol.  IV.  p.  57;  Proceedings  of  geol.  soc.  of  London,  1832,  p.  405;  Colenso,  in 
Trans,  roy.  geol.  soc.  of  Cornwall,  1832,  vol.  IV.  p.  29;  Davey,  in  same, 
p.  484;  Thomas,  Report  on  a  survey  of  the  mining  distr.  of  Cornwall,  from 
Chasewater  to  Camborne,  1819;  De  laBeche,  Report  on  the  Geology  of 
Cornwall,  Devon,  and  West  Somerset,  1839;  Johnston,  in  Mining  Almanac, 
1852;  Bonnard,  in  Journ.  d.  mines,  vol.  XIV.  No.  84,  p.  443;  Combes,  in 
Annal.  d.  mines,  1834,  vol.  V.  p.  109;  Dufrenoy,  Elie  de  Beaumont, 
Coste,  and  Perdonnet,  Voyage  metallurgique  en  Angleterre,  1839,  vol.11, 
p.  177,  Annal.  d.  mines,  vol.  IX.  p.  827,  vol.  X.  p.  331,  vol.  XI.  p.  211; 
Daubree,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  1841,  vol.  XX.  p.  89;  Moissenet,  in  same, 
XIV.  p.  87,  1863,  vol.  III.  p  161,  Compte  rendu,  1862,  vol.  LV.  p.  759; 
Pattison,  in  Quart.  Journ.  of  the  geol.  soc.  1854,  vol.  X.  p.  247. 


KILLAS.  403 

consequently  includes  hornblende-schist,  varieties  of  green- 
stone, etc.  The  age  of  these  rocks  cannot  be  more  specially 
determined,  than  that  they  belong  to  the  Palaeozoic  era;  since 
only  very  rare  ajid  poorly  preserved  fossils  have  been  found  in 
them;  from  which  it  is  indeed  probable,  that  the  majority  belong 
to  the  Devonian  Age. 

This  extensive  slate-district  encloses  five  large,  and  several 
small,  masses  of  granite;  which,  without  rising,  in  a  predominant 
manner,  above  the  common  level,  protrude  as  'islands  of  granite 
out  of  the  sea  of  slate'.  The  slate,  as  well  as  the  granite,  is 
traversed  by  numerous  dikes  of  porphyry,  called  elvans;  by 
some  trap-dikes,  by  numerous  copper  and  tin  lodes,  occasionally 
by  veins  of  ferruginous  quartz,  and  by  fissures  filled  with  clay. 
All  these  veins  are,  among  themselves  of  unequal  age,  and  most 
commonly  near  the  granite,  or  in  it.  Near  these,  and,  especially, 
at  some  distance  from  the  granite  masses,  occur  still  other  ares 
than  those  mentioned,  especially  those  of  lead. 

This  geological  formation  is  very  characteristic  for  the  whole 
of  Cornwall,  and  a  portion  of  Devonshire ;  being,  with  but  slight 
modifications,  every  where  the  same.  Considerable  masses  of 
serpentine  occur  in  the  western  portion;  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  lodes  appear  to  be  wanting  in  this  region. 

Before  passing  over  to  the  delineation  of  the  so  frequently 
and  carefully  described  metalliferous  deposits  of  Cornwall,  I  con- 
sider it  desirable  to  preface  the  same  with  more  special  remarks 
on  the  principal  rocks  just  mentioned. 

1.  The  killas  is  predominantly  composed  of  greenish  clay- 
slate,  passing  into  many  varieties  of  this  rock,  and  with  sub- 
ordinate layers  of  a  sandy  nature.  It  is  often  more  compact, 
near  the  granite  masses,  than  elsewhere;  and  there  contains, 
without  any  sharp  line  of  demarcation,  a  number  of  subordinate 
layers  of,  partly  crystalline,  schistose  rocks,  whose  special  de- 
scription would  occupy  a  much  greater  space  than  appears  ad- 
apted to  this  work.  These  schistose  rocks ;  united  by  transitions 
with  the  predominant  clay-slate,  and  found,  for  the  most  part, 
near  the  granite;  are:  chlorite  schist,  mica-schist,  gneiss,  tour- 
maline schist f  felsite  schist  containing  tourmaline,  and  hornblende 
schist,  or  greenstone  schist,  containing  numerous  subordinate 
minerals,  especially  garnet,  actinolith,  or  axinite.  These  schists 
are  also  frequently  traversed  by  veins,  and  unconnected  masses 
of  quartz,  which  also  contain  tourmaline. 

26* 


404  GRANITE. 

The  planes  of  slaty  cleavage  almost  universally  dip  from 
the  granite;  and  the  various  layers  of  slate  thus  irregularly 
mantle  round  the  flanks  of  the  granite  hills.  The  dip  of  their 
lamination  is  seldom  so  rapid,  as  that  of  the  line  of  junction 
with  the  granitic  mass  beneath;  as  it  is  seldom  more  than  30°, 
and  is  mostly  less  than  20°;  while  that  of  the  granite  usually 
exceeds  40°.  This  dip  seldom,  however,  continues  the  same  for 
considerable  distances,  and  is  even  reversed  within  small  tracts ; 
owing,  perhaps,  to  the  irregular  thickness  of  the  laminae  in  dif- 
ferent places ;  as  there  is  little  or  no  appearance,  that  they  have 
undergone  mechanical  displacement.  The  slates  are  not  only 
generally  altered  near  the  granite  limits;  but  also  occasionally, 
as  accessory  minerals,  thin  veins  or  layers  containing  quartz, 
feldspar,  mica,  chlorite,  actinolith,  garnet,  axinite,  prehnite, 
epidote,  topaz,  and  cassiterite  (Crown-Rock  near  Cape  Cornwall). 

Fossils  are  found,  but  very  rarely,  in  these  rocks ;  and  when 
they  do  occur,  are  so  imperfect,  that  they  were  not  adapted  to 
a  more  accurate  determination  of  the  strata :  thus  near  St.  Austel. 

2.  The  granite  is,  for  the  most  part,  coarse-grained,  at 
times,  however,  very  fine-grained,  often  porphyritic,  containing 
twin-crystals  of  feldspar.  The  mica  is  sometimes  replaced  in 
the  same  by  tourmaline,  chlorite,  or  talc.  These  varieties  alter- 
nate very  irregularly  with  one  another ;  one  variety  partly  form- 
ing veins  in  another,  or  ramifications  in  the  slates.  The  granite- 
masses  enlarge,  and  spread  out,  under  the  slates,  as  they 
descend,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  all  unite  at  great  depths. 
Their  dip,  as  stated,  is  also  greater  than  that  of  the  slates. 

That  these  granite-masses  are  more  recent  than  the  slates 
mantling,  and  obliquely  overlying  them;  is  rendered  evident, 
by  the  numerous  vein-like  and  bedded  ramifications,  which  the 
granite  forms  in  the  slate,  as  well  as  from  the  fragments  of  slate 
it  contains.  These  ramifications  are  most  frequent  near  the 
lines  of  junction,  frequently  but  a  few  inches  thick,  and  soon 
wedging-out;  while  exceptionally  broader,  even  bedded,  ones, 
extend  into  the  slate.  Similar  granite  strings  or  dikes  traverse 
the  granite  itself,  and  are  then  usually  very  fine-grained,  quartz- 
ose;  and  containing  but  little  mica;  they  not  rarely  contain,  as 
accessory  minerals,  pinite,  beryl,  topaz,  tourmaline,  apatite,  cop- 
per-pyrites, etc.  The  ramifications  frequently  also  intersect  the 
quartz-veins  in  the  slates,  and  are  in  turn  traversed  by  others, 
which  contain  tourmaline,  topaz,  mica,  apatite,  beryl,  cassiterite, 


ELVANS.  405 

wolfram,  and  even  somewhat  of  red  copper  (St.  Michael's  Mount). 
Veins  of  tourmaline;  associated  in  some  places  with  quartz,  in 
others  with  feldspar,  and  often  containing  tin  ore;  traverse  the 
granite:  they  are,  in  general,  far  more  abundant  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  slate. 

3.  The  Elvans  are  porphyry-dikes,  which  vary  in  the 
number,  and  proportions,  of  their  constituents;  they  traverse 
both  the  slates  and  granite.  Their  principal  mass  is  always  a 
compact  felsite,  like  that  of  all  quartz-porphyries,  in  which 
crystals  or  crystalline  grains  of  feldspar,  quartz,  amphibole,  mica, 
tourmaline,  etc.  are  porphyritically  distributed.  These  last  are 
generally  wanting  near  the  selvages,  the  rock  then  consists 
merely  of  the  compact  matrix.  Fragments  of  the  wall-rock  also 
occasionally  occur  in  these  elvans.  Henwood  states,  that  the 
mass  of  these  elvans  is  somewhat  different  when  traversing  the 
granite,  clay-slate,  or  greenstone-slate ;  in  clay-slate  usually  com- 
posed of  feldspar  and  quartz,  in  granite  of  feldspar  and  mica. 

The  elvans  have  been  extensively  worked,  in  different  places, 
for  the  metallic  minerals  which  they  contain  in  irregular  and 
disconnected  masses,  or  in  beds,  or  in  small  irregular  veins; 
viz,  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  and  tin-ore  (the  last  taking  the 
place  formerly  occupied  by  crystals  of  feldspar).  Their  breadth 
varies  between  a  few  feet  and  70  fathoms :  the  single  veins  are 
frequently  very  variable  at  different  points.  Their  strike  is 
NE. — SW.,  for  long  distances  parallel  to  the  joints  of  the  rocks, 
but,  in  general,  not  parallel  to  the  laminae  of  the  schistose  rocks : 
some  of  them  have  exceptionally  a  different  direction  of  strike. 
Their  dip  is,  in  general,  40° — 60°:  many  more  of  them  incline 
toward  the  North,  than  to  the  South.  According  to  the  Ord- 
nance geological  map  of  Cornwall,  some  of  the  elvans 
appear  to  be  only  ramifications  of  the  granite-masses;  thus  at 
Blistand.  They  are  vein-like  branches  of  the  chief  granite-mass; 
which,  perhaps  from  a  more  rapid  cooling  off,  have  hardened 
porphyritically  with  a  compact  matrix;  while  the  majority  of  the 
same,  indeed,  extend  out  of  the  slate,  through  the  granite,  with 
well  defined  limits.  These  are  evidently  somewhat  younger  than 
the  chief  mass  of  granite:  the  difference  in  age  need  not  have 
been  very  great;  and  it  is  possible,  that  they  were  all,  like  the 
granite-dikes,  formed  from  a  still-fluid  lower  granite-region,  at 
a  period  when  its  upper  portion  had  already  solidified;  while 
those  passing  into  the  granite  are,  perhaps,  contemporaneous 


406  SUMMABY  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

ramifications.  Dufrenoy  and  Elie  de  Beaumont  state,  that  the 
elvans  are  older  than  the  Carboniferous  formation,  but  more 
recent  than  a  certain  class  of  tin-lodes;  since  these  last  are  in- 
tersected, and,  in  part  faulted,  by  a  majority  of  the  elvans,  and 
by  all  the  other  lodes. 

The  slate  is  often  strikingly  hardened,  and  compact,  along- 
side of  the  lodes;  some  of  which  have  been  followed  for  a 
distance  of  5  miles. 

4.  Trap-dikes  are  found,  in  general,  only  in  the  laminated 
rocks,  which  they  partly  traverse,  like  beds,  parallel  to  the  strati- 
fication. 

SUMMARY  OF  THE  ORE-DEPOSITS  IN  CORNWALL. 

§  229.  The  ore-deposits,  and  barren  veins  accompanying 
them,  which  occur  in  Cornwall,  may  be  divided  (according  to 
Carne,  Dufrenoy,  and  Elie  de  Beaumont),  into  the  two  great 
classes  of  tin  and  copper  ore-deposits.  A  distinct  line  of  de- 
marcation cannot  well  be  made  between  these  two  classes;  since 
the  former  often  contain  copper-ores,  and  the  latter,  tin-ores; 
besides  which  veins,  entirely  destitute  of  ores,  occur. 

The  tin-deposits  may  be  subdivided  into: 

1.  Tin-floors:   these   are    portions   of  the    rocks,    or   strata, 
traversed  by  stanniferous  beds,  or  veins;  which  have  been  con- 
sidered by  some  persons  to  have  been  formed  contemporaneously 
with  the    enclosing  rocks;  but  are   probably,    more  correctly,  to 
be  regarded  as,    in   part  bedded    impregnations,    in    part   filling 
joints    between  the  rocks:    they  can  be  very  finely  observed  in 
the    slate   between    St.  Ives  and  Cape   Cornwall:    in   the  Grills- 
bunny  mine  they  form    a   zone,    about    70  feet  broad,    in   horn- 
blende-schist :  in  the  Botallack-mine  there  is  a  tin-floor  18  inches 
broad : 

2.  Tm-stockiverks:    these    are    combinations    of    numerous 
smaller  strings,  or  threads,  forming  a  network:    the    granite   in 
a  quarry  of  the  Carclace  mine,  near  St.  Austel,  is  traversed  by 
a  large  number  of  threads  or  strings,  upwards  of  6  inches   broad ; 
consisting    of   quartz,   with   tourmaline,   and  cassiterite:  they  all 
course   E. — W.,    but    are    partly    vertical,  partly  dip  70°  in  S. ; 
which  last  intersect  the  first,  without  faulting  them:    crystals   of 
tourmaline,    radiating    from    both    sides,    meet    in    their    middle 
portion,    frequently    enclosing    fragments  of   granite   near   their 


TIN,  AND  COPPER.  407 

selvages,  and  are  consequently  true  veins  (gash  veins?)  of  but  slight 
extent:  the  veins  in  St.  Michael's  Mount  near  Penzance  (al- 
ready mentioned),  which  contain  various  other  minerals  with  the 
tin-ore,  belong  to  this  class:  such  networks  of  veins  occur  still 
more  frequently  in  the  elvans,  than  in  granite;  thus,  in  the 
Wherry  mine,  between  Penzance  and  Newlin;  where  an  elvan, 
several  feet  broad,  is  intersected  by  numerous  strings,  1  —  9 
inches  broad,  consisting  of  quartz  and  cassiterite,  more  rarely 
of  tourmaline:  also  in  the  Madron  mine  near  Trewiddenball, 
where  younger  quartz-veins,  containing  tourmaline,  and  without 
cassiterite,  traverse  the  stanniferous  ones: 

3.  Tin  lodes:  these  traverse  the  killas,  granite,  and  elvans, 
especially  near  the  limits  of  the  granite-districts;  and  are  most 
common  in  the  neighborhood  of  Truro,  St.  Agnes,  Gwennaps 
(Redruth  and  Camborne),  Breage  (Marazion  and  Gwinear), 
St.  Just  (and  St.  Ives):  the  tin-lodes  vary  in  age  among  themselves: 
I  shall  describe  them  more  fully  in  the  next  paragraph : 
C-  4.  Streamworks,  or  placers,  on  the  gentle  slopes,  and  in 
valleys,  near  St.  Just  and  St.  Austel:  they  will  be  more  fully 
described  by  and  bye. 

The  copper-ores  occur,  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  exploited, 
only  in  veins,  or  networks  of  veins,  within  the  elvans:  other 
ores  sometimes  occur  with  these:  with  regard  to  their  age,  and 
course,  three  classes  of  copper-lodes  can  be  distinguished  : 

1.  Copper-lodes,  coursing  E. — W. 

2.  Contra- copper-lodes,  striking  SE.— NW.  or  NE. — SAY. 

3.  Younger  copper-lodes : 

In  addition  to  the  lodes  proper,  other  veins  often  occur,  in 
the  same  district,  filled  with  clay  or  quartz ;  which  have  received 
the  following  names: 

4.  Cross-courses:  these   are  for  the   most  part  composed  of 
quartz,  striking  N. — S.  or  NW. — SE.,  intersecting  all  lodes  they 
meet,  except  the  youngest  copper-lodes:    since  they  occasionally 
contain  ores,  they  will  be  more  fully  described  in  the  next  pa- 
ragraph : 

5.  Flucans,    or    cross-veins,    at    times    10  feet    broad,    are 
veins    almost   entirely  filled  with    clay:    sometimes  they  are  but 
narrow  clefts,  which  course  N. — S.  and  usually  dip  in  E. ;  they 
intersect  all  other  veins,  and  fissures,  but  the   slides:    Henwood 
considers  them  to  be  only  a  variety  of  the  cross-courses : 

6.  Slides:  these  never  exceed  a  foot  in  breadth;  they  have 


408 


FLOORS,    CROSS-COURSES,  FLUCANS,  SLIDES. 


x 


m 


' 


mm 
$& 


only  been  observed  in  the  slates,  and  only 
intersect  schistose  rocks;  elvans,  and  other 
veins,  intersecting  these:  not  a  single  well- 
marked  case  of  a  slide,  in  the  granite  or  the 
massive  rocks,  has  been,  as  yet;  found  in 
Cornwall;  they  are  entirely  filled  with  soft 
clay,  similar,  in  general  composition,  to  the 
rocks  which  they  traverse. 

The  relative  age  of  all  the  rocks  and 
veins  here  mentioned  would  form  the  following 
succession : 

1.  Killas,  the  oldest  rocks  in  Cornwall; 

2.  Granite; 

3.  The  majority  of  the  elvans; 

4.  Some  tin-lodes  intersected  by  elvans  (?)  : 

5.  Some  of  the  elvans; 

6.  The  majority  of  the  tin-lodes; 

7.  The  majority  of  the  copper-lodes; 

8.  Cross-courses;    which,    according    to  De 
la    Beche,     intersect    Cretaceous     deposits     in 
Devonshire ; 

9.  Younger  copper-lodes; 

10.  Cross-flucans  (according  to  Carne); 

11.  Slides; 

12.  Tin  Streamworks,  or  placers. 

After  this  general  review  of  the  various 
rocks  and  ore-deposits  of  Cornwall,  I  pass  over 
to  the  more  special  description  of  the  kinds 
most  important  to  the  miner,  preceding  it  by 
the  accompanying  ideal  representation  of  the 
various  relations  of  bedding. 

THE  LODES  OF  CORNWALL. 

§  230.  There  occur  in  Cornwall,  as  we 
have  seen,  in  addition  to  the  independent 
lodes,  tin  and  copper  ores  disseminated  in  thin 
strings,  or  netlike  veins;  these  deposits  are, 
however,  but  rarely  exploitable;  on  which 
account  I  confine  myself,  with  regard  to  them, 
to  what  has  already  been  said  in  the  last 
paragraph ;  the  more  so  as,  from  the  descrip- 


tions before  me,  I  could  scarcely  add  anything  essential. 


INDEPENDENT  LODES. 


409 


The  independent  lodes  of  Cornwall  can  be  separated,  as  we 
have  seen,  into  tin  and  copper  lodes;  but  it  is  impossible  to  draw 
a  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two;  since  many  pre- 
dominantly tin-lodes  contain  copper-ores,  and  the  reverse;  and 
since  there  is  no  characteristic  difference  betw.een  the  gang  in 
both. 

The  lodes,  in  which  the  tin-ores  predominate,  are  certainly 
older  than  those,  in  which  the  copper-ores  are  most  frequent^ 
and  are  intersected  by  these.  But  the  tin-lodes,  like  those  of 
copper,  are  of  unequal  age  among  themselves;  older  and  younger 
tin-lodes  are  distinguished,  like  older  and  younger  copper-veins. 
Perhaps,  both  kinds  of  lodes  may  be  divided  into  three  different 
classes,  as  regards  age: 


Polgooth  mine. 
Z.  Tin-lodes,  faulted  by  an 
E.  Elvan.      F.  Flucan. 

The  case  exceptionally  occurs,  in  the  Polgooth  mine,  that 
tin-lodes  are  faulted  by  an  elvan ;  which,  however,  De  la  Beche 
considers  to  be  only  apparent,  and  attempts  to  explain  by  the 
resistance,  which  the  harder  elvan  offered  to  a  prolongation  of 
the  fissure,  while  as  a  rule  the  reverse  takes  place  by  their 
junction;  as,  for  example,  in  the  Peever  mine. 


410 


PEEVER  MINE 


E.  El  van. 
Z.  Tin-lode. 
K.  Copper-lode. 
S.  Slides. 


Peever  mine. 


In  this  last  mine  the  following  relations  of  intersection, 
faulting,  and  dislocation,  were  observed;  from  which  there  would 
seem  to  be  a  threefold  age  of  the  tin  lodes;  while,  here  also, 


Peever  mine. 

Z.  Oldest  tin-lodes.     Z2.  Younger  tin-lode. 
K.  Copper-lodes. 


Z3.  Youngest  tin-lode. 


Z.   Tin-lode.     K.  Copper-lode. 
S.   Slides. 


the  youngest  tin-lode  is  inter- 
sected and  faulted  by  a  copper- 
lode.  The  normal  relation  of 
age  is,  however,  represented  by 
the  adjoining  woodcut. 

Oarne  states,  that  some  of 
the  copper  lodes  even  intersect 
the  cross-courses;  of  which  one, 
according  to  De  la  Beche,  has 
dislocated  the  chalk  and  green 
sand,  between  Combe  Beac  and 
Combe  St.  Nicholas,  and  has 


STRIKE,  DIP,   AND  AVERAGE  BREADTH.  41 1 

approached  them  more  than  200  feet  to  one  another ;  as  a  rule, 
however,  the  first  are  intersected  by  the  last.  But  since  the 
oldest  tin-lodes,  at  times,  contain  somewhat  of  copper-ore,  the 
sharp  line  of  demarcation  is  always  again  annulled;  if  these 
copper  ores  cannot  be  regarded  as  having  subsequently  pene- 
trated into  long  previously  existing  tin-lodes.  The  accurate 
descriptions  before  me  do  not,  unfortunately,  suffice  to  completely 
explain  these  relations,  and  in  default  of  a  sufficient  demar- 
cation I  shall,  like  Henwood,  treat  that  which  is  peculiar  to 
both  the  tin  and  copper  lodes,  in  common. 

The  strike  of  the  older  lodes  of  Cornwall  is  very  conformably 
E. — W.  or  WSW.— ENE. ;.  but  when  examined  in  detail,  nu- 
merous exceptions  to  these  principal  directions  of  strike  occur, 
partly  local,  partly,  and  exceptionally,  for  single  veins,  or  for 
portions  of  curved  veins.  The  majority  dip  20° — 50°  in  N.,  but 
few  being  vertical,  or  dipping  S.-ward.  Carne  states,  that  the  older 
lodes  dip  toward  N.,  the  more  recent  toward  S.  Those  in  the 
slates  generally  dip  towards  the  neighboring  granite  masses.  The 
angle  varies  very  much,  both  in  the  strike  and  dip  of  the  same 
lodes,  i.  e.  they  do  not  represent  planes,  but  undulated  faces. 
Generally  several  of  them  occur  together,  forming  a  group,  often 
found  near  the  lines  of  junction  of  the  granite  with  the  slates; 
as  in  Cornwall  these  contact-regions  are  usually  very  rich  in 
ores,  in  that  not  only  the  lodes  are  the^  most  numerous  and 
richest,  but  in  them  are  found  the,  already  mentioned,  tin-floors 
and  network  of  veins.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  prove,  that 
the  tin-lodes  occur  chiefly  in  granite,  the  copper-lodes  in  the 
slates;  but  there  are  many  exceptions  to  this,  and  both  kinds 
of  lodes  often  cut  through  both  kinds  of  rock,  without  any 
perceptible  alteration  having  taken  place  in  them  from  the 
transition. 

The  breadth  of  the  lodes  is  extremely  variable,  both  in  the  same 
vein,  and  in  the  various  individual  ones.  They  frequently  extend 
as  metalliferous  clefts;  while  they  are,  in  extreme  cases,  upwards 
of  40  feet  broad.  Henwood  calculated,  from  a  large  number  of 
observations,  the  following,  as  their  average  breadth: 

the  tin-lodes 3,06  feet. 

the   copper-lodes      2,93     „ 

those  containing  both  metals     4,70     „ 

the  lodes  in   granite     3,18     „ 

the  lodes  in  slate     3,75     „ 


412  PREDOMINANT  MINERAL   COMPOSITION. 

Where  the  average  breadth  of  the  fissure  is  surpassed,  it 
generally  contains  numerous  horses  of  ground-,  and  it  is  then 
often  doubtful,  whether  these  are  to  be  considered,  as  fragments 
of  rock  enclosed  in  the  lode;  or  portions  of  the  wall-rock  sur- 
rounded by  numerous  leaders. 

No  real  cessation  of  these  veins  has  been  observed,  either 
in  the  strike  or  dip;  and  some  of  the  lodes  have  been  partially 
exploited  for  a  length  of  two  miles,  single  copper-lodes  even 
seven  miles. 

In  regard  to  the  predominant  mineral  composition  of  both 
the  tin  and  copper  lodes,  the  accounts  are  somewhat  conflicting. 
Game,  Dufr^noy,  and  Elie  de  Beaumont,  state,  that  it  pre- 
dominantly consists,  in  all  the  lodes,  of  quartz  with  chlorite, 
tourmaline,  or  mica,  particularly  in  the  following  combinations; 
quartz  with  chlorite  and  tourmaline,  quartz  with  tourmaline, 
quartz  with  mica.  Tourmaline  and  mica  appear  to  mutually 
exclude  one  another.  At  times,  considerable  decomposed  granite, 
or  somewhat  of  fluor  spar,  occurs  with  these  combinations. 
Kenwood  states,  that  feldspar  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
matrix,  being  combined  with  the  above-mentioned  minerals.  He 
also  states  the  nature  of  the  veinstones  to  be  somewhat  depen- 
dent on  that  of  the  wall-rock.  In  granite  the  lodes  which  are 
most  productive  of  tin-ore  are,  for  the  most  part,  composed  of 
a  pale  greenish  feldspar,  of  a  confusedly  crystalline  structure, 
but  seldom  containing  distinct  crystals,  with  radiating  groups  of 
tourmaline  and  some  quartz;  through  which  form  the  tin-ore  is 
interspersed  in  the  form  of  crystalline  granules.  In  a  few  cases 
the  lode  is  very  quartzose,  and  then  the  particles  of  tin-ore  are 
generally  larger.  Occasionally  the  lodes  consist  almost  wholly 
of  quartz,  with  now  and  then  some  tourmaline  diffused  through 
it;  in  such  cases  they  are  seldom  rich  in  ores  of  any  kind. 

The  lodes  which  yield  copper-ore  in  granite  almost  always, 
according  to  Henwrood,  contain  a  gossan  near  the  surface.  Their 
quartz  is  not  always  so  soft,  or  so  minutely  divided,  as  in  slate ; 
but  opens  in  small  irregular  masses,  which  yield  to  a  slight 
pressure:  a  coating  of  earthy  limonite  appears  to  pervade  the 
small  and  innumerable  cavities,  which  penetrate  this  slightly 
coherent  mass.  Large  quantities  of  feldspar  abound,  and  the 
whole  is  often  encrusted  with  a  thin  and  almost  impalpable  coating 
of  earthy  black  copper-ore ;  the  proportion  of  this  last  mineral 


ACCESSORY  MINERALS.  CAPEL.  413 

often  encreases  in  depth,  and  passes  into  copper-glance,  and 
sometimes  into  copper-pyrites. 

Henwood  states,  that  in  slate  the  tin-lodes  are  generally 
composed  of  a  very  hard  quartzose  slate  (locally  called  capel); 
sometimes  intimately  mixed  with  tourmaline,  occasionally  with 
feldspar,  and  frequently  with  chlorite :  the  tin-ore  is  interspersed 
amongst  the  earthy  materials  even  more  minutely  than  in 
the  granite,  and  is  almost  invariably  mixed  with  a.  much  larger 
proportion  of  impurities:  with  the  tin-ore  is  often  associated 
wolfram  with  earthy  red  and  jaspery  iron-ores.  The  most 
characteristic  mineral  is,  however,  a  variety  of  tourmaline-rock, 
consisting  of  alternate  layers  of  tourmaline  and  feldspar;  and 
both  of  these  mixed  with  quartz :  the  laminae  are  almost  always 
much  curved,  and  sometimes  the  layers  of  tourmaline  are  replaced 
by  tin-ore.  This  substance  sometimes  forms  a  sort  of  transition 
between  the  lode  and  the  country-rock. 

He  also  states,  that  the  lodes,  which  yield  copper-ores  in 
slate,  contain  large  quantities  of  gossan  of  a  pale  hue,  soft  and 
drusy.  In  them  also  ore  frequently  occurs  in  small  quantities, 
and  blende  is  very  plentiful,  while  iron-pyrites  is  constantly 
present.  Their  earthy  minerals  are  mostly  quartz ;  which,  in  the 
most  favorable  situations,  is  generally  friable,  sometimes  mixed 
with  small  quantities  of  decomposed  feldspar.  Near  the  surface 
these  are  spotted  with  earthy  black  copper-ore;  and  lower  down 
this  is  succeeded  by  copper-glance,  and  at  length  by  copper- 
pyrites:  fluor  spar  is  occasionally  mixed  with  them,  and  now 
and  then  chlorite  occurs. 

Dufrenoy  and  Elie  de  Beaumont  enumerate,  in  addition  to 
the  ores  already  mentioned,  and  which  are  the  chief  objects  of 
the  exploitation,  the  following  minerals,  as  being  found  in  the 
tin-copper  lodes :  tin-pyrites,  always  associated  with  copper- 
pyrites,  wolfram,  mispickel,  arseniates  of  .iron  and  copper,  phos- 
phates of  copper,  uranite,  and  bismuth.  In  the  ancient  copper- 
lodes  they  found,  tetrahedrite,  tennantite,  red  copper-ore,  native 
copper,  malachite,  azurite,  phosphates  of  copper,  arseniates  of 
copper,  iron  pyrites,  mispickel,  and  blende. 

Carne  states,  that  many  minerals  occur  in  small  quartz-threads 
which  traverse  the  mass  of  the  lodes ;  thus  wood-tin-ore  in  the  tin- 
lodes,  silver-ores  in  the  copper-lodes. 

Henwood  has  reduced  the  order  of  position  to  a  tabular 
form;  which  is  here  subjoined,  and  in  which  the  first  column 


414 


KENWOOD'S   TABLE    OF 


denotes  the  country-rock 5  the  second,  the  mineral  next  to  the 
side  or  wall  of  the  lode;  the  next,  that  which  is  attached  to  it; 
and  so  on:  the  crystallized  minerals  are  in  italics. 


M 

Substance 
next  ad- 
joining  rock 

Substance  next^^  adjoinln    those 
to  that  which                                                             Locality, 
adjoins  rock. 

Quartz.           j  Quartz. 

— 

Almost  every  v/here. 

Amethyst.       Quartz. 

— 

Wheal  Bellon. 

Quartz.            Opal. 

§N  •     — 

Wheal  Cairn. 

Quartz.           j  Quartz. 

Chalcedony. 

Pedn-an-drea. 

Quartz.            Quartz. 

Arseniate  of  iron. 

Wheal  Corland. 

Quartz.            Quartz. 

Wolfram. 

St.  Michael's  Mount. 

Quartz.            Quartz. 

Arseniate  of  copper. 

Wheal  Unity. 

Quartz.           ;  Quartz. 

Uranite. 

Gunnis  lake. 

J 

Quartz.            Cassiterite. 

Scheelite. 

Wheal  Friendship. 

Quartz.           'Native  Copper. 

Red  copper. 

Wheal  Gorland. 

& 

Quartz.            Mineral  pitch. 

— 

Carharrack. 

Quartz.            Malachite. 

— 

Gunnis  lake 

Feldspar.          Earthy  phos- 

— 

Park  Noweth. 

phate  of  iron. 

Fluor  spar. 

Fluor  spar.       Quarts.                              Wheal  Gorland. 

Fluor  spar.     Stibnite.             Quartz.                              Wheal  Gorland. 

Cassiterite.     Bismuthine.                         —                    Balleswidden. 

Hematite.       \Specular  iron.                                           Park  Noweth. 

Limonite.        Copper-glance.  Earthy  black  copper-ore. 

Wheal  Jewel. 

Quartz. 

Stalactitic 

Quartz. 

Wheal  Edward. 

quartz 

Quartz.            Quartz. 

Aragonite.                         Levant. 

Quartz. 

Quartz. 

Wolfram 

Poldice. 

Quartz. 

Quartz. 

Arseniate  of  copper. 

Wheal  Unity. 

Quartz. 

Quartz. 

Mimetene. 

Wheal  Unity. 

03 

Quartz. 

Chlorite. 

Cassiterite. 

Wheal  Vor. 

a 

3 

Quartz. 

Chlorite. 

Mimetene. 

Wheal  Unity. 

| 

Quartz. 

Arsenic  pyrites. 

Arsenic  pyrites. 

Wheal  Unity  Wood. 

0} 

2 

Quartz. 

Fluor  spar. 

Fluor  spar. 

Wheal  Unity  Wood. 

O- 

Quartz. 

Limonite. 

Pitchblende. 

Wheal  Edward. 

Quartz. 

Limonite. 

Uranite. 

Wheal  Edward. 

Quartz. 

Limonite. 

Copper  -glance. 

Botallack. 

Quartz. 

Spathic  iron. 

Spathic  iron. 

Botallack. 

Quartz. 

Copper  glance. 

Aragonite. 

Levant. 

Quartz. 

Chlorite. 

Copper-pyrites,  mineral 

North  Roskear. 

pitch. 

«     Quartz.            Quartz.              Quartz.                              Wheal  Friendship(Marazion). 

^    Quartz.            \  Quartz. 

Quartz,  copper  -pyrites.   [East  Crennis. 

Quartz.            Quartz.             \Heavy  spar.                      United  Mines. 

MINERALS  IN  CORNWALL. 


415 


Substance 
next  ad- 
^     joining  rock. 

•Substance  next 
to  that  which 
adjoins  rock. 

Minerals  adjoining  those 
in  last  column. 

Locality. 

Quartz. 

Quartz. 

Copper-pyrites,  and 

United  Hills. 

cryst.  copper-pyrites. 

Quartz. 

Quarts. 

Stibnite. 

Pengelly  Mine. 

I  Quartz. 

Chlorite. 

Anatase. 

Virtuous  Lady. 

Quartz. 

Quartz.              Blende,  fluor  spar. 

Polberrow. 

Quartz. 

Quartz.              Celestine.                           Binner  Downs. 

Quartz. 

Fluor  spar.        Galena.                              Wheal  Penrose. 

Quartz. 

Iron-pyrites.       Quartz. 

West  Pink. 

Quartz. 

Iron-pyrites.      \Spathic  iron. 

Virtuous  Lady. 

Quartz. 

Iron-pyrites.       Pharmacosiderite. 

Wheal  Falmouth. 

Quartz. 

Iron-pyrites.       Silver-glance. 

Dolcoath. 

Quartz, 

Limonite.           Red  copper-ore. 

Wheal  Charlotte. 

Quartz. 

Limonite.           Cerusite. 

Pentire-glaze. 

Quartz. 

Limonite.           Anglesite. 

Mellanear. 

Quartz. 

Limonite.           Pyromorphite. 

Wheal  Alfred. 

Quartz. 

Hematite. 

Oxide  of  manganese. 

Restormel. 

Quartz.. 

Wood-tin. 

— 

Polberrow. 

1 

Quartz. 

Cassiterite. 

—        ,  •*{>. 

In  all  tin-lodes. 

53 

Quartz. 

Native  silver. 

—      '  +£  .  , 

Herland. 

Quartz. 

Silver-glance. 

__ 

Wheal  Brothers. 

Quartz. 

Ruby  silver. 

— 

Dolcoath. 

Quartz. 

Native  copper. 

— 

In  all  copper-lodes. 

Quartz. 

Copper-glance. 

Red  copper-ore. 

Providence  Mines. 

Quartz.            Copper-glance. 

Copper  -glance. 

Wheal  Speed  (Germoe). 

Quartz.            Erubesdte. 

— 

Wheal  Falmouth. 

Quartz.            Copper-pyrites. 

— 

In  all  copper-lodes. 

Quartz.           [Copper-  pyrites. 

Bismuthine. 

Fowey  Consols. 

Quartz.             Tennantite. 

Fowey  Consols. 

Quartz.            Copper-pyrites. 

Fluor  spar.                   -  Polberrow. 

Quartz  .            Bed  copper-ore. 

In  almost  all  copper-mines. 

Quartz. 

Galena. 

Galena,  quartz.               \  Wheal  Rose. 

Quartz. 

Blen  de.             \  Gale-spar. 

Union  Wines. 

Quartz.           \Blende.              Fluor  spar. 

West  Pink. 

jQuartz.            Mineral  pitch. 

South  Wheal  Towan. 

Chlorite.         Cassiterite.                                                iMost  tin-mines  in  claty-slate. 

; 

rCassiterite. 

Cassiterite.                          —                    ,  Wherry  Mine, 

Silicate  of  \ 

Whe»l  Coates. 

tin  (?). 

H 

j>    Quartz.            Limonite.           Azurite,  Malachite.          Ting  Tang. 

W    'Quartz.            Copper-pyrites.                                            Ting  Tang 

Limonite.        Native  copper.                                            "Wheal  Buller. 

j  Limonite.        Redcopper-ore.l                                         Ting  Tang. 

From  this   table   may   be  learned,  what   minerals  Henwood 
observed  in  the  lodes  of  Cornwall. 


416 


CASES  OF  PECULIAR  TEXTURE. 


The  copper  lodes  are  at  times  accompanied  by  clay-selvages, 
or  clay-veins,  partly  at  both  walls,  partly  at  one  only.  In  the 
last  case  the  clay  traverses  the  lode  obliquely,  from  one  side  to 
the  other  ;  or  is  separated^.  for  a  certain  distance,  from  the  wall- 
rock,  forming  a  vein  of  clay  traversing  the  wall-rock.  These 
are  evidently  the  consequences  of  a  repeated  forcing-open  and 
filling  of  the  fissures. 

The  texture  of  maiiy  of  the 
lodes  in  Cornwall  shows  in  the 
clearest  manner  the  repeated 
opening  and  filling  of  fissures; 
by  which  processes  they  have 
gradually  become  broader:  for 
example,  the  following  vein- 
texture  was  observed  in  the 
W  heal-  Cathedral  mine,  in  the 
granite  near  Redruth. 

When   taken   strictly,    these  d 
are      evidently      six      parallel 
quartz-veins    alongside   of  one 
another,  and  which  have  been  formed  one  after  the  other.     The 
quartz  in  each  is  crystallized  from  the  selvages  towards  the  middle, 
and  the  accessory  minerals  are  also  somewhat  different. 
The      accompanying,     still 


a.  Quartz  with  somewhat  of  fluor  spar. 

b.  Quartz  with  somewhat  of  copper-pyrites. 

c.  Quartz  with  considerable  copper-pyrites. 
Quartz  with   somewhat  of  fluor  spar. 

e.  Quartz. 

f.  Quartz  with  somewhat  of  copper-pyrites. 


a 


more  complicated,  case  was 
observed  in  the  Godolphin 
mine. 

Here     are    but    three    veins 
formed    alongside    of  one    an- 
other;   but    of   a    much    more 
dissimilar    texture,    and 
position,    than    in  the    preced- 
ing  case:    b    and    c 
form  one  vein  in  common. 

Such  a  combed  texture  is,  however,  by  no  means  common 
to  these  lodes.  Some  of  them  have  a  predominantly  brecciated 
structure,  from  the  masses  of  wall-rock,  or  older  portions  of  veins, 
which  they  enclose  ;  in  some  even  pebbles  occur.  As  in  the 
Wheal-Badger  mine  near  Relistran,  where  boulders  of  granite, 
slate,  and  quartz,  were  found  at  considerable  depths.  In  still 
others  the  principal  matrix  is  traversed,  in  all  directions,  by 


com- 

a.  Quartz. 

b.  Agate. 

evidently    c.  Quartz,  crystallized  towards  the  middle, 

d.  Copper-glance. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORES  IN  CORNWALL.  417 

more  recent  strings  (fillings  of  cracks) ;  which,  at  times,  penetrate 
for  some  distance  into  the  country-rock. 

The  most  recent  copper-lodes  are  distinguished,  from  the 
older  ones,  by  the  predominance  of  argillaceous  substances  in 
their  matrix;  and  the  lodes  of  Newlin  probably  belong  to  this 
class. 

The  cross-courses  (locally  also  called  guides  and  trawns) 
sometimes  contain  ores;  which  are  but  rarely  found  in  the  vici- 
nity of  the  lodes.  They  strike  NW. — SE.  or  N. — S.  and  dip, 
for  the  most  part,  in  E.  Their  average  breadth  is  about  six 
feet,  but  it  sometimes  encreases  to  36  feet.  That  of  Forth  Towan 
is  said  to  traverse  the  entire  peninsula  from  coast  to  coast,  and 
every  where  accompanied  by  faults,  which  are  20 — 60  fathoms 
broad.  The  mass  of  these  cross-courses  consists  almost  entirely 
of  quartz,  which  is  crystallized  in  the  middle ;  quartz  frequently 
encloses  masses  of  the  country-rock.  Many  are  very  argillaceous, 
and  are  called  cross -flucans,  which  Kenwood  does  not  distinguish 
from  the  other  flucans. 

The  ores,  locally  occurring  in  the  cross-courses,  are  most 
commonly  those  of  iron  and  lead.  Many  are  exploited  as  lodes 
of  limonite,  and  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  iron  produced 
in  Cornwall-,  thus,  near  Ledock  and  Roche.  The  two  broad 
veins,  striking  N. — 8.,  which  are  exploited  in  the  Beer  Alston 
mine  for  argentiferous  galena,  are  cross-courses.  In  those  con- 
taining argentiferous  galena  are  sometimes  found  bournonite, 
silver-glance,  native  silver,  stibnite,  and  ores  of  cobalt,  especially 
near  Redmoor,  Penhale,  Wheal-Golden. 

Copper  ores  occur  in  the  Tiddys  cross-course,  in  that  of 
North  Downs  blende  and  fluor  spar.  In  the  Polgoath  district  a 
cross-course  contains  considerable  tin- ore.  The  cross-courses  often 
intersect  and  fault  all  the  tin-lodes,  and  the  older  copper-lodes. 
De  la  Beche  recognised  them  in  Devonshire,  as  being  more 
recent  than  the.  Cretaceous.  They  are  sometimes  intersected  by 
the  most  recent  copper-lodes. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORES  IN  CORNWALL 

§  231.  The  tin  and  copper  ores  are  very  unequally  distri- 
buted, both  in  general,  and  in  the  separate  lodes;  so  that  in 
Cornwall,  as  commonly  in  vein-mining,  portions  occur  almost 
barren  of  ores,  alternating  with  exploitable  portions,  and  rich 

27 


418  RULES  UNCERTAIN. 

pockets.  Great  pains  have  been  taken  in  Cornwall  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  causes,  or  laws,  of  this  unequal  distribution; 
but  these  efforts  have  hitherto  been  but  partially  successful.  The 
rules  formed  by  the  miners,  and  founded  on  their  experience,  do 
not  always  hold  true;  and  the  presumed  causes  are  in  part 
contradictory.  I  subjoin  the  most  important  facts,  which  have 
been  collected  on  this  subject,  by  Henwood  (H),  Dufrenoy  and 
Elie  de  Beaumont  (DB),  in  Karsten's  Archiv  (K],  and  Voyage 
metallurgique  ( V) ;  but  it  is  certainly  much  more  difficult  for 
me  to  arrange  the  same  in  a  conformable  connection,  than  for 
the  observers  on  the  spot. 

1.  The   entire   mineral   wealth    occurs  within  a  distance   of 
two  or  three   miles  on  each   side  of  the  line  of  junction  of  the 
slate  and  granite.    Yet  no  part  of  this  line  itself  appears  to  have 
been    more    productive,    than    any   other    spot   of   equal    extent 
within   the    distance   mentioned;    and  though   the   lodes   not  un- 
commonly  run,    for   several   fathoms,    with    granite  on  one   side, 
and  slate  on   the  other;    or  with   either  of  these  rocks  forming 
one  wall,  and  elvan  the  opposite  one;  yet  the  portions,  so  con- 
tained   between  dissimilar  rocks,   are    not  generally  the   richest. 
The  lead-ores  occur  more  removed  from  the  granite.  (H.D.B.  V.) 

2.  By  the  passage  of  the  veins,  from  one  rock  into  another, 
a  change   usually   takes  place   in  the   amount  of  ore,    in  which 
the  portion  of  the  lode  at  the  junction  is  often  the  richest;   for 
example,  near  Botallack.  (D.  B.    V.  K.) 

3.  The  tin- lodes  occur  more  frequently  in  the  granite,  than 
in  the  killas;  but  possess  a  greater  average  richness  in  the  latter, 
than  in  the  granite.    (D.  B.  F.)    The  tin-lodes  predominate  near 
St.  Just;  the  copper-ones  at  Redruth. 

4.  The  lodes,    essentially  containing  but  copper  ores,    often 
contain  tin-ore  near  or  in  the  granite.  (D.  B.  F.) 

5.  The    copper-lodes    occurring    in   the    tin-district   are  the 
richest  of  their  kind.  (D.  B.  K.) 

6.  Whether    the    rocks   be    granite,    slate,    or    elvan;    their 
hardest   portions   are  always  quartzose,    and   in  these   the  lodes 
are   seldom   rich.     On  the   other  hand,    if  the   rock   be   neither 
very  fine,  nor  particularly  coarse-grained ;  the  embedded  crystals 
of  feldspar  of  a  greenish,  pink,  or  brown  hue,  and  their  bound- 
ing-planes   rather   indeterminate,    or    passing  gradually   into   the 
basis  of  the  rock ;    and  if  further,  that  basis  consist  of  greenish 
feldspar  besides   the   other  usual   ingredients,   viz.  quartz,   mica, 


FACTS  IMPORTANT.  419 

and  sometimes  tourmaline;  then  the  character  of  the  rock  is 
considered  a  very  favorable  one,  especially  for  tin-ore.  (H.  D.  B.  V.) 
A  porphyritic  texture  is  considered  unfavorable,  both  in  the 
granite  and  elvans. 

7.  The   lodes,    when   they   intersect   the    elvans,    are    very 
variable;    they    either   remain   the   same,    or   they   split  up  into 
innumerable   strings   containing   but   little  ore,    or  they   become 
broader   and   richer,    at  times   accompanied  by  rich  side-feeders. 
(D.  B.  K.)    De  la  Beche  states,  that  they  are  much  more  favo- 
rably developed,  in  such  districts  as  are  traversed  by  numerous 
elvans,  than  in  those  where  they  do  not  occur. 

8.  In  elvan,  the  hard,  fine-grained  quartzose  varieties,  which 
also  contain  some  tourmaline,   often  diffused  as  coloring  matter, 
and   sometimes   in   groups  of  radiating   crystals,    are  considered 
uncongenial;    as  the  lodes  are  frequently  split  into  innumerable 
irregular  and  small  veins,  whilst  they  traverse  that  kind  of  elvan ; 
but  which  re-unite,  when   they   approach   softer  and  more  feld- 
spathic  varieties  of  the  same  rock.  (H.} 

9.  The  killas,    in  the   neighborhood  of  the  St.  Just  copper- 
mines,    is  a  greenstone    slate,    in  general   tolerably   fine-grained 
and  lamellar;    in  which   both   tin   and  copper   ores  occur.     The 
axinite,    actinolith,  and  garnet-rocks,   which  are  associated  with 
the  greenstones,  do  not  seem  favorable  to  the  presence  of  metallic 
substances  in  the  lodes  which  traverse  them.  (H.) 

10.  Kenwood    states,    that   many    varieties  of  the   clay-slate 
exert  partly  a  favorable,  partly  an  unfavorable  influence  on  the 
ores  in  the  lodes;  but  their  description  is  so  indefinite,  and  their 
influence  apparently  so  contradictory,  that  I  am  not  able  to  lay 
any  particular  stress  on  them.     De  la  Beche  also  speaks  of  such 
differences;  but  they  can  only  be  learned  by  practical  experience. 
Tin  and  copper  ores  are  stated  to  act  differently  in  this  respect; 
and  lead  ores  only  occur  in  gray-slates  distant  from  the  granite. 

11.  Whether  the  rock  be  granite,  slate,  or  elvan;  when  the 
joints,   which   are  parallel  to   the  lodes   in  their  directions,    fall 
toward  the  lodes  in  descending,  it  is  considered  a  favorable  in- 
dication;   whilst,    if  similar  joints  separate   from  them,    as  they 
descend,  it  is  considered  an  index  of  poverty.     In  all  these  cases 
many  transverse  joints  seem  to  exercise  an  unfavorable  influence 
on  the  produce  of  the  lodes.  (//.) 

12.  The  cleavage-planes  of  the   schistose   slates   are   almost 
invariably  curved  and  contorted,  whenever  the  rock  is  quartzose, 

27* 


420  STREAM  WORKS  OF  CORNWALL. 

and  in  such  cases  it  is  usually  very  fissile,  and  the  laminae  are 
highly  inclined :  either  of  these  conditions  is  accounted  unfavorable. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  the  cleavage-planes  are  regular  and 
moderately  inclined,  and  when  the  rock  exhibits  a  thickly  la- 
mellar structure,  the  lodes  traversing  it  are  generally  productive. 
Yet  all  these  appearances  are  but  local,  and  confined  within 
very  narrow  limits;  and  in  the  same  rock  there  is  frequently 
an  alteration  in  the  lodes,  as  soon  as  the  character  of  the  rock 
is  changed.  (//.) 

13.  The  junctions  of  two  lodes  always  cause  an  enrichment, 
if  the  angle  of  intersection  be  less  than  45°,  if  it  be,   however, 
greater,  sometimes  an  empoverishment.  (D.  B.  V.) 

14.  The  older  copper-lodes  are   generally  enriched  by  con- 
tact with   the  younger   ones,    especially  on   the    side   of  contact, 
which  very  probably  took  place  from  a  subsequent  impregnation. 
(D.  B.  K.) 

15.  The   intersecting    cross-courses   generally  cause   an  em- 
poverishment. (D.  B.  V.) 

16.  The    breaking   up   of   lodes  into    leaders   is    generally 
accompanied  by  empoverishment:  the  leaders  re-uniting  with  the 
lodes  are  called  l  feeders'.  (D.  B.  V.  and  K.) 

17.  When  a  lode  contains  both  tin  and  copper  ores  at  the 
same  time;  the  tin-ores  generally  occupy  an  upper,  the  copper- 
ores   a   lower    level,    as   at   Seifen   in  the   Erzgebirge;    still   the 
reverse  exceptionally  occurs  (near  Dolcoath);  or  both  ores  occur 
at  the  same  level;  in  which  case  the  two  kinds  of  ore  occur  at 
the  opposite  selvages.  (D.  B.  V.)    Thomas  states,  on  the  contrary, 
that   such   lodes  generally  contain   more  tin-ores   in  the   narrow 
portions,  more  copper-ores  in  the  broad  portions.^ 

18.  The  majority  of  the  lodes  are  said  to  encrease  in  rich- 
ness for  some  depth,  then  to  remain  the  same  for  some  distance, 
after  which  they  begin  to  decrease  in  productiveness.  (D.  B.  V.) 

19.  The  gossans  of  the  copper-lodes  are  often  argentiferous. 
(D.  B.  V.) 

20.  Where   the    lodes   have  a  variable  dip,   their  most  per- 
pendicular portions  are  the  most  productive.  (H.D.B.  V.) 

STREAM  WORKS  OF  CORNWALL. 

§  232.     The   alluvial    deposits   in   Cornwall,    as   elsewhere, 
arise  from  the  partial  destruction  of  older  deposits  in  place ;  and 


SUCCESSION  OF  STRATA. 


421 


this  origin  is  more  readily  perceived  in  tin  alluvial  deposits,  as 
a  rule,  than  in  gold-placers. 

The  erosion  and  re-deposit  of  the  tin-ores,  in  all  the  alluvial 
deposits  of  Cornwall,  has  taken  place  at  a  very  late  geological 
period,  being  subsequent  to  the  Tertiary,  and  partly  during  the 
historical. 

The  majority  appear  to  have  been  formed  during  a  general 
submergence  at  the  Diluvial  period;  while  a  few  owe  their  origin, 
or  alteration,  to  subsequent  rain-floods  or  river-freshets. 

The  first  occur  on  gentle  slopes  or  in  valleys,  the  last  alone 
in  valleys.  Human  bones,  trunks  of  oaks,  and  beds  of  peat, 
are  sometimes  found  in  the  freshwater  strata  of  the  Diluvial 
period;  in  those  deposited  by  saltwater,  shells,  such  as  still  occur 
in  the  neighboring  sea.  But  few,  so-called,  stream-works  are  now 
worked  in  Cornwall.  The  tin,  which  the  Phoenicians  exported 
from  Cornwall,  was  probably  all  obtained  from  stream-works. 

Dufrenoy  and  Elie  de  Beaumont  found  but  three  stream- 
works  at  work,  in  one  of  which,  the  Sandrycock,  the  stratifica- 
tion is,  according  to  Rashleigh,  the  following:  r 

Feet.     |  Inches. 

1.  Vegetable  mould,  about ;  vVr>...  .  .          —  3 

2.  Gravel,  and  micaceous  sand,  mixed  with  fine  loam  I 

in  alternate  beds  of  various  depths     j         8                3 

3.  Light-colored  clay,  ^jth  a  little  mica    ......  r        5                3 

4.  Black  peat 4                1 

5.  Light-colored  clay 1                4 

6.  Stiff  clay  of  a  brown  color  with  vivianite  ....  1         3               10 

7.  Sea-sand  and  clay  mixed     |         3 

8.  Fine  sea-sand,  containing  mica  and  fragments  of 
shells 4 

9.  Coarse*  sand  without  shells .  6 

10.  Solid  black  fen 2  10- 

11.  Tin-ground  and  loose  sand  of  all  sorts 1-6 

12.  Killas,  on  which  the  tin-ground  rests i 

44  10 

The  succession  at  Pentowan,  near  St.  Austel,  is  a  very 
similar  one.  There,  under  the  second  light-colored  clay,  follows : 

Feet.        Inches. 

Hardened  clay 3               jo 

Argillaceous  sand 3 

Fragments  of  slate  and  shells  of  recent  mollusca    .  4 

Coarse  sea-sand 6 

Sandy  clay,  with  recent  shells 8 

Sea-sand,  with  pebbles 6 

All  sorts  of  pebbles,  with  tin-ore 6 


422  THEORETICAL  REMARKS  ON 

Deer-antlers  and  buffalo-horns  have  also  been  found  in 
these  deposits. 

These  are,  therefore,  for  the  most  part,  very  recent  marine 
deposits.  Their  total  thickness  vari§s  between  20  and  70  feet. 
They  every  where  contain  the  tin-ore  in  the  lowest  bed,  as 
small  crystalline  grains,  or  rounded  pebbles  (wood  tin),  free 
from  all  the  other  metallic  minerals,  which  are  usually  associ- 
ated with  the  tin-ore  in  place;  on  which  account  they  produce 
a  very  pure  metal.  Curiously  enough  gold  is  found  in  some 
of  these  stream-works;  from  which  circumstance,  as  well  as  from 
the  presence  of  varieties  of  tin-ores  uncommon  in  the  lodes, 
and  from  the  absence  of  the  other  ores,  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  alluvial  deposits  were  not  formed  from  the  erosion  of 
the  neighboring  lodes.  Nevertheless,  Carne  has  altogether  refuted 
this  hypothesis;  and  it  has  been  subsequently  found,  that,  near 
Davidstowe  in  North  Cornwall,  the  quartz-veins  traversing  the 
Devonian  strata  contain  iron-pyrites  and  somewhat  of  gold, 
which  last  is  only  perceptible  after  the  decomposition  of  the 
pyrites  to  a  gossan.  De  la  Beche  also  mentions  gold  occurring 
in  quartz  at  North  Tawton  in  Devonshire ;  while  Murchison 
speaks  of  its  occurrence  in  the  gossan  of  the  Pattimore  mine 
at  North  Molton  in  Devonshire. 

THEORETICAL  REMARKS  ON  TOE  CORNWALL 
ORE-DISTRICT. 

§  233.  It  is  very  evident,  that  the  metalliferous  deposits 
of  Cornwall  owe  their  origin  to  the  granite;  which  has  broken 
through  the  great  primary  sedimentary  district,  and  partly 
altered  it.  These  deposits  appear  as  accessory  ingredients  in  the 
granite;  and,  therefore,  occur  in  or  near  it.  The  porphyries, 
or  elvans,  belong  to  the  granite,  being  mere  modifications  of  its 
texture  and  form. 

A  confirmation  is  thus  found,  in  these  deposits,  for  the 
almost  universal  observation,  made  on  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
that  the  tin-deposits  almost  altogether  occur  with  granitic  rocks. 
We  have  already  become  acquainted  with  this  paragenesis l  in 
the  Erzgebirge,  at  Schlackenwald  in  Bohemia,  in  Brittany,  etc., 
as  being  every  where  the  same,  with  but  slight  modifications. 

1  From  naQccytv7]Gi$}  association. 


THE  CORNWALL  DISTRICT.  423 

Hence,  it  is  very  probable,  that  the  tin-ores  always  occur  asso- 
ciated with  such  igneous  rocks,  rich  in  silica,  as  have  solidified 
at  great  depths  (deep  plutonic);  and  thus,  when  they  occur  at 
the  present  surface,  in  consequence  of  erosion,  they  belong  to 
the  very  ancient  rocks.  The  tin-deposits  (with  exception  of  the 
alluvial  deposits  belong,  wherever  they  occur,  to  the  oldest  ore- 
deposits.  They  are  almost  every  where  older  than  the  Carbo- 
niferous period.  From  the  above  statement,  some  persons  have 
concluded,  that  the  formation  of  these  deposits  belongs  to  a  fixed 
and  very  ancient  period.  This  view  appears  to  me  illegitimate; 
after  reviewing  the  facts  I  incline  to  the  conviction,  that  they 
belong  to  the  deep  underground  and,  in  so  far,  plutonic  forma- 
tions. As  regards  mining  operations,  this  view  is  synonymous 
with  the  first,  since  the  tin-deposits  are  only  to  be  looked  for 
in  granitic  rocks.  This  view  does  not,  however,  exclude  their 
being  exceptionally  formed  in  these  at  a  more  recent  geological 
period,  and  that  they  may  then  be  found,  if  the  erosion  of  the  rocks 
originally  overlying  them  takes  place,  more  rapidly  than  usual. 
I  see  no  reason,  why  they  may  not  now  be  forming  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  earth. 

That  the  tin-deposits  observed  are  not  absolutely  the  oldest 
metalliferous  deposits,  but  only  locally  and  relatively  so;  and 
that  consequently  it  is  incorrect,  to  suppose  certain  metals,  or 
ores,  to  have  been  formed  during  fixed  geological  periods;  has 
been  proved  by  Lyell;  l  who  shows,  that  the  lead  and  copper 
ores  of  Wexford,  in  Ireland,  are  far  older  than  the  tin-deposits 
of  Cornwall.  At  Wexford  granite  occurs  traversed  by  granite 
dikes,  which  dikes  also  intrude  themselves  into  the  Silurian 
strata.  These  Silurian  rocks,  as  well  as  the  dikes,  have  been 
denuded,  before  the  Devonian  strata  were  superimposed.  Next, 
we  find  in  the  same  county,  that  elvans  have  cut  through  the 
granite  and  the  dikes  before-mentioned,  but  have  not  penetrated 
the  Devonian  rocks.  Subsequently  to  these,  veins  of  copper 
and  lead  were  produced,  being  of  a  date  posterior  to  the  Silurian, 
and  anterior  to  the  Devonian;  for  they  do  not  enter  the  latter; 
and,  what  is  still  more  decisive,  streaks  or  layers,  of  derivative 
copper,  have  been  found  near  Wexford  in  the  Devonian,  not 
far  from  points,  where  mines  are  worked  in  the  Silurian  strata. 
These  lead  and  copper  lodes  must  consequently  be  older  than 

1  See  his  Elements  of  Geology,  1865,  p.  768. 


424  RELATIVE  AGE  OF  LODES,  ORES,  etc 

the  Devonian;  and  as  the  Cornwall  tin-lodes  traverse  Devonian 
strata,  they  must  undoubtedly  be,  not  only  more  recent  than 
these,  but  younger  than  those  lead  and  copper  lodes.  Lyell  even 
considers  the  Cornwall  tin-rlodes,  as  being  more  recent  than  the 
coal-measures  of  that  part  of  England.  In  Cornwall  the  copper- 
lodes  are,  as  we  have  seen,  decidedly  younger  than  the  tin- 
lodes;  if  tin-lodes  also  existed  at  Wexford,  they  would  probably 
be  older  than  the  copper  and  lead  lodes.  The  relative,  but  not 
the  absolute,  age  of  the  various  lodes  may  remain  the  same  for 
every  region.  They  are  the  results  of  events,  which  have  taken 
place  at  unequal  depths  below  the  surface,  in  which  the  absolute 
period  of  formation  of  like  or  similar  deposits  varies  much  in 
different  regions;  that  is,  the  succession  of  one  locality  may 
belong  to  a  very  different  period,  from  the  analogous  succession 
of  another  locality. 

Apart  from  these  general  remarks,  it  follows,  from  what  has 
been  observed  in  Cornwall,  that  the  tin-lodes  are  here  evidently 
of  more  recent  age,  than  the  granites  which  have  traversed  the 
Devonian  strata.  The  majority  of  the  Cornish  tin-lodes  too  are 
undoubtedly  more  recent  than  the  elvans;  which  also  traverse 
the  granite  and  Devonian  rocks,  and  are  consequently  younger 
than  these.  But  here  some  doubts  are  met  with,  whose  complete 
elucidation  would  be  very  instructive,  and  of  great  importance. 
Some  of  the  elvans  appear  to  be  but  ramifications  of  the  larger 
granite-masses,  and  of  a  like  age  to  these.  This  is  very  pos- 
sible, and  does  not  exclude  others  from  traversing  the  granite. 
We  need  merely  suppose  that  here,  too,  the  frequently  observed 
phenomena  of  dissimilar,  and  non-contemporaneous  products,  of 
the  solidification  of  the  same  principal  mass,  are  repeated.  The 
large  granite  masses  sent-out  ramifications  into  the  slates,  which 
had  a  somewhat  different  texture;  and  thus,  in  part,  completely 
resemble  the  independent  elvans;  they  themselves  (the  granite- 
masses)  first  became  solid  at  their  surface,  while  the  fluid  interior 
again  penetrated  into  fissures,  and  filled  these,  both  in  granite 
and  slate.  In  this  manner  more  recent  granite  or  porphyry 
dikes,  or  elvans,  were  formed  in  the  granite  and  slate.  The 
second  doubt  concerns  the  relation  of  the  tin-lodes  to  the  elvans. 
According  to  many  and  reliable  observers,  some  of  the  tin-lodes 
are  traversed  by  elvans,  and  are  consequently  older  than  these; 
JDe  la  Beche  denies  the  last,  and  attempts  to  explain  the  in- 
disputable appearances  of  the  intersection  in  another  manner. 


PERIOD  OF  VEIN-FORMATION.  425 

This  observer  states,  that  all  the  elvans  are  older  than  the  tin- 
lodes.  Those  persons  who,  like  myself,  have  not  observed  the 
facts,  can,  naturally,  express  no  opinion  on  the  subject;  but  I 
would  call  attention  to  the  fact,  that  altogether  analogous  cases 
occur,  at  Freiberg,  to  those  asserted  by  Game,  Henwood,  and 
others.  The  Freiberg  lodes  are  in  general  more  recent  than 
the  porphyry-dikes  (much  resembling  the  elvans),  which  here 
traverse  the  gneiss;  still  a  lode  of  one  of  the  oldest  lode- 
formations  is  undoubtedly  intersected  and  thrown  by  a  porphyry- 
dike;  and  the  first  observation  of  this  kind  has  been  confirmed 
by  two  more  recent  and  similar  ones.  From  this  we  may  con- 
clude, that  the  porphyry-dikes,  like  the  lodes,  are  of  somewhat 
dissimilar  age  among  themselves;  and  that  both  processes  of 
vein-formation,  extending  through  a  long  period,  have  interlaced, 
but  in  such  a  manner,  that  generally  the  formation  of  the 
lodes  first  began,  as  that  of  the  porphyry  dikes  was  almost 
completed. 

Should  the  case  in  Cornwall  be  similar,  it  may  naturally  be 
concluded,  that  the  formation  of  the  tin-lodes  immediately  followed 
that  of  the  granite  and  elvans. 

With  regard  to  the  copper-ores  in  the  Cornish  lodes,  it 
may  be  questioned,  whether  they  have  actually  been  formed 
contemporaneously  with  the  principal  vein-material  in  all  the 
lodes.  Where  tin  and  copper  ores  occur  separated  from  one 
another  in  the  lodes  of  this  district,  the  copper-lodes  are  always 
more  recent  than  the  tin-veins.  Might  not  the  same  process, 
which  caused  the  deposit  of  the  copper-ores  in  the  more  recent 
veins,  have  also  affected  the  older,  long-existing  fissures,  in  such 
a  manner,  that  copper-ores  penetrated  into  the  older,  partly 
stanniferous  lodes,  long  subsequently  to  the  period,  when  their 
vein-matter  first  penetrated  ?  In  order  to  answer  such  a  question, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  examine  these  veins  once  more,  very 
carefully,  from  this  standpoint.  At  a  distance,  and  without  new 
observations,  nothing  can  be  decided. 

The  period  of  vein-formation  in  Cornwall  was  a  very  long 
continued  one;  this  is  proven  from  the  frequently  repeated 
opening  and  filling  of  the  same  fissure.  We  have  seen,  that  this 
has  taken  place  six  times  in  one  fissure  at  Redruth:  each  of 
these  fillings  undoubtedly  took  a  long  time,  and  they  must  have 
been  completely  finished  and  solidified,  as  the  wall  of  the  fissure 
was  separated  anew.  The  repeated  opening  was  also  the  cause 


426  MANNER  OF  FORMATION. 

of  an  encreasing  breadth  of  these  lodes,  which  in  reality  consist 
of  the  intimate  union  of  several  separate  veins. 

Let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  manner  of  formation, 
especially  that  of  the  tin-deposits. 

We  have  seen  (§  75)  that  at  Altenberg  in  the  Erzgebirge 
the  tin-ore  has  penetrated,  with  some  associated  minerals,  into 
the  granite,  after  its  solidification,  through  innumerable  clefts; 
and  has  converted  it  into  Zwitter.  Such  a  subsequent  rock- 
penetration  and  impregnation  has  also  undoubtedly  taken  place 
in  Cornwall,  but  in  a  somewhat  different  form.  Not  only  has 
the  tin-ore  (with  the  silicates,  tungstates,  borates,  and  fluorides, 
usually  accompanying  it),  penetrated  into  the  narrow  clefts  and 
joints  of  the  killas,  granite,  and  elvans;  but  the  feldspar-crystals, 
in  the  interior  of  somewhat  decomposed  elvans,  are  destroyed, 
and  their  place  occupied  by  a  mixture  of  cassiterite  and  quartz ; 
while  in  the  granite  tourmaline  has,  in  a  similar  manner,  sup- 
planted the  feldspar.  Daubree  concludes,  from  these  and  similar 
cases,  as  well  as  from  successful  experiments  in  the  artificial 
formation  of  cassiterite;  that  this  metal,  and  its  normal  accom- 
panying minerals  (quartz,  wolfram,  topaz,  tourmaline,  fluor  spar, 
apatite,  mica  [containing  fluorine],  beryl,  etc.),  have  penetrated 
the  rock  from  below,  as  volatile  fluorides  and  borates  in  a 
gaseous  state,  perhaps  combined  with  steam;  and  have  been 
deposited  in  their  present  state  under  favorable  conditions.  Even 
the  possibility  of  aqueous  solutions  is  not  by  this  althogether 
excluded;  and  when  I  called  the  tin-ore-deposits  in  a  certain 
sense  plutonic,  I  by  no  means  meant  to  indicate  that  they  owed 
their  origin  to  a  solidification  from  the  igneous-fluid  condition. 

De  la  Beche  has  attempted  to  combine,  not  merely  the 
formation  of  the  fissures,  but  also  the  matter  filling  them,  into 
intimate  connection  with  the  eruption  and  solidification  of  the 
granite;  in  that  he  supposes  the  formation  of  the  veins  to  have 
taken  place,  after  the  upper  portion  of  the  granite  had  hardened, 
but  the  lower  portion  was  still  in  an  igneous-fluid  condition. 
Fissures,  which  extended  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  or  the. 
then,  surface  of  the  land,  through  the  slate  and  solidified  granite, 
to  the  still  igneous-fluid  matter,  were  filled  with  water.  This 
was  heated  below  under  very  great  pressure,  converted  into 
steam,  and  held  in  continual  circulation  by  the  differences  in 
temperature  above  and  below ;  it  also  penetrated  the  rock  for 
considerable  distances  from  the  fissures,  dissolving  many  sub- 


WALES.  LODES.  427 

stances  at  a  great  depth,  which  it  re-deposited  nearer  the  sur- 
face at  a  lower  temperature,  or  exchanged  for  others,  merely 
bringing  the  last  residue  to  the  surface.  He  takes  this  opportunity 
for  mentioning  a  very  interesting  memoir,  which  Pryce  published 
in  1778  in  his  'Mineralogia  Cornubiensis',  on  the  filling  of  veins 
through  such  an  exchange  of  the  ingredients  dissolved. 

De  la  Beche's  hypothesis  has  much  in  its  favor:  still  it 
seems  to  me  necessary  to  add,  that  the  surface  at  that  time  was 
high  above  the  present  one,  so  that  the  granite,  killas,  and  elvans, 
which  we  now  see,  did  not  attain  the  former  surface,  but  were 
covered  by  immense  rock-formations,  which  were  subsequently 
eroded  and  destroyed. 

There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  with  respect  to  the  origin  of 
tin-placers.  They  are  the  products  of  a  denudation  and  re- 
deposit  of  rocks  and  ores  in  place,  which  have  been  deposited  on 
the  present  surface  of  the  land,  partly  by  salt  water,  partly  by 
fresh-water.  It  is  a  most  interesting  fact,  that  a  large  majority, 
if  not  all,  of  these  deposits  have  been  formed  during  the  most 
recent  geological  periods,  even  during  that  of  man,  since  the 
remains  found  in  them  are  those  of  existing  species. 

Considerable  changes  of  level,  and  transformations  in  the 
form  of  the  surface,  must,  therefore,  have  taken  place  during 
the  historical  period.  It  is  further  interesting,  that  the  ore 
is  only  found  in  the  lowest  and  oldest  beds  of  the  marine 
deposits. 


XXVI.  WALES. 

THE  LODES  OF  CARDIGANSHIRE. 

§  234.  Cambrian  clay-slates,  and  related  rocks,  predomi- 
nate on  the  west  coast  of  Wales.  These  slates  are  not  disturbed 
by  igneous  rocks,  and  contain  numerous  lodes  at  the  boundaries 
of  Cardiganshire1  and  Montgomeryshire.  The  district  containing 

1  See:  W.  W.  Smyth,  in  Memoirs  of  the  geol.  survey  of  Great  Britain, 
1848,  vol.  II.  pt.  II.  p.  655;  Keeper,  in  same,  p.  643;  Francis,  in  Mining 
Almanac,  1852. 


428  CARDIGAN    AND    MONTGOMERY. 

them  is  about  40  miles  long  and  5  to  22  miles  broad,  extending 
NNW.  to  SSE.;  and  the  lodes,  as  a  rule,  strike  ENE.— WSW., 
consequently  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  longest  axis  of  the 
entire  belt.  Their  relative  age  cannot  be  accurately  determined  ; 
and  their  composition  is  so  simitar,  that  they  cannot  well  be 
separated  into  vein-formations.  Traces  of  the  continuation  of 
these  veins  also  occur  in  the  eastern  prolongation  of  their  course, 
at  a  considerable  distance,  in  Montgomeryshire. 

From  their  somewhat  unequal  distribution  into  belts  they 
may  be  classified  in  six  groups: 

1.  Of  these   groups  the  first  is   designated  by  the  Tal-y- 
Bont,  Penybontpren,  Llancyfelyn,  and  Trerddol  mines :  the  lodes 
of  this  group  contain  argentiferous  galena,  somewhat  of  blende, 
and    occasionally  copper-pyrites:  they  are  contracted,  dip  some- 
what   to    the   West,    and   only   traverse   finely   laminated    clay- 
slate  ; 

2.  The    second    group,    called    l Welsh    Potosi',    contains 
the  Coginan,  Cwm  Symlog,  Daren,  Pen  y  Cefn,  and  other  mines: 
the  lodes  attain  a  breadth  of  20  feet  in  the  rock,  somewhat  more 
compact  than  in  the  previous  group,  and  contain  very    argenti- 
ferous galena; 

3.  The  third  group  lies  between  Ystrad  Meyric,  and  Devil's 
Bridge,   along    the  Rheidol  River:    the    great    number   of  lodes 
found   here   vary,   to   some    extent,   in   their   character   with  the 
nature  of  the  country-rock:    they   contain  galena   (very   rich  in 
silver),  blende,  iron-pyrites,  and  manganese  ores ; 

4.  The  fourth  group  extends  from  Llanbedr  to  the  central 
chain  of  Plynlimmon :  argentiferous  galena,  blende,  and  calc-spar, 
are  the  characteristic  minerals  of  this  group; 

5.  The  fifth  group  extends   along  the  Plynlimmon  chain, 
and    contains,    among    others,   the   rich   mine   of  Cwm  Ystwyth: 
the  lodes  contain  much  copper-pyrites; 

6.  The  sixth  group  comprises  the  mines  around  Llanidloes: 
the  galena  is,  here,   associated  with  heavy  spar,    and   witherite; 
which  are  not  found  in  the  other  groups. 

To  these  must  be  added  the  vein-district  of  Llangynnog,  in 
which  are  found  feldspar-porphyries;  while  the  districts  above- 
mentioned  are  strikingly  free  from  igneous  rocks. 

The  predominating  vein-stone,  in  all  these  lodes,  consists 
of  fragments  of  slate,  combined  with  different  varieties  of  quartz. 
Besides  these,  calc-spar,  and  (exceptionally)  heavy  spar,  and 


GROUPS  OF  LODES.          *      MAIN  FACTS.  429 

witherite,  are  found;  fluor  spar  is  unknown.  The  ores  are; 
galena,  in  part  very  argentiferous,  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  copper 
and  iron  pyrites,  spathic  iron,  and  manganese  ores.  The  matrix 
is  but  rarely  arranged  in  symmetrical  layers  or  bands;  in  the 
Nant-y-Creiau,  for  example,  blende  occurs  at  both  selvages,  on 
this  galena,  and  quartz,  with  geodes  of  the  same  in  the  middle. 
These  minerals  usually  possess  an  irregular  granular  texture, 
or  traverse  one  another  in  a  network  of  strings.  The  following 
unsymmetrical  succession  was  observed  in  the  Tyn-y-fron  level 
of  the  Estymteon  lode,  passing  from  the  hanging-  to  the  foot- 
wall  : 

1.  Iron-pyrites; 

2.  Galena; 

3.  Iron-pyrites; 

4.  Blende,  with  somewhat  of  galena; 

5.  Quartz; 

6.  Copper-pyrites,  at  the  foot-wall. 

This  succession  can  only  be  the  result  of  a  repeated  opening 
and  filling  of  the  fissure.  This  conclusion  is  proved  by  the 
frequent  friction-surfaces  within  the  lodes,  fragments  of  older 
vein-masses  enclosed  in  more  recent  ones,  and  a  distinct  double 
lode  in  Taylor's  shaft  at  Groginaii.  The  lode  proper  is  there  ac- 
companied, and,  in  a  parallel  direction,  partly  intersected,  by  a 
vein  of  slight  breadth;  which,  at  the  outcrop,  is  found  altogether 
within  the  foot-wall,  and  has  gradually  reached  the  hanging- 
wall,  at  a  depth  of  26  fathoms;  it  then  again  passes  to  the  foot- 
wall,  and  finally,  at  a  depth  of  100  fathoms,  forms  the  hanging- 
wall  for  a  short  distance. 

These  lodes  are  often  intersected,  and  thrown  a  few  feet, 
by  clay-fissures.  The  ores  are  by  no  means  equally  distributed 
in  the  lodes.  The  following  facts  have  been  established: 

1.  Where    two    lodes  intersected    at   an   acute  angle;  there, 
with  but  one  exception,  an  enrichment  had  taken  place; 

2.  Junctions,    more    nearly   at  right  angles  to  one  another, 
also  act  favorably,  but  only  to  a  slight  degree; 

3.  The  union  of  several  vein-branches  is  almost  always  ac- 
companied by  enrichment; 

4.  The  majority    of   the    ore-masses,   not   dependent  on  the 
causes    mentioned,    slant   toward  the  West.      At  times  this  cor- 
responds to  the  line  of  intersection   of  the  stratification  (by  the 
lode) ;    but    it   is    not    always    the  case.      In  other  cases  it  cor- 
responds   to    the    line    of  intersection  of  the  cleavage,  which  is 


430  DERBYSHIRE.       %        ORDER  OF  STRATA. 

different  from  that  of  the  stratification,  and  dips,  at  times,  in  an 
opposite  inclination; 

5.  The  distribution  of  the  ores  differs  in  one  respect  from 
that  in  the  Cornish  lodes,  in  which  an  enrichment  takes  place 
by  the  transition  from  a  harder  to  £  softer  rock :  in  this  district 
the  reverse  takes  place ;  a  hard  wall-rock  is  favorable,  a  soft  or 
decomposed  one  unfavorable.  All  the  ores,  particularly  around 
Goginan,  are  found  between  hard,  compact  rock,  whose  strati- 
fication is  only  recognised  by  darker  stripes;  where  the  lodes 
pass  into  softer  masses,  the  ores  no  longer  occur. 


A  portion  of  Merionethshire,1  in  North  Wales,  consists  of 
Cambrian  and  lower  Silurian  slates  and  sandstones,  frequently 
broken  through  by  greenstones.  A  portion  of  the  slates,  which 
belongs  to  the  subdivision  of  the  Lingula-flags,  is  of  a  talcose 
nature,  and  passes  into  a  sort  of  talc-schist.  The  slate  is  tra- 
versed, in  addition  to  the  greenstones,  by  numerous  and,  in 
part,  metalliferous  quartz-veins,  which  contain  galena,  blende, 
iron  and  copper  pyrites.  Some  of  them  are  exploited  for  copper. 
Several,  and  particularly  those  which  occur  in  the  talcose  schist, 
also  contain  a  little  gold. 


XXVII.     DERBYSHIRE. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  235.  The  ore-district  of  Derbyshire  occurs,  essentially,  in 
the  Subcarboniferous  formation  (mountain  limestone),  which  is 
therefore  here  called  metalliferous  limestone.  The  succession  of 
the  strata,  in  a  descending  series,  is  as  follows: 

1.  New-red-sandstone,  mantling  the  ore  district,  but  containing 
no  metalliferous  deposits; 

2.  Coal-shales  and  Millstone-grit:  the  lodes  occur  but  rarely 
in  the  latter;  they  are  unknown  in  the  coal-shales; 

3.  Carboniferous  limestone  (mountain  limestone),  in  part  mag- 

1  See:  Ramsay,  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  geol.  soc.  1854,  vol.  X.,  pt. 
I.  p.  242. 


VARIETIES  OF  LEAD-DEPOSITS.  431 

nesian;  containing  cavities,  and  alternating  with  calcareous  shales  and 
with  beds  of  an  igneous  rock,  resembling  greenstone  (locally  called 
toadstone). 

The  greenstone  (toadstone\  in  part  amygdaloidal,  forms 
tolerably  regular  layers  between  the  more  or  less  thick  lime- 
stone-strata; and  it  is  doubtful,  whether  these  greenstone-layers 
are  to  be  regarded,  as  submarine  streams  of  lava  contempora- 
neous with  the  deposits  of  limestone,  or  as  subsequent  injections 
into  fissures,  parallel  to  the  stratification.  De  la  Beche  con- 
siders them  to  be  contemporaneous  streams:  Sedgewiek,  as  sub- 
sequent injections  or  igneous  bedded  dikes.  It  is  probable,  that 
both  occur  in  the  same  district;  for  our  purpose  this  is  a  question 
of  no  importance.  It  is  in  the  district,  occupied  by  these  pe- 
culiar alternations,  of  very  fossiliferous  limestone  with  a  distinct 
igneous  rock,  that  the  aggregations  of  lead-ore-deposits  are  found, 
both  in  Derbyshire,  and  Cumberland. 

THE  LEAD  DEPOSITS. 

§  236.  Three  varieties  or  forms  of  lead- deposits  are  recog- 
nised in  Derbyshire:1 

1.  Rake -veins;    which    are    the    lodes    proper,  filling    distinct 
fissures; 

2.  Pipe-veins;   which    are    masses   or   sheets   of  ore,    generally 
parallel  to  the  stratification,  but  quite  irregular; 

3.  Flat-veins;   these   are    thin   layers   in  the  fissures  of  strati- 
fication. 

Besides  these,  the  cross-fissures  of  the  limestone  are  often  metal- 
liferous, and  are  called  skrins. 

De  la  Beche  has  attempted  to  show  the  manner  in  which 
these  differently  formed,  but  similarly  composed,  ore-deposits  occur, 
by  the  following  idealised  woodcut. 


1  See:  De  la  Beche,  Geological  Observer,  1£51,  p.  784;  Brochantfde 
Villiers,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  vol.  XII.  p.  339,  401;  Elie  de  Bea.umont 
and  Dufrenoy,  Voyage  metall.  en  Angleterre,  vol.  II.  p.  514. 


432  SUCCESSION  OF  STRATA. 

The  white,  only  shaded  near  the  surface,  is  mountain- 
limestone:  the  dark  layer,  A,  is  greenstone  (toadstone),  which, 
De  la  Beche  thinks,  has  flowed  over  the  lower  layer  of  limestone, 
and  over  which  the  tipper  one  was  subsequently  deposited:  I  b 
are  cross-fissures  (skrins)  in  theT*  limestone,  and  sometimes 
contain  small  quantities  of  ore:  cc  are  rake-veins,  true  veins 
filling  fissures,  through  which  the  material  composing  the  other 
veins  may  also  have  penetrated:  dd  are  pipe-veins,1  irregular 
expansions  filled  with  ores,  at  the  intersections  of  the  lodes  with 
the  fissures  of  stratification:  the  fissures  of  the  stratification,  a  a, 
are  often  filled  with  thin  sheets  of  ore,  and  then  form  the  flat- 
veins. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  whole  mass  of  limestone  is  traversed, 
in  all  accessible  fissures  and  cavities,  by  ores  and  veinstones, 
which  have  penetrated  subsequent  to  its  formation;  but  in  the 
greenstones  either  these  substances  have  found  but  little  space 
for  deposit,  or  its  mass  did  not  re-act  in  the  same  manner  on  the 
solutions,  as  did  that  of  the  limestone. 

All  three  or  four  kinds  of  ore-deposits  are  essentially  com- 
posed of  galena,  heavy  spar,  fluor  spar  and  calc-spar;  quartz, 
pyrites,  blende,  and  products  of  decomposition,  are  more  rare. 

The  only  veins,  now  generally  exploited  in  Derbyshire, 
are  the  rake-veins:  at  least  the  half  of  these  course  WSW. — ENE., 
while  the  remainder  appear  to  have  no  predominant  direction  of 
strike. 

-Their  dissimilar  condition,  in  the  various  strata  they  traverse, 
is  very  remarkable.  The  last  succeed  one  another  in  the 
following  order: 

1.  Millstone-grit; 

2.  Slates  of  the  Subcarboniferous ; 

3.  Limestone,  containing  thin  be'ds  of  slate.  25  fathoms  thick; 

4.  Trap,  or  toadstone; 

5.  Magnesian  limestone,  .containing  cavities,  25  fathoms  thick; 

6.  Trap,  or  toadstone; 

7.  Limestone,  with  layers  of  slate,  35  fathoms  thick; 

8.  Trap,  or  toadstone; 

9.  Limestone,  with  layers  of  slate,  over  42  fathoms  thick. 

But  few  veins  are  found  to  be  metalliferous  in  the  Millstone- 
grit  (1)  and  in  the  upper  slate  (2);  the  great  majority  are  only 
exploited  in  the  limestone  district,  and  here  only  in  the  limestone 


1  They  might  with  great  propriety  be  called  junction-segregations. 


DERBYSHIRE   LEAD-LODES.  433 

strata.  As  soon  as  a  lode  has  been  followed,  from  the  surface 
to  the  first  layer  of  greenstone;  it  either  ceases,  or  only  con- 
tinues as  a  narrow  cleft  (containing  no  ores)  through  the 
greenstone.  Beneath  this  the  veinstone  is  at  times  found  to 
have  resumed  its  former  condition  in  the  next  limestone-bed. 
Still,  most  of  the  mines  are  only  exploited  within  one  zone  of 
limestone.  Brochant  de  Villiers,  Dufrenoy,  and  Elie  de  Beaumont, 
state>  that  out  of  180  cases,  161  showed  a  complete  disappear- 
ance of  the  lode  in  greenstone;  while  there  were  but  19  cases, 
where  the  vein  was  observed  to  continue,  in  the  form  of 
parallel  fissures.  These  results  cannot  be  regarded  as  altogether 
reliable;  since,  from  a  practical  mining  view,  the  vein  would 
probably  be  considered  to  have  ceased,  though  it  actually  con- 
tinued through  the  trap  in  the  form  of  barren  fissures.  A 
careful  examination  would  almost  always  find  traces  of  the 
continuation,  since  such  continuations  have  been  several  times 
recognised;  and  consequently  it  cannot  be  supposed,  that  the 
greenstone  has  penetrated,  subsequently  to  the  lodes,  in  the  form 
of  dikes. 

The  Carboniferous  limestone,  in  Derbyshire  and  Cumberland, 
only  contains  lead-lodes  and  their  branches,  when  it  also  contains 
beds  or  dikes  of  greenstone.  Similar  lodes  occur  in  a  narrow 
belt  of  Carboniferous  limestone,  commencing  in  the  north  of 
Flintshire,  between  the  upper  Silurian  Wenlock  strata  and 
Millstone-grit,  and  extending,  without  containing  greenstone  dikes, 
to  the  neighborhood  of  Llangollen.  The  lodes  generally  strike, 
at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  belt  in  which  they  lie,  being 
either  E.—  W.  or  NW.—SE.,  but  rarely  N.— S.  They  are 
generally  confined  to  the  Subcarboniferous  formation;  but  a 
small  portion  of  them  having  been  followed  into  the  Mill- 
stone-grit, and  two  or  three  of  them  into  the  underlying  Wen- 
lock  beds.  Not  one  of  them  reaches  into  the  Carboniferous 
formation  proper.  From  this  fact,  they  might  be  older  than 
this  last  formation;  but  it  cannot  be  proved  with  certainty, 
especially  as  some  of  them  extend  into  the  Millstone-grit.  Were 
it  the  case,  we  should  here  have  an  interesting  case  of  the 
unusually  great  age  of  a  vein-formation,  which  extremely  re- 
sembles the  Freiberg  barytic  lead-formation,  and  belongs  to 
the  same  combination,  which  in  many  regions  extends  into  the 
Jurassic  or  Cretaceous,  perhaps  even  into  tertiary  rocks. 

28 


434  CUMBERLAND   LEAD-LODES. 

'Conybeare  and  Phillips1  state,  that  in  some  of  the 
veins  in  the  Carboniferous  limestone  of  Derbyshire,  the  veinstuff, 
which  is  nearly  compact,  is  occasionally  traversed  by  (what  may 
be  called)  a  vertical  crack  passing  down  the  middle  of  the  vein. 
The  two  faces  in  contact  are  friction-surfaces,  sometimes  covered 
by  a  thin  coating  of  lead-ore.  When  one  side  of  the  veinstuff 
is  removed,  the  other  side  cracks,  especially  if  small  holes  be 
made  in  it,  and  fragments  fly  off  with  loud  explosions,  and 
continue  to  do  so  for  some  days.  The  miner,  availing  himself 
of  this  circumstance,  makes  with  his  pick  small  holes,  about  six 
inches  apart,  and  four  inches  deep ;  and  on  his  return,  in  a  few 
hours,  finds  every  part  ready  broken  to  this  hand.  These  pheno- 
mena and  their  causes  (probably  connected  with  electrical  action) 
seem  scarcely  to  have  attracted  the  notice  which  they  deserve/ 

The  isolated  portion  of  limestone  forming  the  peninsula  of 
Great  Ormes-head  in  the  north  coast  of  Wales,  contains  vein& 
coursing  N. — S.  So  that,  on  the  whole,  the  British  Carboniferous 
may  fairly  be  entitled  metalliferous,  though  not  originally 
such,  by  depositions  subsequent  to  its  formation. 

C.  Moore2  has  found  numerous  fossils  in  lodes  in  Moun- 
tain limestone ;  they  belong  partly  to  the  Subcarboniferous,  partly 
to  the  Jurassic  and  Triassic  periods. 


XXVIII.   CUMBERLAND. 

LEAD-DEPOSITS. 

§  237.  The  geological  formation  of  the  ore-district  of  Cum- 
berland3 is  entirely  similar  to  that  of  Derbyshire,  being  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  same  general  conditions.  The  lead-deposits  also 
occur  in  the  Carboniferous  or  metalliferous  limestone. 


1  Conybeare  and  Phillips'  Geology,  p.  401;  and  L yell's  El.  of  Geol. 
1865,  p.  762. 

2  See:  The  Mining  Journal,  No.  1418,  vol.  XXXII. 

3  See:  Wallace,  Description  of  lead-ore  in  Veins  of  Alston  Moor,  1861: 
Bro chant  de  Villiers,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  vol.  XII,  pp.  339,  401;  Dufrenoy, 
and  Elie  de  Beaumont,  Voyage  metall.   vol.  II.  p.  502;    Mave,  in  Von 
Moll's  Annalen,  vol.  V.  p.  259. 


RAKE-,  PIPE-,  AND  FLAT- VEINS.  435 

This  Carboniferous  limestone  consists  of  alternate  strata  of 
thick  limestone-beds  with  subordinate  layers  of  argillaceous  shale 
and  sandstone.  In  Cumberland  this  group  of  strata  is  also  tra- 
versed by  a  compact  or  amygdaloidal  greenstone  (called  trap 
or  whin-sill);  which  extends,  with  varying  thickness,  between 
the  strata,  and  parallel  to  these;  from  which  Sedgewick  con- 
cludes, that  it  has  penetrated,  as  igneous  rock,  between  the 
sedimentary  strata,  subsequently  to  their  formation.  The  thick- 
ness of  this  greenstone  is  at  times  more  than  sixty-four  feet.  In 
Derbyshire  we  found  several  such  layers  of  trap  one  above  the 
other,  in  Cumberland  there  appears  to  be  but  one  such. 

Since  the  several  limestone-strata  have  each  its  own  pecu- 
liar mining  value,  each  one  has  received  its  separate  name  from 
the  miners.  Of  special  importance  are  the  two  thickest,  the  so- 
called  great  limestone,  64  feet  thick,  and  the  scar  limestone, 
upwards  of  125  feet  thick ;  each  of  which,  however,  properly  con- 
sists of  several  separate  beds.  The  remaining  limestones  attain 
a  thickness  of  but  15—20  feet,  being  separated  from  one  another 
by  argillaceous  shales  or  sand.  In  Cumberland,  as  in  Derby- 
shire, the  Millstone-grit  overlies  the  Carboniferous  limestone, 
&nd  the  lodes  in  it  are  not  exploitable. 

The  ore-deposits  are  classified  in  Cumberland  as  rake-veins, 
pipe- veins  and  flat-veins. 

The  rake-veins  are  the  most  common  and  important.  They 
traverse  the  Subcarboniferous  formation  from  top  to  bottom,  but 
with  very  variable  breadth  and  character  between  the  separate 
layers  of  the  formation.  Their  matrix  is  in  general  precisely 
the  same  as  in  Derbyshire.  Their  breadth  averages  1 — 4  feet, 
but  is,  in  the  Huldgillburn  lode,  within  the  great  limestone 
17  feet,  while  it  decreases  in  the  sandstone  beneath  this  to  3  feet. 
The  same  is  frequent  in  the  other  lodes;  they  being  only  broad 
and  productive  within  the  limestone.  Their  course  is  irregular ; 
their  dip,  as  a  rule,  vertical;  but,  still,  resembling  a  flight  of 
stairs.  For  while  the  veins  are  broad,  and  almost  perpendicular, 
within  the  limestone;  they  often  have  a  very  gentle  dip,  with 
but  slight  breadth,  and  chiefly  clayey  matrix,  in  the  intermediate 
schistose  rocks;  and  again  continue  vertical,  and  broad,  in  the 
next  limestone-bed.  The  veins  are  also  poor  in  the  sandstone, 
while  in  greenstone,  or  amygdaloid,  they  split  up  into  unwork- 
able strings.  They  are,  therefore,  only  exploited  in  the  lime- 
stone; and  it  is  stated,  that  experience  has  shown,  that  the 

28* 


436  IRELAND. 

upper  strata  are  generally  far  more  favorable,  than  the  lower 
ones.  On  this  account  the  greater  part  of  the  lodes  are  only 
exploited  to  the  fifth  bed  of  limestone;  which  lies  about  150 
fathoms  beneath  the  Millstone-grit  f  beneath  which,  and  above 
the  first  limestone-bed,  follows  slate,  1 10  fathoms  thick,  in  which 
the  mines  are  not  worked.  There  thus  remains  a  zone  of  but 
40  fathoms,  in  which  the  mines  are  exploited.  At  Alston  Moor, 
however,  the  lodes  have  been  found  workable,  as  deep  as  the 
eleventh  limestone-bed,  which  lies  210  fathoms  below  the  Mill- 
stone-grit; by  which  the  zone  of  exploitation  is  encreased  to 
100  fathoms.  The  several  limestone-beds  are  found  to  vary 
somewhat  in  their  influence,  the  most  favorable  being  the  great 
limestone.  This  influence  of  the  wall-rock  is  so  striking,  that 
a  perceptible  difference  occurs,  even  in  those  places,  where,  by 
reason  of  faults,  the  one  side  of  the  fissure  is  bounded  by  lime- 
stone, the  other  by  slate  or  sandstone. 

The  pipe -veins  seem  generally  to  be  local  and  irregular 
enlargements,  of  veins  or  vein-fissures,  caused  by  the  fissures  of 
stratification,  like  the  segregated  masses  of  calamirie  in  the 
Muschelkalk  at  Wiesloch  in  Baden,  and  segregations  of  lead- 
ores  at  Bleiberg  in  Carinthia.  They  are  much  less  common  than 
the  rake-veins,  and  are  only  worth  working  when  very  broad. 

The  f  1  at- veins  correspond,  in  form,  to  thin  beds  between 
the  strata,  but  appear  to  be  merely  side-branches  of  the  lodes 
in  the  stratification-fissures.  They  too  are  seldom  exploited. 

Hence  it  may  be  asserted,  as  already  stated  in  the  preced- 
ing §,  that  the  metalliferous  limestone  was  by  no  means  origi- 
nally metalliferous,  but  only  presented  a  good  opportunity  or 
cause  for  the  subsequent  depositions  of  ore  in  its  fissures  and 
cavities;  as  did  other  magnesian  limestones  on  the  continent  of 
Europe. 


XXIX.  IRELAND. 

WICKLOW. 

§  238.     The   ore-deposits   of  Wicklow,    on   the   East  Coast 
of  Ireland,   are  the   richest  and  most   important  of  all  those  as 


WICKLOW  GROUPS  OF  LODES.  437 

yet  discovered  on  this  island.  The  County  of  Wicklow A  is 
generally  composed  of  lower  Silurian  slates,  cut  through  by 
granite  masses,  porphyry-  and  greenstone-dikes.  The  clay-  slate, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  granite,  is  usually  altered  to  mica- 
schist  and  quartzite;  these  being  often  intersected  by  ramifica- 
tions of  the  granite.  It  appears,  that  the  metalliferous  deposits 
of  this  district  occur,  for  the  most  part,  near  the  limits  of  the 
granite,  either  within  this,  or  in  the  adjoining  schist.  They  may 
be  separated  into  three  groups,  according  to  their  nature  of 
occurrence : 

1.  Lead-lodes  in  granite ; 

2.  Deposits  of  iron  and  copper-pyrites  in  Silurian  slates; 

3.  Gold- placers,    near    the    granite    mountain    of    Croghan 
Kinshella : 

All  of  these  deposits  occur  in  the  basin  of  the  Ovoca  river, 
which  empties  into  the  sea  near  Arklow. 

1.  Lead-lodes  in  granite.    The  most  important  are  those 
exploited  by  the  Glenmalure  and  Luganure  mines.     The  broadest 
of  these,    that    of  the  Old  Glenmalure  mine,    is  20  feet  broad. 
At  one  point,  where  it  had  penetrated  the  schist,  it  showed  the 
following  unsymmetrical  arrangement: 

a.  A  narrow  layer  of  ore; 

b.  Quartz,  containing  particles  of  ore,  very  broad; 

c.  Fragments  of  schist; 

d.  Galena  and  blende,  very  broad;  following  which  is  the  hanging- 
wall  of  slate. 

In  these  lodes,  the  galena  has  been  found,  in  places,  three 
feet  broad. 

2.  The  copper   and  iron-pyrites    mines   of  Ovoca   may   be 
passed  over,  as  not  especially  interesting. 

3.  A  deposit  of  clay,  sand,  and  boulders,  20 — 50  feet  thick, 
occurs  in  the  Ballin  Valley  on  the  Croghan  Kinshella  mountain. 
This  deposit   contains  scales,   grains,   and  larger  pieces  of  gold, 
occasionally  also  crystals.     This  is  associated  with  quartz,  mag- 
netite, specular  iron,  iron-pyrites,  iron-mulm,  cassiterite,  wolfram, 
pyrolusite,   and  chlorite.     Sometimes  are   found  united  together; 


1  See:  The  mines  of  Wicklow,  1857;  Murchison's  Siluria,  p.  435; 
Weaver,  in  Philos.  Magaz.  1835,  vol.  VII.  p.  1;  and  Trans,  geol.  soc.  1819, 
vol.  V.,  pt.  I.  p.  208;  Henry,  in  Philos.  Trans.  1753,  vol.  47;  Sanders,  in 
Jahrb.  f.  Mineral.  1865,  p.  245. 


438  SCANDINAVIA.     FALLBANDS. 

quartz,  and  chlorite;  quartz,  and  gold;  quartz,  magnetite,  wolf- 
ram, and  gold.  In  some  of  the  pieces  the  wolfram  is  traversed 
by  limonite  and  gold. 


XXX.  SCANDINAVIA, 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

§  239.  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Finland,  consist,  for  the 
greater  part,  of  old  crystalline  rocks,  partly  igneous  and  plu- 
tonic,  partly  metamorphic.  Gneiss  and  granite  are  particularly 
prevalent;  and,  according  to  the  investigations  of  Kjerulf  and 
Dahll,  the  first  is,  also  in  part,  of  igneous  origin,  and  has  broken 
through  the  other  schistose  rocks;  of  which  it  sometimes  contains 
fragments. 

This  igneous  gneiss  greatly  resembles  granite,  it  exhibits 
no  alternation  with  other  schistose  rocks,  -but  forms  uniform 
districts.  The  metamorphic  variety,  on  the  contrary,  forms  fre- 
quent transitions  into,  or  alternates  with,  mica-schist,  quartzite, 
chlorite-schist,  talc-schist,  hornblende-schist,  felsitic  schist,  crystal- 
line limestone  or  dolomite;  or  contains,  to  a  more  subordinate 
degree,  all  sorts  of  metalliferous  deposits,  and  other  peculiar 
varieties  of  rocks;  or  is  traversed  by  porphyries,  greenstones, 
and  gabbro.  Overlying  the  gneiss  are  Silurian  and  Devonian 
strata;  in  places,  covering  large  areas.  More  recent  sedimentary 
strata  are  only  found  in  the  southernmost  portion  of  Sweden. 
These  last  contain  no  metalliferous  deposits.  Diluvial  deposits 
cover  large  areas  of  country  to  the  North.  Of  the  igneous  rocks, 
there  occur,  in  addition  to  granite  and  gneiss,  syenite,  porphyries, 
greenstones,  and  basalts. 

There  are  but  few  true  fissure-veins  among  the  ore-deposits 
of  Scandinavia.  The  majority  of  the  deposits  form  irregular, 
segregated,  and  bedlike  masses,  or  so-called  Fallbands;  i.  e.  im- 
pregnated zones  of  rock.  Scandinavia  is  properly  the  home  of 
segregations  and  Fallbands.  Iron  and  copper-ores  are  the  most 
richly  represented;  after  these  silver,  and  cobalt;  far  less  fre- 
quently lead,  zinc,  nickel,  gold,  and  tin ;  the  last  is  only  found, 


ORE-DISTRICTS  OF  NORWAY,  SWEDEN,  AND  FINLAND.      439 

In  any  quantity,  at  Pittkaranda  in  Finland.  The  manner  of 
occurrence  at  this  last  locality  is  very  striking;  since  the  tin- 
ores  so  constantly  occur  elsewhere  with  the  oldest  crystalline 
rocks. 

It  cannot  appear  strange,  that  the  iron-deposits  of  Sweden 
are  mostly  composed  of  magnetite ;  if  it  is  remembered,  that  they 
occur  in  crystalline  schists,  which  have  probably  been  altered 
to  their  present  state  by  catogene  metamorphosis.  The  Devo- 
nian belt  of  the  Eastern  Alps,  so  rich  in  spathic  iron,  would 
probably  have  furnished  like  results  under  similar  circumstances. 

Daubre*e  gives  a  general  summary  of  the  ore-districts  in 
Norway  and  Sweden;  which  I  here  transcribe,  making  a  few 
alterations,  and  completions,  as  regards  Finland. 

Norway. 

1.  District  of  Christiania:   numerous   contact-deposits 
at  the  junction  of  granite:    silver-lodes   of  Kongsberg:     cobalt- 
deposits  of  Skutterud; 

2.  District    of  Arendal    on   the   South    coast:    belt   of 
magnetic  iron; 

3.  District  of  Tellemark:1  numerous  copper-'and  iron- 
deposits,  in  part  argentiferous;  e.  g.  near  Omdal,  and  Bygland; 

4.  District  ofTrondhjem:  deposits  of  iron- and  copper- 
ores;  e.  g.  at  Roraas; 

5.  District  of  North  Cape:  copper-deposits  of  Kaafjord, 
and  Reipas. 

Sweden. 

6.  District  of  Tornea  and  Lulea-Lappmark:  numerous 
deposits  of  iron-ore:  near  Gellivara  an  entire  mountain  of  mag- 
netic iron;    the  like  at  Kjerunavara  and  Luosanavara:    copper- 
deposits  with  argentiferous  galena  at  Sulitelma; 

7.  District   of  Herj  edalen:    the  deposits  ofTrondhjem 
appear  to  continue  to  this  point ; 

8.  District  of  Dalecarlia  and  Westmanland:    this 
is  the  richest  district  in  Sweden:  to  it  belong;  Falun,  the  iron- 
and  copper-deposits  of  Grangjarde,  Grarpenkerg,  Nylshyttan  with 
magnetite,  Loos  with  cobalt  and   nickel   ores,   Lo'fas  with  lead 
and  silver   ores    in   the    limestone    of  the   mica-schist,    Elfdalen 
with  argentiferous    lead-lodes    in   porphyry,    Norberg  with  rich 


1  See:  Scheerer,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1863,  p.  157. 


440  CONTACT-DEPOSITS 

copper-ores  containing  lead-ores,  Bisperg  with  magnetite  in  gneiss, 
and  Sala; 

9.  District   of  Wermland  and  Nerik'e:    neighborhood 
of    Philipstad,    Carlstadt    with    hemajite   in    gneiss,   Vena    with 
Fallbands   of  cobalt-ores  in   gneiss, :  much   resembling  those   of 
Skutterud ; 

10.  District  of  Upland:  Dannemora; 

11.  District    of  Westmanland:   Nora,   Nyakopparberg, 
and   Nydarhytta,   containing   copper-ores;    Hellefors,    and    Guld- 
meshyttan  with  argentiferous  galena  in  Fallbands; 

12.  District    of    Sodermanland:    Tunaberg,    island   of 
of  Utoe,  Ferola,  Sjosa,  and  Scotrang,  with  deposits  of  magnetic 
iron,  cut  through  by  granite-dikes; 

13.  District  of  East  Gothland:    near  Atredaberg  are 
rich  copper-deposits  in  mica-schist; 

14.  District  of  Sm aland:   at  Taberg,  and  Adelfors,  are 
bog  iron-ores,    and  copper-  and  cobalt-deposits  in   the  gneiss  of 
Gladhamar. 

Finland. 

15.  District  of  Helsingfors:  numerous  deposits  of  mag- 
netic iron  in  hornblende-schist,   always  accompanied   by  diorite, 
frequently  cut  through  by  granite-dikes:  in  the  deposits  garnet, 
augite,    epidote,    mica,    chlorite,    talc,    etc.  are   often  found:    at 
Oryarfvi   are    segregations  of   copper-ores  in   mica-schist   at  its 
junction  with  granite; 

16.  District   of  Pittkaranda  near  Imbelax. 

Only  the  most  important  of  the  above  localities  will  be 
mentioned  in  the  following. 

CONTACT-DEPOSITS  IN   THE  NEIGHBORHOOD 
OF  CHRISTIANIA. 

§  240.  The  district  around  Christiania l  consists  of  Silurian 
strata  (clay-slate,  alum-slate,  sandstone,  and  limestone),  broken 
through  by  granite,  syenite,  greenstone,  and  porphyry.  No 
metalliferous  deposits,  worth  mentioning,  are  found  removed  from 
the  junctions  of  the  sedimentary  with  the  igneous  rocks,  but 
merely  admixtures  of  iron- pyrites,  or  beds  of  hematite.  On  the 


1  See:   Keilhau,   Gaea  Norvegica,  Christiania,  1838,  vol.  I.  pp.  61,  73, 
107,  109,  125. 


NEAR  CHRISTIANIA.  441 

other  hand  very  numerous,  if  not  very  important,  iron-deposits, 
of  very  manifold  composition,  are  found  at  the  junctions  of  the 
granite  and  syenite  with  Silurian  strata ;  which  deposits,  accord- 
ing to  Daubree,  are  irregularly  shaped,  and  are  therefore  contact- 
segregations.  They  do  not  always  occur  precisely  at  the  junc- 
tions, as  partitions  of  the  heterogeneous  rocks,  but  always  in 
the  neighborhood  of  these  last,  and  as  it  were  within  the  sphere 
of  the  influences  of  plutonic  activity;  for  example,  in  the  Silu- 
rian districts,  which  are  not  broken  through  by  large  granite- 
masses,  but  by  granite-ramifications.  Keilhau  has  also  established 
the  fact  of  this  manner  of  occurrence  by  numerous  examples, 
although  he  attempted  to  explain  the  phenomenon  by  a  very 
uncommon  hypothesis;  viz.  that  of  the  metamorphosis  of  the 
rocks;  and  considered  these  crystalline  rocks  not  to  be  igneous. 

These  contact-deposits  are  mainly  composed,  either  of  mag- 
netite; of  copper  pyrites,  or  argentiferous  galena,  and  blende; 
or  of  combinations  of  these.  In  addition  to  the  above,  they 
contain  iron -pyrites,  mispickel,  smaltine,  bismuthine,  molybdenite, 
calc-spar,  fluor  spar,  apatite,  garnet,  epidote,  datolith,  axinite, 
helvine,  etc.  Magnetite,  argentiferous  galena,  and  copper-pyrites, 
are  often  associated  together  in  the  same  deposit. 

The  iron-mines  of  Aaserud  near  Eidsfoss;  and  those  in  the 
parishes  of  Lyer,  and  Asker ;  and  those  of  Vedelsja,  near  Dram- 
men;  as  well  as  the  copper-mine  of  Gjellaback,  are  all  worked 
on  contact-deposits.  The  most  frequent  veinstones  are  garnet 
and  calc-spar;  helvine  is  quite  common  in  the  Horte  mine. 

I  will  take,  as  examples,  the  mines  of  Aaserud  and  Nar- 
verud,  and  describe  them  concisely.  At  the  first-named  locality, 


Horizontal  section. 
Vertical   section. 

the  iron-ore  m  occurs  in  the  hanging-  and  foot-wall  of  a  horn- 
blende-rock d,  which  last  forms  veins  in  crystalline  limestone  c; 
as  the  ore  recedes  from  the  dike  it  passes  into  carbonate 
of  lime. 

The    ore-deposit    at    Narverud    occurs    at    the    junction    of 


442 


KONGSBERG. 


the  granite  g  and  slate  s;  the  last-named  rock  has 
become  very  hard,  from  the  influence  of  the  granitic 
mass.  The  ore,  which  consisted  at  the  outcrop  of 
magnetite  with  garnet,  contained  such  considerable 
quantities  of  iron-  and  copper-pyrites,  at  a  depth  of 
4  to  5  fathoms,  that  the  mine  had  to  be  abandoned. 


Vertical   section. 


More  than  sixty  deposits  of  this  kind  have 
been  found.  Keilhau  states,  that  the  conditions 
of  bedding  in  53  of  them  have  been  deter- 
mined: 19  were  found  at  the  junctions  of 
the  plutonic  with  the  Silurian  rocks;  the 
remainder,  at  short  distances  from  this  junc- 
tion: Four  were  found  to  be  entirely  in 
granite  or  syenite;  twelve  in  hardened  slate 
or  limestone:  all  were  found  to  be  only 
workable  to  a  slight  depth. 


Horizontal   section. 


KONGSBERG. 

§  241.  The  district  around  Kongsberg 1  is  composed  of 
crystalline  schistose  rocks;  predominating  among  which  are 
quartzite  and  mica-schist,  passing  into  gneiss;  and  hornblende 
schist,  which  occasionally  passes  into  talc  and  chlorite  schist. 
These  are  the  oldest  rocks  in  the  whole  of  Norway.  All  of 
these  schistose  rocks  alternate  with  one  another;  and  the 
quartzite  sometimes  passes  into  a  variety  of  sandstone,  or  con- 
glomerate ;  from  which,  as  well  as  from  the  frequent  alternation 
of  the  strata,  their  original  sedimentary  and  subsequent  meta- 
morphic  origin  can  be  recognised.  Dahll  and  Kjerulf  state, 
that  these  schists  are  traversed  by  large  and  small  masses  of  a 
gabbro  containing  much  labradorite;  and  border  westwardly  on 
an  extensive  district  of  igneous  granite  and  gneiss-granite;  which 
also  contain  fragments  of  the  schists,  at  the  junctions,  and  are 


1  See:  Hausmann's  Reise  d.  Skandinavien,  vol.  II.  p.  8;  Bobert,  in 
Karsten's  Archiv,  vol.  XII.  p.  267;  Scheerer,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1853, 
p.  720;  and  Berg-  u.  huttenra.  Zeit.  Suplmt.  to  1846,  p.  73;  1866,  pp.  171, 
250;  Kjerulf  and  Dahll,  Ueber  d.  Erzdistrict  Kongsbergs,  I860;  Durocher, 
in  Annal.  d.  mines,  4ser.  vol.  XV;  Crowe,  in  Mining  Almanac,  1852. 


ROCK-GROUPS  OF  SOUTH-NORWAY.  443 

consequently  more  recently  formed  than  these  last.  Dahll  and 
Kjerulf  group  all  these  rocks  of  Southern  Norway  as  regards 
their  age  into  the  following  groups: 

1.  Metamorphic  schists,  Azoic; 

2.  Granite  and  Gneiss-granite,  igneous; 

3.  Slates  of  Osterdalen,  Pre-Siluric; 

4.  Silurian  formation; 
5    Devonian  formation; 

6.  Younger  granite  and  syenite,  at  the  fjords  of  Christiania;  igneous, 
and  more  recent  than  the  Devonian  formation. 

The  age  of  the  gabbro  is  not  determined.  All  the  meta- 
morphic  schists  are  somewhat  garnetiferous ;  they  strike  N. —  S. 
and  dip  almost  vertically  toward  E.  In  these,  and  less  dis- 
tinctly in  the  gabbro,  there  are  certain  belts  impregnated  with 
sulphurets,  and  called  Fallbands.  These  belts,  or  zones,  strike 
and  dip  parallel  to  the  schists,  not  retaining  an  equal  breacith, 
but  at  times  wedge-out,  and  recommence  in  the  direction  of 
strike;  they  diverge  at  acute  angles,  or  even  form  side-leaders 
called  'Springbands'.  These  conditions  must  suggest  the 
idea,  that  the  sulphurets  were  not  originally  deposited  with  the 
matter  forming  the  schists,  but  have  penetrated  by  a  subsequent 
impregnation.  The  sulphurets,  which  they  contain,  very  finely, 
often  almost  imperceptibly  disseminated,  are  particularly  iron- 
pyrites,  somewhat  of  copper-pyrites,  and  pyrrhotine ;  also  blende, 
and  even  traces  of  native  silver,  and  silver-glance.  Owing  to 
the  decomposition  of  these  sulphurets,  the  Fallbands  can  be  very 
distinctly  recognised  from  the  non-impregnated  rock,  since  the 
peroxide  of  iron  gives  them  a  rusty  appearance.  Two  principal 
Fallbands  are  recognised  westwardly  of  Kongsberg,  the  Unter- 
berger  and  the  Oberberger,  as  well  as  a  large  number  of  thinner 
and  less  widely  extended  ones,  parallel  to  the  above-mentioned. 
The  Unterberger  Fallband  attains  a  breadth  of  200  feet,  the 
Oberberger  1000  to  1200  feet.  Since  the  impregnation  of  the 
Fallbands  does  not  lie  exactly  parallel  to  the  stratification;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  their  geographical  distribution  about  corre- 
sponds to  that  of  the  gabbro ;  and  since  too  altogether  analogous 
impregnations  of  pyrites  have  been  found  in  the  gabbro  itself, 
as  well  as  in  the  fragments  of  schist  it  contains ;  Dahll  and 
Kjerulf  considered  these  impregnations  to  have  been  caused  by 
the  gabbro.  The  Kongsberg  silver-lodes  have  only  been  found 
exploitable  within  these  Fallbands;  between  all  other  rocks  they 
are,  generally,  altogether  barren.  Even  within  the  Fallbands, 


444  KONGSBERG  SILVER-LODES. 

their  contents  do  not  remain  constant,  but  are  in  places  very 
meagre;  without,  as  yet,  any  law  for  this  unequal  distribution 
within  the  Fallbands  having  been  discovered.  The  enrichment 
within  the  Fallbands  is  one  of  the  most  striking  cases  of  the 
influence  of  the  country-rock ;  and  it  fs  by  no  means  necessary 
to  conclude,  that  the  ores  must  have  been  secretions  from  the 
Fallbands.  Dahll  and  Kjerulf  are  of  the  opinion,  that  the  enrich- 
ment is  not  so  exclusive,  as  is  generally  supposed. 

The  lodes,  of  which  there  are  many  around  Kongsberg, 
course  E. — W.  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  strata  and  Fall- 
bands  :  they  generally  have  a  considerable  dip  toward  S.,  a  few 
toward  N.  They  are,  as  a  rule,  but  a  few  lines  or  inches  broad, 
and  but  rarely  attain  a  breadth  of  a  few  feet.  Their  narrower 
portions  average  a  greater  richness  in  silver,  than  the  broader 
ones;  which  are  generally  more  filled  with  veinstones.  Haus- 
mann  states,  that  those  portions  about  an  inch  broad  are  the 
richest.  Their  breadth  is  stated,  in  general,  to  encrease  for  a 
certain  depth,  and  then  again  decrease.  In  addition  to  the 
Fallbands,  but  within  them,  junctions  of  the  lodes  exert  a  fa- 
vorable influence.  The  mineral  matter,  forming  the  lodes,  is 
firmly  attached  to  the  wall-rock,  without  forming  selvages;  and 
the  rock  is  often  impregnated  for  some  distance  with  silver. 
Hausmann  remarks,  however,  that  the  lodes  are  most  firmly 
attached  to  the  wall-rock  in  thinly  cleavable  talc-schist,  the 
richest  in  mica-schist,  and  mostly  clearly  defined  in  hornblende- 
schist.  The  predominant  ores  are  native  silver,  and  silver-glance: 
the  former  has  been  repeatedly  found  in  large  masses,  at  times 
somewhat  auriferous.  More  rarely  found  are;  ruby  silver,  ke- 
rargyrite  (found  only  in  the  out-crop),  galena,  native  arsenic, 
brown  blende,  copper-pyrites,  pyrrhotine,  and  iron-pyrites.  The 
veinstones  are ;  calc-spar,  fluor  spar  in  octahedrons,  heavy  spar, 
and  quartz ;  more  rare  are,  magnesite,  dolomite,  heulandite, 
prehnite,  harmotome,  laumontite,  anthracite,  mountain-cork,  moun- 
tain-leather, actinolith,  axinite,  adularia,  and  albite;  Daubree 
also  mentions  leucite  and  epidote.  The  anthracite  forms  small 
spheres  in  calc-spar. 

This  association  greatly  resembles  that  of  Andreasberg 
(§  104),  even  to  the  predominance  of  calc-spar  scalenohedrons. 
Dahll  and  Kjerulf  distinguish  an  older  and  a  younger  portion 
of  the  matrix;  to  the  older  portion  they  consider  quartz,  fluor 
spar,  calc-spar  and  heavy  spar,  with  native  silver,  to  belong;  to 


SKUTTERUD  AND  SNARUM  COBALT-ORES.       445 

the  younger  portion,  calc-spar,  more  recent  quartz  in  geodes, 
zeoliths,  a  little  native  silver,  ruby  silver,  silver-glance,  pyrrhotine, 
galena,  and  iron-pyrites. 

The  question  has  been  raised;  whether  in  this  case  the 
metalliferous  contents  of  the  lodes  have  been  derived  from  the 
Fallbands  ;  or  whether  the  ores  in  the  Fallbands  are  impreg- 
nations, which  have  found  their  way  from  the  vein-fissures. 
Dahll  and  Kjerulf  are  of  the  opinion,  that  neither  view  is  correct, 
but  that  the  impregnations  of  the  Fallbands,  as  well  as  the 
mineral  matter  filling  the  lodes,  are  consequences  of  the  gabbro 
eruptions,  which  took  place  in  such  a  mariner,  that  the  Fallbands 
were  formed  previously  to  the  lodes. 

As  proofs,  that  the  presence  of  gabbro,  in  this  district,  is 
the  principal  cause  of  the  metalliferous  deposits,  K.  and  D. 
adduce- two  examples,  from  among  many  like  cases,  where  mix- 
tures of  niccoliferous  pyrrhotine,  copper-pyrites,  and  cobaltiferous 
iron-pyrites,  together  with  interspersed  crystals  of  hornblende, 
form  contact-deposits  between  gabbro  and  crystalline  schists. 
One  of  these  cases  is  furnished  by  the  JMeinkjaer  mine  in  Bamble, 
the  other  by  the  Steenstrups  pyrites-mine  near  Kongsberg. 

FALLBANDS  OF  COBALT-ORE  AT  SKUTTERUD  AND 

SNARUM. 

§  242.  The  district  around  Skutterud1  and  Snarum,  in  the 
Parish  of  Modum,  consists  of  crystalline  schists,  whose  nature 
varies  between  gneiss  and  mica-schist,  and  through  the  presence 
of  amphibole  passes  into  hornblende-schist.  Garnet,  tourmaline, 
graphite,  etc.  occur  as  accessory  minerals.  These  schists  course 
N. — S.  and  dip  almost  perpendicularly.  They  contain  metalli- 
ferous zones  (Fallbands)  similar  to  those  of  Kongsberg;  the 
difference  being,  that  the  cobalt-ores  predominating  in  them  are 
finely  disseminated,  and  pay  for  the  exploitation;  while  the 
Kongsberg  Fallbands,  impregnated  with  sulphurets,  are  only  im- 


1  See:  Hausmann's  Reise  d.  Skandinavien,  1812,  pt.  II.  p.  85;  Nau- 
mann's  Beitr.  z.  Kenntn.  Norwegens,  1824,  pt.  I.  p.  8;  Bobert,  in  Kar- 
sten's  Archiv,  1832,  vol.  IV.  pp.  277,  280;  1847,  vol.  XXI.  p.  207;  Schmid- 
huber's  Bericht  u.  d.  Kobaltwerk  Snarum,  1847;  S  cheer,  er,  in  Leonhard's 
Jahrb.  1853,  p.  720,  Poggend.  Annal.  vol.  42.  p.  546;  M tiller,  in  Berg-  u. 
hiittenm.  Zeit.  1858,  p.  334;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  4  series. 
vol.  XV. 


446  ORE-BANDS,  AND  ROCK-BANDS. 

portant,  as  zones  of  enrichment  for  the  silver-lodes.  Lodes  are 
altogether  wanting  at  Skutterud. 

These  ore-zones  generally  follow  the  strike  and  dip  of  the 
schists,  and  attain,  according  to  Schmidhuber,  a  breadth  of  2£/2 
to  6  fathoms  5  three  to  four  of  them  coursing  alongside  of  one 
another.  The  breadth  of  these  zones,  or  belts,  cannot  well  be 
accurately  determined ;  since  a  gradual  transition  takes  place, 
from  the  Fallband  or  impregnated  rock,  into  the  non-impreg- 
nated. The  distribution  of  the  ores  within  the  Fallbands  is  not 
equable,  richer  and  poorer  or  even  barren  layers  being  recog- 
nised. The  first  are  called  'Erzbander'  (ore-bands),  the  last 
'Felsbander'  (roc  k-bands) ;  and  their  breadth  varies  from  a  few 
feet  to  two  or  three  fathoms.  In  addition  to  the  above,  'Reich- 
erzbander'  (Rich  ore-bands)  are  distinguished,  whose  breadth 
generally  amounts  to  a  few  inches,  and  which  course  parallel 
to,  and  within  the  ore-bands.  All  these  dissimilar  zones,  or 
belts,  are  indistinctly  defined.  A  similar  alternation,  of  barren 
and  impregnated  rock,  is  thus  repeated  within  the  Fallbands, 
as  is  characteristic,  on  a  large  scale,  of  the  district.  On  the 
outer  edges  of  this  cobaltiferous  Fallband  district,  are  a  few  Fall- 
bands  containing  mispickel,  without  any  cobalt-ores  being  per- 
ceptible. The  formerly  current  acceptation,  that  the  cobalt-ores 
in  the  Fallbands  did  not  extend  to  a  greater  depth  than  9  fa- 
thoms, has  been  completely  refuted  by  Bobert.  He  has  shown, 
that  poorer  or  barren  portions,  which  occur  at  every  level,  have 
given  rise  to  this  false  view;  while  in  reality  the  ore  is  merely 
irregularly  distributed  in  the  Fallbands;  this  is  a  fact  strongly 
opposed  to  a  contemporaneous  deposit  of  the  ores  and  the  rocks, 
and  in  favor  of  a  subsequent  impregnation. 

The  predominant  rock  of  the  Fallbands  is  a  quartzose,  finely 
granular,  foliated,  mica-schist;  which  forms  transitions  into  quartzite, 
quartzless  mica-schist,  and  gneiss. 

The  ores  and  other  minerals  finely  disseminated  in  these 
rocks  are;  cobaltine,  skutterudite,  cobaltiferous  mispickel,  leuco- 
pyrite,  copper-pyrites,  molybdenite,  pyrrhotine,  iron-pyrites, 
amphybole,  tremolith,  anthophyllite,  sahlite,  graphite,  ittro- 
titanite,  and  some  other  rare  minerals.  Hausmann  has  par- 
ticularly mentioned,  also ;  magnetite,  tourmaline,  scapolith,  and 
serpentine:  to  which  Bobert  adds;  galena,  native  copper,  mal- 
achite, chrysocolla,  copper-glance,  actinolith,  epidote,  amian- 
thos,  rutile.  talc,  garnet,  titanite,  and  smoky  quartz.  The  last 


ARENDAL    MAGNETITE.  447 

quoted  authority  also  found  a  small  percentage  of  nickel 
in  the  ores;  while  it  is  certainly  very  remarkable,  that  so  few 
and  unrecognisable  nickel-ores  are  found  associated  with  the 
cobalt-ores  at  Skutterud.  ^The  cobalt-ores,  viz.  cobaltine,  cobaltic 
mispickel,  and  skutterudite,  are  the  object  of  exploitation:  of 
these  the  last  is  the  most  rare. 

The  principal  Fallband  now  worked,  which  is  known  to 
extend  about  six  miles,  is  bounded  to  the  East  by  an  amphi- 
bolic rock  (diorite  containing  somewhat  of  quartz),  which  pro- 
trudes into  the  Fallband  with  clearly  defined  bunches,  from 
which  small  dikes  or  threads  traverse  the  same  in  a  zigzag 
course.  This  Fallband  is  also  intersected  by  coarse-grained 
granite-dikes,  which  contain  no  ores,  and  whose  branches  pene- 
trate the  amphibole-rock. 

MAGNETITE-DEPOSITS  OF  ARENDAL. 

§  243.  The  district  of  Arendal1  consists  of  crystalline  schists, 
particularly  gneiss,  which  is  at  times  almost  mica-schist,  or  contains 
blende;  and  contains  some  beds  of  limestone.  These  schists  strike 
NW.— SE.,  dip  60°— 80°  toward  SE.,  and  contain  a  large  num- 
ber of  segregated  deposits  of  magnetite,  in  a  long  belt,  which  is 
parallel  to  the  coast,  and  extends  from  Oyestad  to  Flackstad. 
These  deposits  are  bedlike,  irregular,  and  lenticular  segregations, 
accompanied  by  irregular  ramifications.  The  irregular  lenticular 
form  may  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  woodcuts. 


Vertical  section,  Horizontal  sections, 

of  the  worked-out  portion  of   the    A  slocks  mine  in 
Naeskilen. 


1  See:  Hausmann's  Reise  d.  Skandinavien,  pt.  II.  p.  138;  Scheerer, 
in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1843,  p.  631  ;  Wei  bye,  in  same,  1847,  p.  697;  Aall's 
om  Jermnalmleier  og.  Jerntiloirkningen  i  Norge,  1806;  Kjerulf  andDahll, 
in  Nyt  Mag.  f.  Naturvidenskaber,  vol.  XI,  and  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1862,  p. 
557;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  IV.  series,  vol.  XV. 


448       SECTIONS  OF  MAGNETITE: 


KERNEL  AND  SHELL. 


In  the  horizontal  section,  the  mass  of  ore  is  9l/2  feet  broad, 
and  has  been  exploited  for  a  length  of  35  fathoms.  The  ore- 
masses  often  exhibit,  in  their  interior,  a  somewhat  foliated  texture, 


Horizontal  section  of  the 
Thorbjorns  mine  near  Arendal. 

parallel  to  that  of  the  enclosing  gneiss;  which  also  corresponds 
to  their  longest  axis.  Scheerer  states  that  they  are  occasionally 
intersected  by  granite-dikes.  The  magnetite  is  usually  mixed 
or  combined  with  augite  or  coccolith,  hornblende,  garnet,  epidote, 
calc-spar,  and  some  of  the  minerals  composing  the  gneiss.  Still, 
this  is  not  every  where  the  case.  Where  the  calc-spar  is  wanting 
the  silicates  of  lime  are  also  absent;  and,  besides  those  men- 
tioned, there  are  many  minerals  which  are 
found  in  and  alongside  of  these  ore-deposits; 
so  that  this  locality  has  acquired  quite  a 
mineralogical  celebrity. 

There  is  often  a  purer  kernel  of  the  magne- 
tite, forming  the  principal  mass  of  the  deposit ; 
which  is  followed  by  a  sort  of  shell,  particularly 
rich  in  minerals.  This  shell  is  sometimes  pene- 
trated by  ramifications  of  the  purer  ore-kernel. 
The  accompanying  woodcuts  are  intended  to 
show  this  relation. 


m 


The  upper  figure  represents  a  vertical  section,  from  which 
the  deposit  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  a  lode  with  distinct 
selvages ;  but  this  does  not  correspond  to  the  general  conditions. 
In  both  of  the  woodcuts,  m  denotes  magnetite,  gl  the  outer 
shell  (chiefly  composed  of  garnet,  hornblende,  epidote,  etc.), 


MINERALS,  MENTIONED  BY  WEIBYE. 


449 


g",  lenticular  masses  of  these  ores  in  gneiss  gnm,   and  r,  ramifi- 
cations of  the  kernel  through  the  shell. 

Hausmann  states,  that  these  deposits,  as  well  as  the  enclosing 
gneiss,  are  traversed  by  three  other  kinds  of  vein-formations;  viz. 

1.  veins,  whose  composition  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  ore- 
deposits  ; 

2.  veins  composed  of  feldspar  and  calc-spar  with  somewhat 
of  titanite;  these  only  occur  within  the  ore-deposits; 

3.  coarsely  granular  granite-dikes,  about  one  foot  broad. 
The    minerals,    mentioned    by    Weibye,    are    subjoined    in 

alphabetical   order;    those   occurring    in   the  gneiss;    apart  from 
the  ore-deposits,  being  designated  with  an  asterisk: 


Actinolith,* 

Adularia, 

Albite, 

Amethyst, 

Amphodelite, 

Analcime, 

Apatite,* 

Apophyllite, 

Asbestos, 

Augite, 

Axinite, 

Azurite, 

Babingtonite, 

Beryl, 

Blende, 

Botryoiith, 

Bucklandite, 

Calc-spar,* 

Chalcedony, 

Chlorite, 

Coccolith,* 

Colophonite,* 

Copper-pyrites,* 

Copper-nickel, 

Datolith, 

Ekebergite. 

Erubescite, 

Fluor  spar, 

Gahnite, 


Garnet,* 

Grossular, 

Heulandite, 

Hornblende,* 

Limonite, 

Lithomarge, 

Magnetite,* 

Malachite, 

Melanite, 

Mica,* 

Milky  quartz,* 

Molybdenite,* 

Oerstedite, 

Oligoclase,* 

Pistacite,* 

Prehnite, 

Pyrrhotine,* 

Quartz,* 

Rose  quartz,* 

Sahlite, 

Scapolith, 

Serpentine, 

Skutterudite, 

Sphene,* 

Spinel, 

Stilbite, 

Talc, 

Tetrahedrite, 

Zircon : 


In  the  gneiss,  outside  of  the  mines,  occur; 
Anthracite,  Hessonite, 

Euxenite,  Keilhauite, 

Gadolinite, 


450  COPPER-DEPOSITS  OF  RCERAAS, 

Hausmann  has  called  attention  to  the  fact,  that  many  of 
the  minerals  in  these  deposits  have  peculiarly  curved  surfaces, 
almost  as  if  they  had  been  melted;  which  last  I  by  no  means 
intend  to  assert.  This  appearance  is  particularly  distinct  in 
garnet,  eolophonite,  augite,  and  apatite ;  particularly  when  im- 
planted in  calc-spar. 

COPPER-DEPOSITS    OF  RQERAAS  IN  NORWAY. 

§  244.  The  rock,  containing  the  copper-deposits  at  Roraas,1 
is  a  talcose  schist,  passing  into  chloritic  schist,  containing  much 
garnet  and  little  quartz  or  mica;  it  is  traversed  by  numerous 
quartz-veins.  Hausmann  calls  the  deposits  beds;  Daubree 
segregations;  and  Durocher  Fallbands.  They  strike  parallel  to 
the  schist ;  and  dip,  like  this,  gently  (about  10°)  toward  ENE. 

In  the  Storvartz  mine  the  deposit  is  1 — 2  fathoms  broad; 
and  consists  of  nodular  masses  of  ore ;  which  are  most  frequent 
when  the  schist  is  chloritic,  more  rarely  when  it  is  quartzose 
and  micaceous,  most  rarely  in  the  garnetiferous  schist.  The 
ores  also  penetrate  into  the  quartz-veins  traversing  the  schist, 
are  hence  more  recent  than  these,  and,  consequently,  younger 
than  the  schist.  Copper-pyrites  occurs  in  the  quartz-veins,  but 
without  iron- pyrites.  The  entire  deposit  varies  between  '/a  and 
3  fathoms  in  breadth;  and  traces  of  the  impregnation  may  be 
followed  for  a  considerable  distance  from  Sognefjord  in  Norway 
to  Areskuttan  in  Sweden.  Copper-pyrites  is  the  principal  ore, 
mingled  with  iron-pyrites,  somewhat  of  pyrrhotine,  blende,  galena, 
quartz,  chlorite,  mica,  talc,  garnet,  actinolith,  grammatite,  and 
amiantos. 

Several  similar  deposits  occur  in  the  neighorhood. 

Besides  these  copper-deposits,  there  are  several  of  chromic 
iron  associated  with  serpentine. 

COPPER-DEPOSITS     OF    KAAFJORD    AND    RAIPAS   IN 

NORWAY. 

§  245.     Formerly  copper-ores  were  exploited,  and  smelted, 


1  See:  Hausmann's  Reise  d.  Skandinavien,  pt  V.  p.  268;  Durocher, 
in  Annal.  d.  mines,  IV.  Ser.  vol.  XV;  Duchanoy,  in  same,  V.  Ser.  vol.  V. 
p.  181. 


KAAFJORD,  AND  RAIPAS,  IN  NORWAY.       451 

at  the  70°  North  latitude,  around  Kaafjord  and  Raipas1  near 
Hammerfest. 

The  country  consists  of  Silurian  rocks  overlying  crystalline 
schists,  which  are  intersected  by  greenstones  (diorites  and 
euphotides):  thick  beds  of  limestone  occur  to  a  subordinate 
degree. 

The  lodes  at  Kaafjord  occur  in  a  broad  dike  of  diorite, 
which  is  about  5  miles  long,  and  strikes  N.— S.  They  course 
SW. — NE.  and  generally  dip  toward  NW.,  more  rarely  toward 
SE.  Their  breadth  varies  between  1  and  15  feet.  Netto  states, 
that  the  matrix  of  these  lodes  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  breccia 
of  quartz,  calc-spar,  iron-  and  copper-pyrites,  united  by  finely 
comminuted  and  decomposed  particles  of  diorite.  Purer  masses 
of  quartz  in  the  same  occasionally  contain  specular  iron,  den- 
dritic copper,  and  geodes  of  calc-spar.  Iron-pyrites,  containing 
selenium  also  occurs,  and  somewhat  of  blende  at  the  Miihlstrom. 
According  to  Russegger,  the  lodes  are  traversed  by  quartz-veins, 
and  are,  like  the  diorite,  much  faulted.  Ihle  observed  eighteen 
faults  in  a  single  shaft,  and  almost  every  where  friction-surfaces 
in  the  fissures  of  the  diorite. 

The  lode  near  Raipas  occurs,  according  to  Durocher,  in  a 
Silurian  limestone-bed,  60  feet  thick.  The  former  dips  vertically, 
and  strikes  NE.—  SW.,  at  right  angles  to  the  limestone,  and  is 
only  metalliferous  in  this  last;  while,  where  penetrating  the 
schists,  it  divides  into  barren  clefts.  The  bed  of  limestone  also 
contains  layers  of  jaspery  clay-slate,  in  which  the  lode  is  often 
but  a  cleft,  while  having  a  breadth  of  8  —  10  feet  in  the 
limestone.  Its  matrix  varies  locally:  Netto  describes  the 
following: 

1.  Fragments    of  quartz  and  clay-slate  united  by  limestone 
containing  copper-pyrites  disseminated  through  it; 

2.  Red    siliceous    and    yellow    limestone,   and   brownish-red 
heavy  spar,  impregnated  with  copper- pyrites ; 

3.  Fragments  of  quartz,  limestone,  and  clay-slate,  united  by 
erubescite ; 


1  See:  Russegger,  in  Karsten's  Archiv,  vol.  XV.  p.  759;  Keilhau's 
Gaea  Norwegica,  1844,  p.  285;  Ihle,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1844,  p.  369; 
Netto,  in  same,  1847,  p.  143;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  min.  IVth  Series 
vol.  XV. 


29 


452 


FALUN  COPPER-DEPOSITS. 


4.  Erubescite,  with  fragments  of  limestone,  or  yellow 
limestone  containing  erubescite.  These  are  the  richest  points. 

Sidebranches  passing  out  of  the  champion-lode  contain 
chalcedony,  brownish-red  heavy  spar,  and  copper-pyrites;  here 
and  there  with  somewhat  of  erubescite;  copper-glance,  malachite, 
azurite,  decomposed  concretions  of  iron-pyrites,  and  traces  of 
erythrine. 

Russegger  states,  that  the  limestone  is  silicified  near  the 
lodes,  and  almost  altered  into  hornstone. 

COPPER-DEPOSITS  AT  FALUN  (SWEDEN). 

§  246.  The  renowned  segregations  of  copper-ores  at  Falun1 
are  found  in  gray  quartz  occurring  in  thinly  foliated  mica- 
schist,  which  last  is  said  to  form  but  a  subordinate  layer  in 
gneiss.  These  segregations  are  in  part  very  broad,  irregularly 
lenticular  masses;  which  contract  on  all  sides  at  some  depth, 
and,  in  part,  even  wedge-out.  The  broadest  and  principal 
segregation  of  the  Stor  mine  shows  the  following  exploited  di- 
mensions (expressed  in  fathoms),  determined  by  the  limits  of  the 
quarry,  which  are  exactly  the  limits  of  the  deposit: 


Depth  below 
surface. 

EW. 

NS. 

NW.  SE. 

NE.  SW. 

50 
110 

140 

180 

110 
90 

77 
50 

120 
60 
60 
40 

140 
100 
84 
50 

160 
100 

72 
43 

It  appears  from  this,  that  the  form  of  the  segregation  is  an 
irregular  semi-ellipsoidal;  and  Hausmann  is  inclined  to  believe, 
that  there  originally  existed  an  upper  portion,  which  has  been 
destroyed  and  washed  away  with  the  enclosing  rock: 
Stapff,  that  at  other  localities  in  Sweden,  for  example  at 
Kafvelstorp  in  the  parish  of  Nya  Kopperberg,  the  upper  portions 
of  similar  deposits  have  been  distinctly  polished  by  glacial 


1  See:  Hausmann's  Reise  d.  Skandin.  pt.  V.  p.  55;  Hisinger's 
Mineral.  Geogr.  v.  Schweden,  1826,  p.  36;  Russegger,  in Leonhard's  Jahrb. 
1841,  p.  82;  Stapff,  in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1861,  p.  195;  Tjader,  Karta 
ofver  Fahlueller  Stora  Kopparbergs  Gruvor.  1845;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d. 
min.  IV.  ser.  vol.  XV- 


LAYERS  OF  SCHIST,  CALLED  'SKO LARS'. 


453 


action.  This  large  mass  of  ore,  in  the  Stor  mine,  is  essentially 
composed  of  a  mixture  of  quartz,  iron-  and  copper-pyrites,  tra- 
versed by  talcose  schist.  The  copper-pyrites  is  somewhat  more 
common  near  the  outer  limits,  than  in  the  middle ;  and  is  occa- 
sionally combined  with  galena.  Several  smaller  masses,  of  a 
similar  character,  occur  alongside  of  this  principal  segregation; 
and  they  now  form  the  chief  object  of  exploitation.  They  are 
often  intersected,  in  various  directions,  by  peculiar  layers  of 
schist;  which  the  miners  call  'Skolars7,  and  which  are  mostly 
composed  of  talcose  and  chloritic  minerals.  The  breadth  of  these 


454  FALUN  ORES  CLASSIFIED. 

Skolars  encreases  from  a  few  inches  to  twenty-four  fathoms, 
generally  between  1  and  11  fathoms.  They  strike  and  dip  very 
irregularly,  several  of  them  uniting  in  their  course  and  again 
separating;  they  occasionally  contain,  small  pockets  or  masses 
of  ore :  in  some  of  the  Skolars  nodular  masses  and  beds  of 
limestone  occur,  whose  influence  on  the  ore-bearing  character  of 
the  segregations  is  still  undetermined. 

The  vertical  section,  copied  from  Tjader,  of  the  irregular 
relations  of  bedding  and  connections  in  the  Drotting,  Konung 
Fredrik,  Adolph  Fredrik,  and  Ulrica  mines,  represents  an 
ideal  view  of  the  Southern  portion  of  the  already  exploited 
deposit.  The  ore-segregations,  represented  in  this  section,  do 
not  appear  to  be  every  where  workable. 

The  Skolars  sometimes  contain  in  their  talcose,  chloritic 
mass;  serpentine,  grammatite,  garnet  (only  in  the  Erik  Matts 
mine),  automolith,  gypsum  (of  secondary  formation),  iron  and 
copper  pyrites,  galena,  and  blende.  In  the  segregations  there 
have  been  found,  in  addition  to  the  principal  ores  mixed  with 
quartz;  marcasite,  pyrrhotine,  magnetite,  automolith,  serpentine, 
chlorite,  talc,  mica,  iolith,  falunite,  garnet,  malacolith,  apophyllite, 
grammatite,  actinolith,  calc-spar,  dolomite,  andalusite,  anhy- 
drite, and  gypsum.  Hausmann  also  mentions  goslarite  and 
epsomite. 

The  Falun  miners  classify  the  ores,  as  follows: 

I.  Copper  ores;  admixtures  of  iron-  and  copper-pyrites  with  galena  and 
blende; 

1.  Hardmalm,  pyrites  with  much  quartz; 

2.  Segmalm,  pyrites  with  talc,  chlorite  and  mica,  rarely  workable; 

3.  Blotmdlm,  pure  pyrites; 

a.  Gronmalm,  much  copper-pyrites,  with  but  little  iron-pyrites ; 

b.  Blekmalm,    iron-pyrites,    and    pyrrhotine,    with    but    little 

copper-pyrites ; 

c.  Wendmalm,  pure  copper-pyrites: 

II.  Silver   ores;   galena   with   but  little  pyrites   and  blende,  containing 
traces  of  gold  and  selenium; 

III.  Pyrites;  pure  iron-pyrites. 

SALA1  (SWEDEN). 
§  247.     In    the    district    of   the   crystalline    schists,   mostly 

1  See:  Hausinanir  s  Reise  d.  Skandinavien,  pt.  IV.  p.  268  ;  Hisinger's 
mineral,  geograph.  Schwedens,  p.  124;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  IV. 
ser.  vol.  XV;  Daubree,  Skand.  Erzlagerstatten,  p.  41, 


ORES  OF  SALA,  SWEDEN.  455 

gneiss,  are  found  thick  bedded  masses  of  crystalline  limestone; 
which,  Hausmann  states,  partly  pass  into  a  felsite-schist,  and 
are  traversed  by  schistose  layers  (Skolars).  Lead-  and  silver- 
deposits  are  found  of  a  somewhat  problematical  nature. 

Trap-dikes,  a  few  inches  broad,  cut  through  the  limestones, 
without  appearing  to  affect  the  metalliferous  contents.  In  ad- 
dition to  these,  the  limestone  and  trap  are  traversed  by  the 
Storgrufva  vein,  which,  coursing  NW. — SE.  separates  the  limestone- 
masses  into  two  portions.  This  vein,  which  is  considered  by  some 
persons  as  belonging  to  the  Skolars,  is  10  to  12  fathoms  broad  at 
the  surface,  but  soon  decreases  below  to  a  few  yards.  Its 
matrix  is  principally  composed  of  nodular  masses  of  hard 
limestone  mixed  with  serpentine;  the  interstices  between  which 
are  grayish-green,  foliated  talc.  The  lode  sometimes  has  sel- 
vages, consisting  of  talcose  limestone,  with  actinolith,  and  gram- 
matite. 

The  beds,  or  Skolars,  traversing  the  limestone,  consist 
chiefly  of  talcose  minerals;  talcose  schist,  foliated  talc,  and 
asbestos;  associated  with  which  are  somewhat  of  quartz,  calc- 
spar,  malacolith,  actinolith,  amiantos,  dolomite,  galena,  blende, 
iron-pyrites,  and  mispickel.  These  Skolars  are  of  very  variable 
breadth,  and  usually  follow  the  general  direction  and  incli- 
nation of  the  strata;  but  often  differ  from  these,  and  split  up 
into  branches,  which  again  unite. 

The  ores,  of  which  argentiferous  galena  is  the  most  impor- 
tant, are  found  in  the  limestone,  and  usually  collected  near  the 
Skolars  and  the  Storgrufva  vein.  There  still  appears  to  be  some 
uncertainty  about  the  manner  in  which  the  ores  occur.  Hausmann 
designates  the  deposits,  as  rich  beds  in  crystalline  limestone,  which 
at  times  divide  and  diverge:  Daubree  describes  them,  as  indi- 
stinctly denned  lodes,  often  serpentine  in  their  course,  which  tra- 
verse the  limestone  almost  at  right  angles  to  its  strike :  Durocher 
calls  them  ribbons,  which  are  mostly  vertical,  and  close  to  one 
another:  Hisinger  terms  them  metalliferous  layers  of  limestone, 
mostly  impregnated  from  the  Storgrufva  vein-fissure.  As  all 
these  different  views  are  the  result  of  personal  observations,  it 
is  impossible  for  non-observers  to  pronounce  judgment. 

Hisinger's  description,  of  the  mineral  character  of  these 
deposits,  seems  to  be  the  most  reliable.  Argentiferous  galena 
is  the  principal  ore,  associated  with  which  are,  according  to 
Hisinger;  native  silver  (rarely  on  galena  or  serpentine),  native 


456  DEPOSITS  NEAR  PHILIPSTA^ 

antimony  in  limestone,  stibnite  (disseminated  in  galena),  silver 
amalgam  (very  rare),  cinnabar  (very  rare),  blende,  mispickel, 
iron-pyrites,  pyrrhotine,  argentiferous  tetrahedrite,  compact  feld- 
spar, black  mica,  chlorite,  serpentine^  talc,  asbestos,  actinolith, 
grammatite,  sahlite,  bredbergite  (lime:garnet)  implanted  in  galena, 
gypsum,  calc-spar,  dolomite,  and  heavy  spar. 


DEPOSITS    AROUND   PHILIPSTAD   (SWEDEN). 

§  248.  This  portion  of  Wermland1  consists  of  granitic 
gneiss,  which  passes  into  mica-schist,  and  contains  beds  of 
felsitic  schist,  dolomite,  hornblende-schist,  and  chloritic  schist. 
Several  deposits  of  magnetic  iron  occur  in  these  mica-schistose 
rocks;  thus  in  the  mines  of  Presberg,  Age,  Nordmarken,  Ta- 
berget,  and  Langbanshytta ;  which  course  partly  N. — S.  partly 
SE. — NW.  and  attain  a  breadth  of  one  to  nine  fathoms.  These 
iron-deposits  occur  in  the  schist,  and  parallel  to  its  course;  they 
are  accompanied  by  numerous  minerals:  thus  at  Persberget,  by 
limestone,  calc-spar,  epidote,  hornblende,  asbestos,  malacolith, 
soapstone,  serpentine,  garnet,  compact  feldspar,  talc,  quartz, 
iron-pyrites  and  bismuthine:  in  the  Nordmark-mines,  by  argen-' 
tiferous  galena,  blende,  native  silver,  crystalline  limestone,  calc- 
spar,  dolomite,  mica,  chlorite,  garnet,  serpentine,  mountain- cork, 
epidote,  actinolith,  grammatite,  hornblende,  apatite,  pyrosmalith, 
axinite,  and  apophyllite:  in  the  Taberget  mines,  by  blende, 
calc-spar,  iron-pyrites,  sphene,  chondrodite,  talc,  dolomite,  soap- 
stone,  asbestos,  serpentine,  chlorite,  hornblende,  epidote,  ac- 
tinolith, garnet,  mica,  compact  feldspar,  gadolinite  (in  gneiss 
alongside  of  the  magnetic  iron),  malacolith,  and  fluor  spar:  in 
the  Langbanshytta  mines,  where  the  deposits  are  enclosed  in 
limestone  or  ferruginous  and  manganiferous  dolomite,  there 
occur  specular  iron,  quartz,  serpentine,  mountain- cork,  epidote, 
garnet,  malacolith,  dolomite,  dialogite,  aragonite,  heulandite,  calc- 
spar,  gypsum,  anthracite,  asphalt,  and  iron-pyrites. 

The  recently  observed  occurrence  of  native  lead,  at  Paisberg 


1  See:  Hausmann's  Reise  d.  Skandin.  pt.  V.  p.  132;  Hisinger's 
Mineral,  geograph.  v.  Schweden,  p.  165;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  mines, 
IV.  ser.  vol.  XV;  Igelstrom,  in  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1866,  p.  21. 


AND  PAISBERG,  IN  WERMLAND.  457 

(or  Pajsberg)   in  Wermland,    is  of  special  interest.     I  therefore 
subjoin  an  extract  from  a  "memoir  by  Igelstrom :  — 

'At  Paisberg  there  are  ten  mines  worked  on  deposits  of 
iron  and  manganese  in  crystalline  dolomite:  both  kinds  of  ores 
are  mixed  in  such  a  manner,  that  each  can  be  extracted  by 
itself;  the  iron-ore,  for  the  production  of  iron  5  the  manganese- 
ore,  as  flux  in  the  blast-furnaces,  so  as  to  produce  a  good 
manganiferous  iron. 

The  iron-ores  of  Paisberg  consist,  partly  of  magnetite,  partly 
of  specular  iron:  both  of  these  ores  are  generally  intermixed r 
the  specular  iron  predominating. 

The  manganese-ore  is  hausmannite,  first  discovered  (1866) 
three  years  ago.  It  is  precisely  like  that  found  in  Germany; 
and  I  have  satisfied  myself,  by  numerous  analyses,  that  it  really 
is  hausmannite.  I  have,  as  yet,  found  this  ore  in  but  four  locali- 
ties in  Sweden ;  viz.  at  Paisberg  (in  large  quantities),  at  Nord- 
mark,  at  Langbar,  and  in  the  parish  of  Grythyttan.  The  man- 
ner of  occurrence  is  the  same  at  all  these  localities,  the  haus- 
mannite being  found  in  crystalline  dolomite.  It  would  appear, 
as  if  the  dolomite  was  an  essential  condition  for  the  occurrence 
of  the  hausmannite,  the  latter  having  been  sought  for  in  vain 
in  other  rocks. 

The  hausmannite  occurs  in  the  dolomite,  partly  as  scattered 
grains,  which  take  an  almost  essential  part  in  the  composition 
of  the  rock,  partly  as  granular  masses :  in  this  form  it  has  been 
often  mistaken  by  the  miners  for  iron-ore. 

The  dolomites,  so  rich  in  hausmannite,  form  thick  beds 
between  the  rocks  containing  iron-ores,  which  are  here  called 
'hallejlinta'  (felsite-schists).  The  dolomites  are  20  to  over 
100  fathoms  thick,  and  extend  for  a  distance  of  over  two  miles. 
The  hausmannite,  together  with  the  specular  iron  and  magnetite, 
forms  beds  6  to  18  feet  thick,  and  2CO  feet  long,  in  the  manga- 
niferous dolomites.  The  grains  of  hausmannite  do  not  occur  every 
where  in  the  latter,  but  in  spots  or  belts  within  the  strata, 
while  the  ore-beds  show  selvages.  Braunite  is  occasionally  found 
with  the  hausmannite,  forming  veins,  strings,  or  beds,  in  the 
dolomite,  as  at  Nordmark. 

I  considered  these  remarks  necessary ;  as  the  native  lead  is 
only  found  with  the  hausmannite,  and,  therefore,  the  principal 
cause  for  the  formation  of  the  same  is  to  be  looked  for  in  the 
hausmannite.  This  is  the  more  obvious,  if  it  be  considered,  that 


458  IGELSTROM  ON  THE  LEAD  AT  PAISBERG. 

the  native  copper  at  Nordmark  is  also  associated  with  the  Haus- 
mannite,  and  that  the  occurrence  of  both  the  native  metals  is 
under  similar  circumstances. 

At  Paisberg  the  native  lead  is,,  only  found  within  the  bed 
of  iron  and  manganese-ores,  and  not  outside  of  this.  The  lead 
has  filled  all  kinds  of  fissures,  clefts,  and  other  cavities  in  the 
bed;  even  such  as  intersect  the  crystallized  rhodonite  (pais- 
bergite).  Since  the  clefts  and  cracks,  in  which  the  lead  occurs, 
are  extremely  fine,  it  can  only  be  supposed  that  it  has  pene- 
trated in  vapor-form,  or  as  an  aqueous  solution.  Still  some  of 
the  clefts  filled  with  lead  have  a  breadth  of  several  lines. 

The  native  lead  occurs  in  almost  all  the  ore-beds  at  Paisberg ; 
it  fills  clefts  or  cracks  in  the  manganese-ores,  in  the  ,  iron-ores, 
in  the  intermixture  of  heavy  spar,  rhodonite,  and  garnet,  in  the 
pyrochroite,  in  the  serpentine,  in  the  silicate  of  manganese  con- 
taining oxide  of  lead,  and  in  the  dolomite,  but  in  this  last  only 
within  the  ore-bed. 

The  lead  forms  thin  cuticles  or  layers,  thin  foil-like  plates 
or  thicker  sheets,  upwards  of  */4  inch  thick.  It  appears  filiform, 
as  wire ;  and  globular,  acicular,  or  like  a  galvanized  incrustation 
on  crystals  of  paisbergite.  It  commonly  appears  white,  like  a 
fresh  surface  of  metal,  very  soft  and  ductile,  so  that  it  can  be 
scratched  with  the  finger  nail.  Thicker  sheets  of  the  same  are 
sometimes  oxidized  at  the  surface,  being  altered  into  cerusite 
and  minium.  According  to  my  analysis,  and  one  made  by  Prof. 
Nordenskjold,  it  is  very  pure,  and  contains  but  2  per  cent  of 
impurities. 

As  I  have  already  remarked,  the  native  copper  at  Nord- 
mark occurs  in  an  entirely  similar  manner;  it  forms  sheets  and 
wires  weighing  upwards  of  900  grammes;  while  the  largest 
piece  of  lead  found,  weighed  but  50  grammes.  At  Nordmark, 
galvanic  action,  so  to  speak,  can  also  be  recognised;  thus  mica 
occurring  in  the  metalliferous  limestone  is  often  found  to  be  as 
beautifully  encrusted  with  copper,  as  if  it  had  been  done  arti- 
ficially. 

1  consider  a  detailed  description  of  the  occurrence  of  native 
lead  at  Paisberg,  as  very  difficult.  It  appears  to  me,  however, 
certain,  that  the  hausmannite  was  the  real  and  principal  cause 
for  the  same.  The  salts  of  the  protoxide  and  sequioxide,  or 
even  of  the  protoxide  alone,  have  had  a  reducing  influence. 


DANNEMORA  MAGNETITE-DEPOSITS.  459 

The  material,  for  the  deposit  of  native  lead,  possibly  carne  from 
galena;  this  last  is  found  but  very  rarely  at  Paisberg.' 


MAGNETITE   DEPOSITS  AT  DANNEMORA  (SWEDEN). 

§  249.  The  predominating  rock  around  Dannemora l  is 
coarsely  foliated  gneiss  passing  into  granite.  The  former  con- 
tains, on  the  banks  of  the  Dannemora,  Gruf,  and  Film  lakes, 
a  broad  belt  of  felsitic  schist  together  with  subordinate  layers 
of  chloritic  schist,  granular  limestone,  and  magnetite. 

The  renowned  and  very  thick  deposits  of  magnetite  at 
Dannemora  consist,  according  to  Erdmann's  description,  of  sepa- 
rate lenticular  masses  of  various  sizes ;  which  are  partly  in  rows, 
partly  parallel  to  one  another,  and  in  this  manner  form  a  segre- 
gated whole ;  whose  principal  course,  like  that  of  the  surrounding 
rocks  (chloritic  schist,  limestone,  and  felsitic  schist),  varies  be- 
tween N.— S.  and  SW.— NE.,  and  dips  65°— 80°  in  W. 

The  large  quarry,  in  which  the  deposit  is  worked,  has 
attained  a  depth  of  over  400  feet ;  and  the  thickness  of  the  chief 
lenticular  mass  is,  according  to  Hausmann's  statement,  180  feet 
in  the  centre,  but  narrows  in  both  directions  of  strike:  its 
length  is  over  a  mile  at  the  outcrop.  This  colossal  mass  essen- 
tially consists  of  fine-grained  magnetite,  with  intimate  and  slight 
mixtures  of  chlorite,  somewhat  of  calc-spar  and  brown  spar, 
which  can  only  be  recognised  in  places;  it  is  the  purest  in  the 
middle.  The  pure  masses  of  ore  are  cut  through  by  some  beds 
of  chloritic  schist  (Skolars),  which  attain  a  breadth  of  14  feet, 
and  mostly  dip  in  S.  hence  they  are  not  parallel  to  the  deposits. 
The  ore-masses  are  also  intersected  by  some  narrow  veins  con- 
taining calc-spar  and  brown  spar. 

.  There'  have  been  found,  as  rarer  admixtures,  particularly 
near  the  limits,  or  .at  the  outcrop;  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  mis- 
pickel,  galena,  garnet,  quartz  (whose  crystals  sometimes  contain 
small  pieces  of  mineral  pitch),  anthracite,  actinolith,  grammatite, 
and  heavy  spar,  which  last  is  very  rare  in  other  parts  of  Sweden. 


1  See:  Hausmann's  Reise  d.  Skand.  pt.  IV.,  p.  69;  Hisinger's  Mineral, 
geogr.  von  Schweden,  p.  107;  Erdmann's  Dannemora  Jermalmsfalt,  1851; 
Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  mines.  IV.  ser.  vol.  XV. 


460  TUNABERG  ORE-DEPOSITS,  AND 

ORE-DEPOSITS   OF   TUNABERG  (SWEDEN). 

§  250.  The  district  around  Tunaberg l  is,  for  the  most  part, 
composed  of  gray  and  red  gneiss.  The  first  contains  numerous 
subordinate  beds  of  granular  limestone,  dolomite,  and  eulisite;2 
but  both  varieties  are  cut  through  in  many  places  by  granite. 

Numerous  segregated  deposits  occur  in  the  gray  gneiss 
district,  partly  in  the  crystalline  limestone,  partly  at  the  junc- 
tions of  the  same  with  the  gray  gneiss;  of  which,  according  to 
Erdmann  (1848),  22  were  exploited.  The  same  are  principally 
composed  of  limestone,  with  admixtures  of  hornblende,  mica, 
and  serpentine;  and  have  a  very  heterogeneous  composition; 
from  them  lead,  silver,  copper  and  cobalt  ores  are  obtained. 
Copper-pyrites  and  cobaltine,  are  the  principal  ores  obtained. 
Erdmann  found,  in  addition  to  the  preceding,  the  following  ores 
and  minerals;  galena,  erubescite,  copper-glance,  pyrrhotine, 
molybdenite,  smaltine,  iron-pyrites,  native  bismuth,  blende, 
amphodelite,  anorthite,  apatite,  calc-spar,  chlorite,  chondrodite, 
coccolith,  diallage,  epidote,  garnet,  graphite,  hedenbergite,  his- 
ingerite,  hornblende,  iolith,  labradorite,  malacolith,  oligoclase, 
olivine,  orthite,  orthoclase,  polyargite,  pyrargillite,  pyrorthite, 
quartz,  scapolith,  serpentine,  sphene,  spinel,  and  tourmaline. 

These  minerals  do  not  all  occur  in  the  same  deposit;  but 
some  in  one,  some  in  another.  Svanberg  noticed,  that  the 
crystals  of  cobaltine,  implanted  in  copper-pyrites,  are  very  free 
from  impurities ;  while  those  found  in  the  limestone,  contain  a 
kernel  of  smaltine.  The  conditions  of  bedding,  and  the  junctions 
of  these  deposits,  are  very  peculiar.  They  often  contain  and 
enclose  fragments  of  the  adjoining  rocks,  not  only  of  the  lime- 
stone and  gneiss,  but  also  of  the  granite;  which  intersects  the 
gneiss  and  limestone  in  dikes,  but  d.oes  not  penetrate  into  the 
ore-deposits.  These  last  have  at  times  penetrated  into  the  fis- 
sures of  their  wall-rock,  and  even  into  the  granite-dikes.  Erd- 
mann has  given  interesting  drawings  of  these.  The  following  is  a 
copy  of  the  horizontal  and  vertical  sections  of  Tunabergska  mine. 

1  See:  Erdmann's  Beskrifning  ofver  Tunabergs  Socken,  1849,  and  in 
Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1850,  p.  631;  Hi  singer's  Mineral  geogr.  v.  Schwe- 
den,  p.  97;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  IV.  ser.  vol.  XV. 

a  Eulisite  is  the  name  given  by  A.  Erdmann  to  a  compound  composed 
of  protoxide  of  iron,  resembling  olivine,  green  pyroxene,  and  brownish-red 
garnet;  it  occurs,  as  a  thick  bed,  in  the  gneiss  of  Tunaberg. 


LAKE-  AND  BOG-ORES,          OF  SWEDEN, 
Ground  plan. 


461 


A.  The   ore-deposit   containing    numerous    fragments  of  lime- 
stone, gneiss,  and  granite  D. 

B.  Gneiss,  forming  the  hanging-wall. 

C.  Limestone,  forming  the  foot-wall. 

D.  Fragments  in  the  deposit, 
e.  Granite-dikes. 

Vertical  plan  of  the  same  mine. 


It  is  curious,  that  the  enclosed  fragments  of  granite  mostly 
lie  in  the  prolongations  of  the  interrupted  veins;  and  that  even 
a  fragment  of  limestone,  traversed  by  a  granite-dike,  occurs 
in  the  prolongation  of  the  first  granite-dike  on  the  left-hand  side. 
It  almost  seems  from  this,  as  if  the  fragments  were  not  really 
such,  that  is,  not  formed  by  energetic  action,  but  by  a  gradual 
change  of  position.  Even  if  a  partial  solution  is  just  as  imagin- 
able here,  as  in  the  calamine-deposits  of  Silesia  or  Westphalia; 
the  same  fluid  could  scarcely  be  regarded  as  the  solvent  of  the 
gneiss  and  granite. 

The  deposits  of  Hakansboda  in  Westermanland  resemble, 
to  some  extent,  those  of  Tunaberg. 


THE  LAKE-  AND  BOG-ORES  OF  SWEDEN. 

§  251.     Many  lakes  and  morasses  of  Sweden  contain  iron- 
ores,    which  have   been   formed    in   the   most    recent   geological 


462  PITTKARANDA  IN  FINLAND. 

period,  or  are  still  forming.1  The  formation  of  the  lake-ores  (Sjo- 
malm)  is  very  interesting,  in  so  far  as  they  exhibit  a  great  analogy 
to  the  oolithic  iron-ores.  In  Smaland  and  Wermland  such  ores 
occur  in  more  than  200  lakes,  but  always  deposited  rather  towards 
their  banks,  than  in  the  middle.  The  ores  essentially  consist  of 
hydrated  peroxide  of  iron,  together  with  somewhat  of  protoxide 
of  iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  silica,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia, 
sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acid.  The  amount  of  peroxide  of  iron 
varies,  between  35  and  60  per  cent.  The  ore  forms  small  rounded 
grains,  which  according  to  their  more  pulverulent,  pea-like, 
bean-like,  lenticular,  or  reniform  shape,  are  called  *  Krutmalm, 
Pdlemalrrij  Penning  emalm,  Straggmalm,  or  Purlmalm? 

Hausmann  thinks,  that  the  iron  in  most  of  these  deposits 
originated  from  decomposed  iron-pyrites  in  greenstones;  and  con- 
siders it  probable,  that  many  of  the  ores  in  the  lakes  have  been 
formed  by  the  decomposition  of  neighboring  bog-ores. 


The  remaining  iron-deposits  of  Scandinavia  either  resemble 
those  already  described,  or  contain  nothing  of  interest;  on  which 
account  I  pass  them  over. 


DEPOSITS  OF  PITTKARANDA  (FINLAND). 

§  252.  The  northern  bank  of  Lake  Ladoga  is,  for  the  most 
part,  composed  of  granite,  containing  here  and  there  deposits 
of  crystalline  schists;  which  occur  in  irregular  belts,  and  are 
frequently  cut  through  by  more  recent  granite-dikes.  The  ore- 
deposit  of  Pittkaranda2  appears  to  occur  joined  to  such  a  belt 
of  hornblendic  schist,  which  has  been  exploited  for  a  length  of 
1150  fathoms,  and  can  be  traced  for  a  still  greater  distance. 
It  consists  of  a  number  of  different  beds,  distinctly  separated  from 
one  another.  Bobert  calls  the  deposit  a  Fallband.  Its  principal 
mass  seems  to  consist  of  malacolith,  epidote,  and  compact 
chlorite.  The  chief  ore  is  copper-pyrites,  with  which  somewhat 


1  See:   Hausmann's   Reise  d.  Skandinavien,  pt.  I.  p.  152;    Stapff, 
in  Berg-  u.  huttenm.  Zeit,  1866,  p.  72. 

2  See:    Pusch,   in  Karsten's  Archiv,   and   in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.   1836, 
p.  195;  Durocher,  in  Annal.  d.  mines,  I\ .  ser.  vol.  XV ;  Von  Helmersen's 
das  Plorezer  Bergrevier,  1861. 


URAL  MOUNTAINS.  463 

of  cassiterite  often  occurs,  sporadically  distributed.  The  latter 
ore  also  appears  to  be  distributed  (imperceptible  to  the  eye) 
throughout  the  whole  mass  of  the  bed;  and  when  crystallized 
only  occurs  in  simple  crystals.  Besides  the  above;  the  following 
ores  and  minerals  have  been  found;  iron-pyrites,  pyrrhotine, 
magnetite,  galena,  blende,  wolfram,  somewhat  of  molybdenite, 
heavy  spar,  garnet,  actinolith,  hornblende,  quartz,  mica,  feldspar, 
fluor  spar,  and  calc-spar.  The  form  of  this  deposit  is  that  of  a 
parallel  embedded  layer;  but,  from  the  very  unequal  distribution 
of  the  ores  in  it,  from  the  complex  composition,  as  well  as  from 
the  occurrence  of  distinct  veins  of  a  similar  nature;  it  would 
appear  to  be  a  bedded  lode,  similar  to  the  deposits  at  Breiten- 
brunn  in  the  Erzgebirge  (§  85).  The  unequal  distribution  of 
the  ores  occurs  in  such  a  manner,  that  richer  workable  belts  can 
be  distinguished  in  the  entire  deposit ;  these  dip,  at  a  gentle  angle, 
from  East  to  West,  and  recur  in  this  manner  parallel  to  each 
other.  The  entire  deposit  strikes  E.— W.,  and  dips  25°— 45° 
toward  S.  Blode  compares  this  deposit  to  that  of  Oryarfvi  in 
Finland.  This  comparison  is  incorrect,  since  at  Oryarfvi  a 
thick  segregration  of  quartz,  within  crystalline  schists,  contains 
pockets  of  cupriferous  pyrites. 


THE  URAL  MOUNTAINS. 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

§  253.  The  Ural  Mountains,  extending  over  20  degrees 
of  latitude,  form  the  natural  eastern  boundary  of  Europe.  Their 
interior  formation  corresponds  to  this  prominent  trend ;  the  limits 
of  the  rocks,  their  stratification,  and  even  the  great  majority  of 
the  lodes,  having  a  N.  —  S.  course. 

The  geological  formation  of  this  long  mountain-chain  is  a 
very  regular,  almost  symmetrical  one.  Crystalline  schists,  and 
granitic  rocks,  form  the  central  axis.  Mica-schist,  chlorite  schist, 
and  talc-schist,  must  be  particularly  mentioned,  as  belonging  to 
the  former,  together  with  subordinate  strata  of  gneiss,  horn- 
blende-schist, crystalline  limestone,  etc.  Outside  and  next  to 


464  GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

this  crystalline  axis,  which  often  forms  the  highest  crest,  are 
found  siliceous  schists,  and  jaspery  rocks;  over  which  lie,  on 
both  mountain  slopes,  Silurian  strata  which  are  particularly  rich 
in  limestones  in  their  upper  layers.  Devonian  rocks  overlie 
these,  chiefly  on  the  Western  slope;  while  on  both  sides  are 
found  thick  strata  of  the  Carboniferous  Age,  particularly  such 
as  correspond  to  the  Subcarboniferous.  Thus  far  the  formation 
of  the  chain  is  symmetrical;  and,  although,  in  Murchison's 
map,  the  succession  of  metamorphic  and  sedimentary  rocks  is 
much  thicker  and  more  completely  developed  on  the  West  side 
of  the  crest,  than  on  the  more  precipitous  Eastern  slope ;  still 
the  more  recent  examinations,  of  Antipoff  and  Meglizky,  have 
shown,  that  strata  of  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carboniferous 
periods,  are  not  wanting. 

A  wide  district  of  thick  Permian  rocks  overlies  the  Car- 
boniferous strata  of  the  Western  slope,  forming  a  hilly  fore- 
ground; while  eastwardly  the  Carboniferous,  or  still  older,  strata 
are  overlaid  by  Tertiary  or  Post-Tertiary  deposits,  extending 
over  the  immense  Siberian  Steppes,  and  from  beneath  which  the 
older  rocks  occasionally  crop-out.  Hence  it  would  appear,  as 
if  the  Ural  Mts.  formed  even  in  the  Permian  period  a  watershed, 
though  much  lower  than  at  present,  and  separated  two  great 
marine  districts. 

The  igneous  rocks  are  less  evenly  distributed  than  the 
sedimentary,  although  their  distribution  usually  corresponds  to 
the  general  trend  of  the  chain.  They  chiefly  occur  on  the 
Eastern  slope ;  and  appear,  alternating  with  crystalline  and  old 
sedimentary  strata,  to  form  for  a  considerable  distance  the  base, 
on  which  rest  the  Tertiary  and  Post-Tertiary  deposits.  The 
principal  igneous  rocks  are;  granite,  syenite,  various  porphyries, 
diorite,  and  serpentine. 

Cretaceous  strata  occur  in  the  Southern  portion  of  the  chain, 
but  only  to  a  slight  degree;  and  they  are  found  overlapping  the 
older  rocks. 

A  large  number  of  quartz- veins,  often  very  broad,  occur 
on  the  Southern  East  slope;  these  sometimes  contain  gold,  and 
sometimes  project  over  the  more  easily  destructible  rocks,  like 
walls;  their  general  direction  is  N. — S. 

Of  the  great  number  of  metalliferous  deposits  existing  in 
the  Urals,  I  shall  only  describe  the  following,  as  being  the  most 
important  and  interesting: 


GUMESCHEWSKOI.  465 

1.  Copper-deposits  at   Gumeschewskoi,   Bogoslowsk,   and  in 
the  Permian  formation ; 

2.  Gold     and     platinum    deposits    at     numerous  .  localities, 
especially    at    Beresof,    Katharinenberg,    Nijny  Tagilsk,  Bisersk, 
and  Miask. 

COPPER-DEPOSITS  OF  GUMESCHEWSKOI. 

§  254.  The  peculiar  geological  conditions,  under  which  the 
copper-ores  occur  at  Bogoslowsk,  and  Nijny  Tagil sk,  are  repeated 
at  several  points  in  the  middle  and  Southern  Urals,  so  that  a 
great  uniformity  and  agreement  can  be  proved  as  regards  the 
copper-formation  in  the  Urals.  In  addition  to  other  deposits, 
as  yet  but  little  examined,  are  the  renowned  copper-deposits 
of  Gumeschewskoi l  and  Soimanowsk. 

The  well  known  mine  of  Gumeschewskoi,  35  miles  South 
of  Katharinenberg,  occurs  in  a  valley  on  the  western  side  of 
the  Urals,,  but  near  its  crest.  This  valley  is  parallel  to  the 
trend  of  .the  mountain-chain,  about  2J/2  miles  broad;  and  its 
slopes  consist  of  metamorphic  schists,  with  serpentine.  There  is 
a  broad  zone  of  crystalline,  and  compact  limestone,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  this  valley,  which  is  traversed  through  the  middle,  in 
the  direction  of  its  course,  by  a  dike  of  diorite,  frequently 
associated  with  garnet-rock.  This  dike  dips  40° — 50°  in  E.,  has 
a  very  variable  breadth,  and  has  been  opened  for  a  length  of 
about  350  fathoms  by  mining  operations ;  still  traces  of  the  same 
have  been  followed  for  more  than  1200  fathoms.  In  its  known 
length  this  does  not  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  limestone 
traversed,  but  is  separated  on  both  sides,  like  the  dike  of  diorite 
at  Nijne  Tagilsk,  by  a  broad  deposit  of  ochre-yellow,  ferruginous 
clay,  90 — 120  fathoms  broad  at  the  surface,  which  decreases 
with  the  depth.  The  dike,  itself,  often  contains,  where  still 
undecomposed  and  fresh,  large  and  small  pockets  of  a  mixture 
of  iron-  and  copper-pyrites,  containing  but  little  copper.  In  the 
upper  portions,  where  a  partial  decomposition  of  the  rock  has 
taken  place,  oxydized  copper-ores  are  found ;  particularly  mala- 
chite, chrysocolla,  and  red  copper;  more  rarely  azurite  and 
brochantite.  These  ores  most  frequently  occur,  in  considerable 

1  See:    G.  Rose's  Reise  n.  d.  Ural,   1842.  vol.  I.  p.  242;   Muller,  in 
Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1866,  p.  252. 

30 


466  BOGOSLOWSK 

quantities,  within  the  adjoining  clays,  especially  collected,  at 
the  junctions  of  these  with  the  limestone,  in  the  hanging-  and 
foot-wall  of  the  diorite-dike.  As  yet  only  the  oxidized  ores  have 
been  extracted,  while  no  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  sul- 
phurets.  Malachite  has  occasionally-'"  occurred,  at  this  locality, 
in  very  large  and  beautiful  masses:  among  others  a  block  of 
malachite  weighing  about  60  hundredweight  was  found  at  a 
depth  of  21  fathoms:  limonite  and  clay-ironstone  'are  the  usual 
gang-stones  to  the  copper-ores  in  the  clays;  less  frequently  quartz, 
hornstone,  and  jasper:  the  ores  obtained  average  3 — 4  per  cent 
of  copper. 

COPPER-DEPOSITS    OF   BOGOSLOWSK. 

§  255.  The  copper-mines  of  Bogoslowsk  l  occur  about  110 
miles  north  of  Nijny-Turinsk,  and  33  miles  from  the  Ural  Mts. 

Diorite  and  diorite-porphyry  predominate  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  these  mines:  there  are  also  some  insulated  masses  of 
limestone,  which  must  be  regarded  as  fragments  of  the  Upper 
Silurian  (according  to  Murchison,  Devonian)  strata.  These  last 
have  been  torn  off  by  the  crystalline  rocks  mentioned,  surrounded 
by  them,  or  traversed  by  dikes  upwards  of  50  fathoms  broad. 
The  diorite-porphyries  traverse  all  these  rocks,  and  appear  to 
be  even  more  .recent  than  the  dikes. 

The  lithological  character  of  the  diorite  is  very  variable: 
feldspar,  or  hornblende,  locally  predominates  in  the  homogeneous 
matrix;  the  rock  occurs  compact,  or  striped  from  the  parallel 
arrangement  of  the  minerals.  The  limestones  are  partly  crystal- 
line and  white,  partly  gray  and  compact;  they  occasionally  con- 
tain fossils.  In  addition  to  the  preceding,  there  is  also  garnet- 
rock,  which  is,  perhaps,  to  be  regarded,  as  the  consequence  of 
metamorphic  action. 

The  copper-deposits,  of  importance  in  mining,  occur  devel- 
oped at  the  junctions  of  the  various  rocks;  they  have  a  general 
course  of  NNW.— SSE.,  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  Urals;  and 


1  See:  G.  Rose's  Reise  n.  d.  Ural,  I.  p.  381 ;  Beger,  in  Gornoi  Journal^ 
1826,  pt.  II.  p.  3;  Protassoff,  in  same,  1830,  pt.  III.  p.  75;  Erman,  in 
Archiv  f.  wissensch.  Kunde  Russland's,  1850,  vol.  VIII.  p.  380;  Von  Hel- 
mersen,  in  Leonhard's  Jahrb.  1860,  p.  573;  Muller,  in  Berg-  u.  hiUtenm. 
Zeit.  1866,  p.  160;  Murchi son's  Russia  and  the  Ural  Mts. 


PERMIAN  FORMATION.  467 

occur,  either  at  the  junction  of  diorite  with  diorite-porphyry,  or 
between  diorite  and  limestone,  or  between  diorite  and  garnet- 
rock.  The  ore-deposits,  following  the  contours  of  these  rock- 
junctions,  appear  either  as  veins  or  beds,  or  they  are  segregated 
in  form,  and  to  be  compared  to  pockets  branching  out  of  one 
another. 

The  chief  ore  is  copper-pyrites,  partly  in  large  pure  masses, 
partly  finely  disseminated  and  mixed  with  calc-spar,  garnety 
actinolith,  and  quartz.  In  addition  to  copper.-pyrites,  there  also 
occur;  copper-glance,  erubescite,  and  tetrahedrite ;  and  in  the 
upper  workings  red  copper,  malachite,  azurite,  chrysocolla,  and 
native  copper.  Iron-pyrites  is  the  most  regular  associate  of  the 
copper-ores;  it  is  so  predominant  in  places,  that  the  deposit  is 
then  more  correctly  a  cupriferous  mass  of  iron-pyrites.  Mag- 
netite is  also  present. 

The  oxydized  ores  greatly  predominate  an  the  upper  levels, 
accompanied  by  limonite,  stilpnosiderite,  and  iron  ochre;  while 
the  diorite  is  often,  particularly  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  ores,  decomposed  to  clay. 

Pure  copper-pyrites  occurs  but  rarely  for  several  consecutive 
cubic  fathoms:  it  is  more  commonly  found  in  pockets,  or  finely 
disseminated.  ^.  . 

COPPER-DEPOSITS    OF   THE  PERMIAN   FORMATION. 

§  256.  The  Permian  formation,  thus  named  by  Murchison 
from  the  Government  of  Perm,  occupies  a  large  area,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Ural  chain,  about  twice  as  large  as  France. 
This  -formation  corresponds  in  age  to  the  German  Zechstein.  and 
Roihliegendes,  or  the  interval  between  Carboniferous  and  Trias- 
sic.  Its  lithological  character  is,  however,  entirely  different  from 
that  of  the  contemporaneous  strata  in  Germany;  and  even  the 
fossils  found  in  them  vary  much,  although  agreeing  in  general 
character,  and  some  of  the  species  found  are  identical. 

The  lithological  composition,    or  succession  of  strata  in  the  ' 
Permian  formation,    does  not  remain  precisely   the  same  within 
the  large  area  they  cover.     In  many  localities   near  the  Urals, 
copper-ores  occur  in  the  lower  strata  of  this  formation. 

The  chief  subdivisions  of  this  formation  are,  according  to 
Stchurowski  and  Von  Qualen,  the  following:  j'V/. 

1.  Upper    Division;    not    thick,    often    forming   elevated 

30* 


468  DIVISIONS,  AND  CHARACTER. 

plateaux,  consisting  of  marly,  tufa,  siliceous,  or  chalky  lime- 
stones: without  copper-ores,,  and  almost  barren  of  fossils:  pro- 
bably corresponding  in  age  to  the  German  Zechstein  formation: 

2.  Middle  Division;  .chiefly  consisting  of  thinly  stratified 
clay,  and  sandy  marl ;  with  subordinate  beds  of  limestone,  marl 
shale,  variegated  marl,  gypseous  marl,  sandstone,  and  bituminous 
shale :    these    beds   contain  but   few  copper-ores,    and  numerous 
fossils  about  equivalent  to  those  in  the  T^echstein  formation: 

3.  Lower  Division;    it  is  composed  of  red,   brown,   and 
gray  sandstone,  brown  argillaceous  marl,   marl-shale,   limestone, 
.and  conglomerate ;  with  thin  beds  of  bituminous  shale,  or  thick 
masses  of  gypsum  and  rock-salt :  this  subdivision  contains  many 
copper-ores  and  numerous  fossils,  particularly  in  the   sandstones 
and  marl-shales    near   the  Urals:    the  fossils  in  part  correspond 
to    those    of    the    German    RotJiliegendes    formation;    they    are 
remains  not  only  of  land-plants  but  also  of  sea-shells    and  Sau- 
rians:  some  of 'the  fossil  plants,  particularly  the  Calamites,  bear 
2o  considerable  similarity  to  those  of  the  older  Carboniferous  or 
Subcarboniferous  formation  of  Western  Europe. 

It  appears,  from  the  above,  that  the  copper-ores  of  the  Per- 
mian essentially  occupy  a  much  lower  horizon  (in  older  strata),  than 
that  in  which  the  copper-slates  of  Thuringia  occur.  Their  man- 
ner of  distribution  is  also  different,  they  form  separate  concre- 
tions, and  are  usually  associated  with  sandstones,  hence  called 
copper-sandstones :  the  geological  horizon  in  which  these  copper- 
ores  occur  can  be  better  compared  to  that  of  the  copper-are 
impregnations  in  the  Rothliegendes  of  Bohemia  (§  143,  145) 
than  to  that  of  the  Thuringian  copper  slates. 

The  character  of  these  ore-deposits  can  be  best  shown  by 
concise  descriptions  of  some  of  the  localities:  I  foll'ow,  for  the 
most  part,  Murchison's  description. 

I.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Yugofski  and  Motovilika,  the 
strata,  which  are  pierced  by  shafts  35  to  100  feet  deep,  consist 
of  thick,  flaglike  grits  of  gray  and  dingy  color,  rarely  ferrugin- 
ous, sometimes  of  a  greenish  hue,  and  occasionally  slightly  cal- 
careous, with  layers  of  red  and  gray  ribboned  marl  and  shale. 
The  ores  of  copper  are  disseminated  through  all  the  beds;  but 
in  this  district  the  sandstones  are  most  cupriferous :  the  ores  are 
principally  malachite,  also  red  copper,  copper-pyrites,  tetrahedrite, 
and  azurite.  Plants  of  various  species  occur,  and  in  some  of 
the  lower  strata  they  are  so  numerous,  as  to  have  given  rise 


MURCHISON'S  DESCRIPTIONS.  469 

to  thin  seams  of  coal,  exceptionally  2—3  feet  thick.  Concretionsr 
often  cupriferous,  occur  here  and  there;  and  they  have  been 
generally  formed  around  carbonized  stems  of  plants.  Besides- 
the  copper-ores  described  by  Murchison  1  Planer  mentions  vol- 
borthite,  as  being  very  common  in  the  cupriferous  sandstone,  it 
partly  occurs  in  the  green  coloring  matter,  partly  in  dendritic 
forms  within  the  joints  of  the  grit:  copper-glance  and  van- 
adinite  are  more  rarely  found.  All  the  strata  mentioned  are: 
horizontal,  and  consist,  in  ascending,  order,  of; 

1.  gray  and  dark-colored  shale,  with  plants  and  coal, 

2.  gray  sandstone  and  ribboned  shale, 

3.  red  and  greenish  shales,  and 

4.  argillaceous  marl. 

II.  The  intimate   connection  of  copper-ore  with   the   fossil 
vegetation  is  most  instructively  displayed  at  the  mines  of  Klut- 
chefski2   near   Biebelei,    and    at   Kargala   in   the   Steppes    north 
of  Orenburg :  so  general  in  fact  is  the  connection  of  fossil-wood 
and  copper-ore,  that  the  discovery  of  the  outcrop  of  the  silicified 
trunk   of  a  tree   often    induces    the   miner   to    follow  it   into  the 
rock,  and  thereby  to  detect  valuable  cupriferous  masses :    some- 
times the  copper-ore  interlaces  with  all  the  fibres  of  the  silicified 
wood;  at  other  times  it  is  continuous  through  a  mass  of  leaves, 
matted  in  sand,   sandstone,    or  marl;    and   thus  a  small   nucleus 
of  vegetable  matter   has    often    proved  a  source  of  considerable 
wealth.     Where   the  copper-ore   permeates  the   coaly  fibre,   it  is 
usually  as  azurite.     As  a  general  rule  it  may  be  said,   that  the 
sandstone  and  shale  beds,   in  which  plants  occur,  are  the  great 
matrix  of  the    copper-ore;    and   that  this   is   much   more  rarely 
found    in    the    white    and    green    marls — never    indeed    in    the 
same    quantity,    and    never,    so    far    as  is    known,    in    the  pure 
limestone. 

III.  Between  the  Ik  and  Bugulma 3  occur  copper-grits  and 
sandstones  beneath  white  and  yellow  limestones,  containing  corals 
and  minute  fossils,  which  are  referred  to  Cytherinse. 

4.  In  receding  from  the  Ural  chain,  from  Perm 4  to  Kazan, 


1  See  Murchison's  Russia  in  Europe  and  Ural  Mts.  1845,  p.  144. 

2  See  the  same,  p.  154. 

3  See  the  same,  p.  156. 

4  See  the  same,  p.  160. 


470  GOLD  AND  PLATINUM  IN  THE  URALS. 

9 

occurs  a  great  cupriferous  region,  the  western  limits  of  which 
are  about  66  miles,  east  of  the  latter  city. 

The  portion  of  the  Permian  strata,  which  is  cupriferous, 
extends  for  a  distance  of  only  265  to  330  miles  to  the  west  of 
the  Ural  chain.  In  all  the  Permian  tracts,  more  distant  from 
these  mountains,  no  trace  of  copper-ore  is  to  be  found.  These 
circumstances  alone  would  naturally  lead  to  the  belief,  that  the 
Ural  mountains  had  afforded  the  sources,  from  whence  the  mineral 
matter  proceeded. 

The  Ural  chain  was  in  remote  periods  the  seat  of  intense 
metamorphism,  during  which  copper-ores  were  abundantly  formed 
in  the  older  palseozoic  rock.  Hence  Murchison  is  led  to  con- 
clude, that  such  may  have  had  some  connection  with  the  deposit 
of  the  adjacent  copper  sands  and  marls:  not  that  they  were 
formed  by  the  erosion  of  pre-existing  copper-lodes,  and  by  the 
dissemination  of  their  particles  in  the  adjoining  sea;  for  in  no 
place  do  fragments  occur  indicating  such  an  event:  the  fact 
being  that  beds  composed  of  similar  materials  are  so  impreg- 
nated with  the  mineral  in  one  spot,  and  so  void  of  it  in  a  con- 
tiguous locality,  as  to  exclude  the  hypothesis,  that  this  locally 
saturated  mineral  condition  can  have  resulted  from  the  grinding 
down  of  the  detritus  of  other  cupriferous  rocks.  Murchison  is 
therefore  inclined  to  the  belief,  that,  when  the  Permian  deposits 
were  accumulating  in  the  adjacent  sea,  springs  charged  with 
salts  of  copper  were  flowing  into  it  from  the  neighboring  Ural 
chain,  then  undergoing  a  peculiar  change  of  composition;  and 
that  such  springs  deposited  the  greater  part  of  their  metallic 
contents  in  those  portions  of  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  which  afforded 
them  the  strongest  points  of  attraction.  In  support  of  this  view, 
he  cites  the  case  of  a  peat-bog  in  Wales,  whose  ash  was  found 
to  contain  considerable  copper.  This  explanation  has  much  in 
its  favor;  but  the  question  might  be  asked,  whether  an^impreg- 
nation  were  not  possible  in  this  manner,  subsequent  to  the 
deposit  of  the  strata,  as  is  the  case  in  Bohemia; 

DEPOSITS  OF  GOLD  AND   PLATINUM  IN  THE  URALS. 

§  257.  Gold  has  been  found  in  rock,  in  but  few  localities 
in  the  Urals,1  platinum  not  at  all.  Gold  is  at  the  present  time 

1  See:  Liboschitz,  in  Gilbert's  Annal.  d  Physik,  1823,  vol.  XIV.  p.  429 ; 
Somoinoff,   and  Fuchs,   in  same,    vol.  XV.  p.  226;  Ton  Engelhardt, 


CHIEF  LOCALITIES.  471 

obtained  from  deposits  in  place,  at  Beresof  alone,  while  platinum 
is  only  obtained  from  alluvial  deposits.  These  two  metals  occur, 
partly  together,  partly  separated,  at  numerous  localities  on  both 
slopes  of  the  Urals,  principally  the  eastern  flank  of  this  long  moun- 
tain-chain, in  alluvium-deposits,  the  washing  of  which  is  in  places 
very  remunerative.  The  nature  of  these  alluvium-deposits,  or 
placers,  is  notwithstanding  certain  common  lineaments,  by  no 
means  a  conformable  one,  as  can  best  be  seen  from  the  description 
of  some  cases. 

I  preface  such  a  description,  by  the  enumeration  of  some 
of  the  principal  localities,  where  gold  and  platinum  are  obtained 
in  the  Urals.  The  majority  of  these  are  washings,  and  lie  on 
the  eastern  slope,  or  base,  of  the  mountains.  Passing  north- 
wardly they  occur  at  the  following  places: 

1.  On  the   river  Tanalyk  which  empties   into  the  Ural  at 
Tanalysk ; 

2.  Placers,    at   numerous    localities,    on  the  Steppes  east  of 
the   southern   end    of  the  mountains,  in  the  basin  of  the  Tobol, 
where  auriferous  quartz-masses  crop-out  here  and  there; 

3.  At  the  upper  portion  of  the  Kizil  and  Zangelka,  and  on 
the  Mindyak,  rivers; 

4.  In  the  district  west  of  Kuizokowa; 

5.  At  Soimonowsk; 

6.  In  a  district  southerly  of  Miask; 

7.  On  the  Kyalim  near  Kavassi; 

8.  On  the  tributaries  of  Lake  Uveldi,  east  of  Kischlinsk; 

9.  Above  Elisawetsk,  southerly  of  Ekatharinenburg ; 

10.  Near  Beresof,  northeast  of  Ekatharinenburg; 

11.  Above  Mostowsk  north  of  Ekatharinenburg; 


d.  Lagerstatten  d.  Goldes  u.  Platins  im  Ural,  1828;  Hoffmann  and  v. 
Helmersen,  geogr.  Untersuchungen  d.  Siid-Ural-Gebirges,  1831,  p.  70; 
Rose's  Reise  n.  d.  Ural,  I.  pp.  152,  175,  227,  252,  281,  303;  II.  pp.  20, 
386,  402,  583;  Erman,  Archiv.  f.  wissensch.  Kunde  v.  Russland,  1843,  vol. 

III.  p.   120;  1K9,  vol.   VII.  p.   34;   1851,  vol.  IX.  p.  183,  53,8;  Zerrener's 
Anleitung  z.  Gold-,  Platin-  u.  Diamanten-Waschen,  1851 ;  Ssablin,  in  Berg- 
u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1852,  p.  529;  Cotta,  in  same,  1860,  p.  495;  Breithaupt, 
in  Cotta's  Gangstudien,  vol.  II.  p.  114;  Ne  bo  Is  in;  hist.  Uebersicht  d.  Gold- 
waschversuche  im  russ.  Asien;  de  Marui,   in  Bergwerksfreund,    1857,    vol. 
XXI.  p.  96;  de  Teploff,   in   bulletin   d.  1.  soc.  geol.  d.  France,   1833,  vol. 

IV.  p.  371;   Murchison's   Russia  in  Europe,   etc.   and   Siluria,    1854,  pp. 
431,  436. 


472  BERESOF  GOLD-DEPOSITS. 

12.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Nijny  Tagilsk; 

13.  Southeast  of  Blagodat,  near  Turinsk; 

14.  West  of  Nijny  Turinsk ; 

15.  At  Bisersk,  and  Krestowosdwischensk,  on  the  west  slope 
of  the  central  chain;  -* 

16.  At  Peschanka  near  Bogoslowsk;  and 

17.  North  of  Petro-Pawlowsk. 

Platinum  is  common  only  at  Nijny  Tagilsk,  and  there  with 
scarcely  any  gold;  it  occurs  less  frequently  in  the  gold-washings 
at  Bisersk,  and  Bilimbayewsk,  on  the  west  side  of  the  mountains; 
as  well  as  at  Bogoslowsk,  Kuschwinsk,  Newyansk,  Wereh-Yssetzk, 
Kischtimsk,  and  Miask,  on  the  east  side.  Platinum  sometimes 
occurs  in  the  washings  of  Nijny  Tagilsk,  associated  with  chromic 
iron  in  serpentine  fragments;  and  since  serpentine  is  also  known 
to  be  present  near  most  of  the  other  platinum  washings,  it 
appears,  as  if  this  were  the  rock,  in  which  this  metal  is 
present  in  the  Urals. 

GOLD-DEPOSITS  AT  BERESOF. 

§  258.  Beresof '  lies  ten  miles  NE.  of  Katharinenburg  in 
an  undulating  wooded  district. 

A  broad  belt  of  fine  grained  granite  cuts  through  the  zone 
of  crystalline  schists  (chlorite,  talc,  quartz,  and  clay-slates) 
forming  the  Urals.  The  broad  belt  of  granite  is  supplanted, 
near  this  mining  village,  by  dikes  of  a  very  fine  grained  granite. 
These  dikes  are  important,  as  containing  gold.  The  separate 
dikes  are  3 — 25,  mostly  10 — 15  fathoms  broad,  are  usually  ver- 
tical and  often  split  into  branches  in  their  direction  of  strike, 
which  is  parallel  to  the  mountain-chain.  They  consist,  especially 
in  contact  with  the  lodes,  of  a  rock  containing  iron-pyrites,, 
altered  and  decomposed  to  limonite,  a  variety  of  granite  which 
has  been  called  Beresite. 

At  right  angles  to  these  beresites,  occur  innumerable  quartz- 
veins,  1 — 15 — 36  inches  broad;  which  are  sometimes  found 
so  close  together,  that  two  or  three  of  them  occur  within  a  length 
of  one  fathom  in  the  beresites. 

The    quartz-veins    are    the    ore  carriers  proper  of  the  gold; 

\    *  See:  Mii Her, In  Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1866,  p.  108. 


CHIEF  PLACERS.  473 

and  even  though  they  are  as  a  rule  only  found  to  be  metal- 
liferous and  exploitable  within  the  beresites,  they  often  extend 
into  the  schists.  The  ores  are  native  gold,  and  iron-pyrites; 
which  last  is  often  altered  to  limonite,  and  occurs  particularly 
at  the  selvages  of  the  quartz-veins,  and  is  somewhat  auriferous 
in  this,  as  in  the  undecomposed  state.  Besides  these,  there 
occur,  in  small  pockets,  and  irregular  aggregations  5  copper-py- 
rites, argentiferous  galena,  and  tetrahedrite  5  also  phoenicite, 
jossaite,  vauquelinite,  cerusite,  pyromorphite,  and  bismuth  ochre. 
Tourmaline,  talc,  p^rophyllite,  and  dolomite,  are  the  veinstones. 
The  mines  have  at  present  attained  a  depth  of  12,  to  at  the 
most  24,  fathoms;  the  granite  is  said  to  be  harder,  and  the  per- 
centage of  gold  smaller,  in  the  lower  workings. 

Miiller  thinks,  these  lodes  must  be  regarded  as  veins  of  secretion. 
The  quartz  is  then  derived  from  the  granite,  the  gold  from  the  crys- 
talline schists;  which  is  the  more  probable,  as  the  chlorite  schist 
of  the  Urals  is  often  somewhat  auriferous,  and  beds  of  serpentine 
often  occur,  in  the  crystalline  schists  of  these  mountains,  also  con- 
taining a  little  gold.  The  chrome  of  the  fuchsite  observed  in  the 
wall-rock  is  also  favorable  to  the  hypothesis,  that  certain  elements 
have  penetrated  from  the  wall-rock ;  since  the  chromic  acid, 
becoming  free  by  decomposition  of  the  fuchsite,  gave  rise  to  the 
formation  of  phoenicite,  jossaite,  and  vauquelinite. 

In  general,  these  gold-deposits  of  Beresof  are  rather  poor, 
and  their  exploitation  has  been  stopped  since  1860,  as  the 
working  of  the  placers  is  much  more  profitable. 

.  It  is  supposed,  that  the  richest  upper  portion  of  these  lodes 
has  been  destroyed  and  re-deposited  in  the  placers  which  occur 
at  Beresof,  partly  at  outcrop  of  the  deposits  in  situ,  partly  near 
other  rocks. 

The  most  important  of  these  placers  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Beresof  are,  according  to  G.  Rose,  the  following: 

.1.  The  placer  of  Petro-Pawlowsk  occurs  in  a  flat  basin,  im- 
mediately on  the  outcrop  of  the  auriferous  quartz-veins;  but  is 
by  no  means  generally  the  richest  over  these,  being  rather 
poorer  than  usual:  it  consists  of  a  clayey  mass  containing  frag- 
ments of  quartz,  chlorite  schist,  talc-schist,  granite,  and  crystals 
of  specular  iron,  magnetite,  garnet  and  zircon :  the  stratum, 
washed  for  gold,  is  9 — 18  inches  thick: 

2.  The  placer  of  Marienskoi  lies  on  euphotide:  the  stratum 
is  5  feet  thick,  of  which  but  1 — 1'/2  feet  contain  gold  enough 


474  OTHER   GOLD-PLACERS. 

to  be  worked:  the  clayey  mass  contains  fragments  of  euphotide, 
clay-slate;  and  chlorite  schist,  as  well  as  crystals  of  the  above- 
mentioned  minerals: 

3.  The  placer    of  Nagorni    overlies   clay-slate :    the    clayey 
mass  is  about  14  feet  thick,  but  only  the  lower  stratum,  1 — S1/^ 
feet    thick,    is  washed   for  gold:    it  contains  pebbles   of   talcose 
schist,  and   limonite ;   also    crystals   of  pyrolusite,    and   specular 
iron: 

4.  The    placer    of   Klerowskoi   is    covered   by  peat:    since 
the  upper  stratum  only   contains    sufficient  *£old    to    be   washed, 
the  lower  beds  have   not  been   opened:    pebbles   of  talc-schist, 
quartz,    chlorite    schist,     and    crystals    of   specular    iron,    mag- 
netite, decomposed  iron-pyrites,  garnet,  and  zircon,  occur  in  the 
placer : 

5.  The   placer   of  Kalinowskoi  lies  on  serpentine,  which  is 
cut   through    by    granite  dikes:    of  the  5  —  11  feet  thick  clayey 
mass,  only  the  lower  1 — 2  feet  are  workable. 


a.  Beresite  containing  gold  quartz-veins. 

b.  Auriferous  detritus  containing  remains  of  mammoth. 

c.  Overlying  clay. 

d.  Humus  and  bog. 

Murchison   has  given   the   above   profile   of   a    placer    near 
Beresof,  of  which  he  says  nothing. 


OTHER  GOLD-PLACERS  IN  THE  URALS. 

§  259.  After  having  become  acquainted,  in  the  preceding 
paragraph,  with  the  occurrence  of  gold  in  placers  and  veins  at 
Beresof;  it  will  suffice  to  add  a  few  observations  on  some  of 
the  other  gold  and  platinum  placers  in  the  Urals,  partly  in  a 
few  remarks,  partly  in  a  table. 

An  undulated  district  of  Steppes  extends  on  the  Asiatic 
side  of  the  Urals ;  in  which  the  older  rocks  only  here  and  there 
crop-out  from  beneath  the  Post-tertiary  deposits.  Crystalline 
schists,  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Subcarboniferous  are  here,  ac- 
cording to  Antipoff,  often  traversed  by  quartz-veins  striking 
N.  — S.  parallel  to  the  Urals,  which  here  and  there  contain 


ACCESSORY    MINERALS. 


475 


small  quantities  of  gold,  but  so  little  that  it  cannot  be  profit- 
ably extracted.  Gold- placers  occur  near  these,  which  overlie  the 
much  tilted  rock-strata  unconformably,  and  from  which  gold  is, 
in  many  places,  obtained.  Antipoff  has  drawn  one  of  these 
placers,  of  which  the  following  is  a  copy: 

Gold-placer. 


G.  T. 


G.  Auriferous  quartz-vein. 
K.  Beds  of  bituminous  limestone. 
T.  Clay-slate,  alternating  with 
S.  Layers  of  sandstone. 


The  following  profile  of  a  gold-placer  at  Solmanofsk,  copied 
from  Murchison,  is  also  very  interesting : 


a.  Beds  of  tilted  limestone. 

b  Igneous  and  serpentine  rocks. 

c.  Gold  shingle  or  gravel. 

o.  Bed  of  the  rivulet  before  the  works  were  commenced. 

n.  The  present  bed  of  the  rivulet. 

The  highly  uneven  surface  of  the  limestone  a,  is  here  evi- 
dently the  result  of  erosion  prior  to  the  deposit  of  the  alluvium ; 
which  has,  however,  been  the  principal  cause  for  the  unequal 
distribution  of  the  gold  occurring  most  richly  in  the  depressions 
of  the  limestone. 

In  addition  to  the  minerals  already  mentioned,  some  others 
have  been  found,  especially  native  metals,  in  the  platinum-  and 
gold-placers.  According  to  G.  Rose,  the  minerals  found  in  the 
placers  of  the  Urals  are  as  follows: 


1.  Gold, 
2.  Platinum, 
3.  Iridium, 
4.  Iridosmine, 
5.  Native  Copper, 

6.  Diamond, 
7.  Cinnabar, 
8.  Iron-pyrites, 
9.  Specular  Iron, 
10.  Ilmenite, 

11.  Magnetite, 
12.  Chromic  Iron, 
13.  Rutile, 
14.  Anatase, 
15.  Pyrolusite, 

476  ORIGIN  OF  DEPOSITS 

16.  Corundum,  19.  Quartz,  22.  Epidote, 

17.  Spinel,  20.  Garnet,  23.  Diallage, 

18.  Barsowite,  21.  Zircon,  24.  Hypersthene. 

and  25.  Malachite. 

According  to  von  'Engelhardt,  scales  of  native  iron  occur 
with  platinum ;  while  Zerrener  mentions,  in  addition  to  the 
above;  brookite;  palladium,  copper-pyrites,  copper-glance,  haus- 
mannite,  native  lead,  galena,  crocoisite,  tourmaline ,  actinolith, 
and  diaspore. 

The  gold  is  generally  more  or  less  argentiferous,  the  amount 
varying,  according  to  G.  Rose's  examination,  between  0,16  and 
38,74  per  cent.  It  has  been  sometimes  thought,  that  the  placer- 
gold  was  purer  (less  argentiferous)  than  that  extracted  from  de- 
posits in  situ;  but  Rose  has  shown,  than  such  is  not  the  case 
in  the  Ural  Mountains.  He  found,  that  the  amount  of  silver  was 
very  variable  in  both  cases  5  although  the  highest  amount  of 
silver  was  found  in  gold  from  veins,  which  contained,  even 
in  the  same  lode,  very  variable  quantities.  These  combinations  of 
gold  and  silver  are  merely  alloys,  and  not  true  chemical  com- 
binations in  fixed  proportions. 

The  origin  of  the  primal  deposits  of  gold,  and  of  platinum, 
in  the  Ural  Mts.  is  different*  although  both  are  frequently  found 
together  in  surface-deposits.  The  gold  here,  as  in  most  localities, 
usually  originates  in  quartz- veins  which  traverse  the  rocks;  it 
is  at  least  doubtful,  whether  a  portion  of  the  gold,  as  sup- 
posed by  some  persons,  proceeds  from  eroded  rocks  (from  granite 
at  Bogoslowsk.  from  greenstones,  from  clay-slates,  or  even  from 
limestones). 

The  platinum,  on  the  contrary,  appears  to  have  been  here 
chiefly  associated  with  serpentine,  in  which  it  has  been  observed 
together  with  chromic  iron.  Von  Engelhardt  states,  that  the 
greenstones  and  syenitic  rocks  in  the  Urals  also  contain  a  little 
platinum. 

If,  however,  both  these  metals  often  occur  together  in  allu- 
vial deposits,  and  certain  other  mineral  grains  with  these  (as 
quartz,  garnet,  magnetite,  zircon,  etc.),  this  paragencsis  may 
possibly  be  a  consequence  of  the  resistance  offered  by  these 
metals  and  minerals  to  chemical  and  mechanical  agents.  Were 
they  existing  in  any  district  subjected  to  denudation,  even 
though  under  very  dissimilar  circumstances,  and  but  sparingly 
disseminated ;  it  would  not  be  surprising,  if  they  have  been 


OF  GOLD,  PLATINUM,  etc.  477 

deposited  together  by  the  great  processes  of  concentration  in 
nature.  Besides,  gold  and  platinum  do  not  occur  every  where 
associated  in  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  Ural  Mountains;  nor 
are  the  accompanying  minerals,  quartz  excepted,  always  present. 
Osmium  and  iridium,  which  generally  occur  together  with  the 
platinum,  probably  also  came  from  the  serpentine. 

The  lithological  character  of  the  gold-placers,  in  the  Urals, 
is  a  very  dissimilar  one,  every  where  corresponding  to  the  local 
geological  conditions;  and  it  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  greater  or  less  amount  of  gold  from  these;  the  pres- 
ence of  much  magnetite  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  a  favor- 
able sign.  The  amount  of  gold  appears  to  be  always  depen- 
dent on  the  richness  of  and  distance  from  the  original  deposits, 
as  well  as  the  mechanical  conditions  of  the  deposit.  No  law 
can  be  laid  down,  either  in  regard  to  level,  or  in  regard  to 
the  horizontal  distribution  of  the  gold;  although  indeed  the  gold 
is  often  found  in  the  level  immediately  over  the  rocks,  being 
covered  by  alluvium. 

Gold-placers  are  found,  at  intervals,  for  a  distance  of  500 
miles,  chiefly  on  the  eastern  slope,  and  base;  some,  however, 
near  the  highest  crest,  and  on  the  west  flank.  They  lie  at  the 
base  of  the  mountains,  covering  plains  and  undulating  hill- 
country,  on  the  sides  of  broad  valleys,  in  narrow  gorges,  or  on 
gentle  slopes.  They  are  every  where  but  the  product  of  local 
erosion  and  denudation,  and  contain  only  fragments  of  such 
rocks  as  occur  in  the  neighborhood;  they  do  not  bear  the 
character  of  a  general  or  Diluvial  drift.  The  greater  part  are 
generally  extended  in  one  direction.  Their  rocky  base  is  variable; 
the  more  uneven  it  is,  so  much  the  more  favorable  is  the 
influence  it  has  had  on  the  deposit  of  gold. 

Murchison  states,  that  the  deposits  of  gold,  in  the  Urals, 
occur  only  in  those  rocks  in  situ,  which  are  older  than  the 
Permian  formation.  But  Murchison  considers  the  gold  they 
contain  to  be  of  far  more  recent  N  origin,  than  the  rocks  them- 
selves; and  thinks,  the  gold  penetrated  the  fissures  during  the 
last  elevation  of  the  mountain-chain,  shortly  before  the  Diluvial 
period.  During  the  formation  of  the  Permian,  no  elevated  chain, 
according  to  this  observer,  could  have  existed;  since  masses  of 
the  rocks  on  the  eastern  slope,  o'ccur  as  boulders  in  this  for- 
mation, in  which  there  are  no  traces  of  gold  and  platinum.  The 
upper  portions  of  the  original  deposits  are  the  richest  in  gold; 


478  THEORETICAL  RETROSPECTS. 

and  Murchison  thinks,  they  must  have  been  still  more  so,  pre- 
vious to  their  partial  destruction.- 

The  denudation,  which  afforded  the  material  for  the  allu- 
vial deposits,  is  considered  by  all  observers  to  have  taken  place 
at  a,  geologically,  very  recent  period,  more  recent  than  the  Cre- 
taceous: Murchison  is  of  the  opinion,  that  it  must  have  been 
but  shortly  before  the  Diluvial  period:  Zerrener  and  de  Marni 
state,  that  at  least  two  periods  of  denudation,  anil  re-deposit,  may 
be  distinguished:  in  the  first  one,  bones  of  now  extinct  mam- 
mals (Elephas  primigenius,  Rhinoceros  tichorinus,  Bos,  Equus, 
etc.}  were  deposited  at  the  same  time :  the  more  recent  one 
may  still  continue;  and  de  Marni  has  observed,  over  the  older 
placers,  more  recent  ones,  which  have  tilled  crevices  in  the 
former.  The  older,  deposits,  according  to  Zerrener,  are  thicker, 
and  also  more  thickly  covered. 


Numerous  other  deposits  occur  in  the  Urals,  in  addition  to 
those  here  described,  which  seem  to  me  to  be  too  unimportant, 
or  uninteresting,  to  need  mention. 


THEORETICAL  RETROSPECTS. 

§  260.  A  retrospect,  of  the  somewhat  tedious  collection  of 
facts  in  the  descriptions  of  the  ore-deposits  (but  few  of  which 
I  have  been  able  personally  to  visit),  may  be  permissible,  and 
even  be  advisable,  in  order  to  deduce  some  theoretical  results. 
I  do  not  attach  any  great  value  to  such  crude  theories;  and 
regret,  that  they  offer  rather  negative,  than  positive  results.  Yet 
these  theories  may  serve  to  excite  further  investigation,  and 
are  perhaps  in  part  adapted  to  open-out  new  points  of  view 
for  such  research. 

DIVERSITIES,   DIFFERENCES,   AND   GROUPING  OF 
ORE-DEPOSITS. 

§  261.  While  the  rock-masses,  of  which  the  earth's  crust 
is  composed,  can  be  quite  easily  separated  into  igneous,  sedi- 


DIVISIONS,  AND  GROUPINGS,  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS.  479 

mentary,  and  metamorphic  5  the  mode  of  bedding  of  which,  and 
manner  of  origin,  can  in  general  be  explained  by  very  simple 
means;  and  whose  mutual  conditions  of  bedding  can  often  be 
easily  determined;  the  ore- deposits,  on  the  contrary,  offer  a  far 
greater  variety,  both  in  their  form  and  mode  of  deposits,  as 
well  as  in  their  composition,  and  conditions  of  age;  and  con- 
sequently far  greater  difficulties,  as  regards  their  interpre- 
tation'. 

Simple  as  the  divisions' into  beds,  lodes,  segregations,  and 
impregnations,  may  appear  at  first  sight;  there  still  arise  a 
number  of  doubts,  on  a  more  careful  examination,  for  the 
formal  division,  as  also  for  the  explanation  of  the  condition. 
The  forms,  like  the  masses,  undergo  extraordinary  modifications, 
and  transitions  into  one  another.  Like  masses  occur  in  entirely 
dissimilar  forms,  and  like  forms  are  often  found  of  very  dissi- 
milar composition  of  the  masses.  It  seems  as  if  the  normal 
forms  were  rarer  to  find,  than  their  numerous  modifications ; 
which  are  of  such  a  kind,  that  the  first  question  must  often 
remain  unsettled;  viz.  as  to  the  form  of  the  deposit.  Beds 
swell  out  to  segregrations,  segregrations  branch  into  lodes,  lodes 
widen  to  segregations,  form  brecciated  segregrations,  or  follow 
the  stratification  like  beds.  Very  broad  lodes  have  generally 
been  formed,  either  through  repeated  tearing-open  of  fissures, 
and  these  having  been  filled;  or  they  contain  large  masses  of 
the  wall-rock  between  their  walls,  so  that  they  in  reality  con- 
sist of  several  separate  lodes,  or  branches,  united  to  one  another. 
Impregnations  accompany  defined  ore-masses,  these  pass  into 
impregnations,  or  the  impregnations  form  independent  bedlike 
zones.  Defined  lines  of  demarcation  are  often  entirely  wanting, 
leaving  free  room  for  speculation  to  the  observer.  The  causes 
of  these  inequalities,  manifold  diversities,  and  irregularities  of 
form,  depend,  for  the  most  part,  on  collateral  and  accessory 
circumstances;  also  on  relations  of  structure,  or  other  contin- 
gencies of  the  enclosing  rock.  On  this  account  the  forms  of  but 
few  ore-deposits  can  be  accurately  compared;  the  majority  al- 
ready exhibit,  in  this  respect,  special  peculiarities.  Still  many 
of  them  form  similar  associate  groups  entirely  conformable  to 
nature. 

What  has  been  said,  with  regard  to  the  form  of  the  ore- 
deposits,  is  also  true,  as  to  their  mineral  composition,  age,  and 
manner  of  formation.  With  regard  to  their  mineralogical  com- 


480  CHIEF  GROUPS,  THREE. 

position,  they  can  be  united  or  separated  into  very  few  or 
very  many  groups.  In  any  case  three  chief  groups  suffice. 
These  are, 

1.  Tin-deposits,     commonly    associated    with    quartz     and 
wolfram  ; 

2.  Gold,  silver,  zinc,  copper,   cobalt,   nickel,  an- 
timony,   and    quicksilver    deposits    associated    with  quartz, 
carbonates,  heavy  spar,  fluor  spar,  etc. 

3.  Iron  and  manganese  deposits. 

They  all  three  form  numerous  transitions  into  one  another, 
and  cannot  be  distinctly  or  sharply  separated  from  one  another. 

Iron-ores  occur  in  almost  all  of  them ;  and  even  the  most 
characteristic  tin-deposits  contain  at  times  copper,  silver,  lead, 
or  zinc-ores. 

If  they  are  more  carefully  separated,  according  to  the 
distinctive  metals;  there  is  this  difficulty,  that  a  metal,  or  ore, 
hardly  ever  occurs  alone;  and  that  it  is  often  difficult 'to  deter- 
mine, which  is  to  be  considered  the  more  important,  or  the  most 
characteristic.  Even  if  this  difficulty  is  overcome  by  the  con- 
ventional value  of  the  metal,  there  still  remains  the  dissimilarity 
of  the  predominant  or  characteristic  gang  accompanying  each 
metal,  or  ore;  which  are  Jocally  often  very  different,  and  may 
with  at  least  the  same  right,  as  do  the  useful  minerals,  give  rise 
to  classifications.  Hardly  any  two  neighboring  ore-deposits  are 
altogether  alike  in  composition;  and  frequently  a  lode  is  very 
variable  at  different  points.  Consequently  the  inducements  to 
subdivision  and  classification  have  no  limit;  while  clearly  defined 
differences,  without  transitions,  are  entirely  wanting.  Nature 
does  not  accommodate  itself  to  any  system.  The  many  difficulties, 
which  have  already  suggested  themselves  respecting  the  crystal- 
line rocks,  are  still  greater  as  regards  special  deposits  contain- 
ing ores. 

Their  form,  as  well  as  their  mineralogical  composition,  is 
dependent  on  the  most  varied  local  conditions. 

Nevertheless  it  is  evident,  that  the  ore-deposits  can  be 
arranged  into  natural  groups  according  to  their  composition. 
To  the  accustomed  eye  certain  characteristic  combinations  of 
minerals  are  apparent;  which  are  either  only  locally  predomi- 
nant, like  the  tellurides  of  gold  in  southwestern  Transylvania; 
or  are  repeated  with  numerous  slight  modifications,  in  various 
localities  on  the  globe;  for  example,  the' barytic  lead  and  silver 


TIN-FORMATION.  481 

lodes,  in  which,  however,  other  ores  occur,  or  in  which  the  cha- 
racteristic heavy  spar  becomes  more  and  more  subordinate. 

In  the  same  manner,  as  it  is  often  possible  to  distinguish 
the  same  minerals  coming  from  various  localities  by  means  of 
unimportant,  but  constant  peculiarities;  it  is  also,  at  times,  pos- 
sible, to  distinguish  from  one  another  cabinet  specimens  of  ore- 
deposits  which  are  very  similar,  by  means  of  slight  differences, 
so  that  they  are  known  to  come  from  decidedly  different 
formations. 

There  are  differences  so  trifling,  as  not  to  be  easily  ex- 
plained, whose  recognition  is  only  possible  through  great  practice ; 
but  which  ought  not  to  deter  us  from  combining  them  in  groups. 
The  distinctions  gradually  encrease  to  a  total  difference;  and  a 
certain  intuitive  tact,  not  possessed  by  every  observer,  is  then 
necessary,  to  distinguish  the  essential  from  the  nonessential 
differences.  All  such  groupings  and  separations,  as  in  a  mea- 
sure depend  on  this  kind  of  individual  tact,  must  remain  un- 
certain; these  recognitions  depending  on  the  knowledge  of  the 
individual  making  them.  The  most  certain  method  is,  to  take 
typical  examples,  to  be  called  central  points,  around  which 
other  modes  of  occurrence  may  be  grouped,  approaching  nearer 
now  to  one  point,  now  to  another.  I  shall  attempt,  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  to  represent  by  examples  some  such  natural  groups 
of  ore-deposits. 

As  it  would,  however,  occupy  too  much  space,  were  I  to 
attempt  to  describe  them  in  detail;  I  shall,  instead,  frequently 
refer  to  the  proper  authorities.  I  commence  with  the  so-called 
ore- or  lode-formations  already  long  known  in  the  Erzgebirge. 


TIN-FORMATION. 

§  262.  The  stanniferous  deposits  in  the  Erzgebirge  form 
partly  lodes,  partly  impregnations  in  granitic,  or  also  porphy- 
ritic  rocks,  in  gneiss  or  in  mica-schist.  The  peculiar  mineral 
combinations  occur  most  distinctly  in  the  veins.  Quartz  is  un- 
questionably the  most  common  of  these;  this  is  every  where 
so  common,  that  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  being  characteristic 
of  any  particular  manner  of  occurrence.  On  the  contrary, 
wolfram  and  its  products  of  decomposition,  as  well  as  some 
minerals  containing  boron  and  fluorine,  such  as  tourmaline, 

31 


482  TIN-FORMATION  IN 

and  topaz,  are  very  characteristic  accompaniments  of  cassi- 
terite.  In  addition  to  these  the  following  minerals  are  fre- 
quently found  accompanying  the  tin-ore;  viz.  beryl,  arsenical 
pyrites,  molybdenite,  lepidolith,  and  a  peculiar  species  of  feld- 
spar, which  Breithaupt  calls  Felsties  paradoxites.  When,  in 
addition  to  these,  calc-spar,  fluor  spar,  galena,  blende,  etc. 
occur  in  the  stanniferous  deposits,  they  must  not  be  regarded 
as  characteristic  of  these,  and  are  in  part  evidently  of  sub- 
sequent formation;  as  in  many  ore-deposits  the  products  of  very 
different  periods  are  often  intimately  combined  with  one  another. 
The  mineral  matter,  filling  the  geodes  lying  in  crystallizations 
one  over  another,  often  indicates  a  very  long  period;  toward 
whose  close  the  conditions  for  the  formation  and  grouping  of 
particular  minerals  were  entirely  different,  from  those  at  its 
commencement.  In  a  scientific  examination  such  as  are  evi- 
dently of  subsequent  formation  must  of  course  be  separated,  as 
much  as  possible,  from  those  originally  belonging  together. 

At  the  separate  localities  in  the  Erzgebirge,  where  tin- 
deposits  are  known  to  exist,  the  form  of  their  occurrence  is,  as 
remarked,  somewhat  different ;  but  the  mineralogical  character, 
and  geological  position,  are  every  where  the  same. 

At  Graupen  narrow  veins,  accompanied  by  impregnations, 
intersect  the  gneiss;  which  for  the  most  part  consist  of  quartz 
and  mica;  in  places,  however,  they  contain  much  massive  crys- 
tallized cassiterite.  Somewhat  beyond  Graupen,  there  occurs  a 
curious  breccia  in  a  quarry,  in  which  gneiss,  quartz-porphyry, 
and  so-called  syenite-porphyry,  appear  to  have  been  forcibly 
kneaded  into  one  another;  and  this  breccia  contains  smaller 
pockets,  and  well  formed  geodes,  of  tin-ore,  irregularly  scattered 
through  it. 

At  Zinnwald  the  mass  of  the  greisen,  which  rock  is  so  charac- 
teristic of  many  tin-districts,  is  intersected  by  broad,  gently 
sloping,  and  more  recent,  narrower  perpendicular,  tin-lodes, 
which  are  both  accompanied  by- impregnations.  The  first  con- 
sist of  lepidolith  and  quartz,  symmetrically  arranged,  at  <times  in 
the  middle  of  red  orthoclase  (paradoxite);  between  which  occur 
wolfram  and  cassiterite,  together  with  some  other  minerals. 

At  Altenberg  a  fine  grained  granite  is  locally  altered  into 
a  dark  stanniferous  rock,  in  which  none  of  the  ingredients  can 
any  longer  be  distinctly  recognised.  I  have  shown  in  a  former 
memoir  that  the  Altenberg  Zwitter-rock  is  nothing  but  a  granite, 


THE  ERZGEBIRGE.  483 

metamorphosed  from  innumerable  thin  clefts,  and  impregnated 
with  tin-ore.  The  chemical  analyses  subsequently  made,  by 
Dr.  Rube  at  my  suggestion,  entirely  confirmed  this  view.  It 
may  also  be  questioned,  whether  the  greisen  may  not  be  merely 
a  granite  altered  by  the  formation  of  the  tin-lodes. 

At  Seifen  tin-lodes  were  formerly  exploited  which  contained 
copper-ores.  At  Marienberg  the  tin-lodes  accompanied  by  im- 
pregnations occur  in  gneiss;  at  Ehrenfriedersdorf  they  contain 
much  mispickel,  in  mica-schist. 

The  so-called  Stockwerke  at  Geyer  consists  of  a  granite 
mass  in  mica-schist,  traversed  by  numerous  parallel  tin-lodes, 
from  which  the  ores  and  other  minerals  have  penetrated  into 
the  joints  of  the  granite.  It  is  true,  that  the  same  veins  extend 
into  the  surrounding  mica-schist;  but  they  appear  to  contain 
less  ore.  Stelzner  has  very  ably  shown  this  in  the  'Contribu- 
tions to  a  geological  knowledge  of  the  Erzgebirge'  (Freiberg, 
1865). 

At  Eibenstock,  Johanngeorgenstadt,  and  Flatten,  the  tin- 
ore  again  occurs  in  true  veins;  these  traverse  the  granite  and 
mica-schist,  but  appear,  in  the  last,  to  be  chiefly  stanniferous  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  granite.  The  matrix  of  the 
narrowest  veins  consists  merely  of  clay  and  quartz,  with  more 
or  less  chlorite  or  tourmaline;  that  of  the  broader  ones  is  a 
mineral  mixture,  resembling  granite.  The  cassiterite  occurs 
finely  disseminated  in  these  veins,  or  merely  as  an  impregnation 
in  the  wall- rock,  which  then  assumes  a  character  resembling  the 
Altenberg  Zwitter.  Tourmaline  schist  occurs  at  the  same  time, 
and  this  is  also  penetrated  by  impregnations  of  tin-ore.  This 
is  the  case  with  the  topaz-rock  of  the  Schreckenstein,  which 
appears  to  be  connected  in  some  manner  with  the  tin-ore-deposits 
of  this  region.  At  Breitenbrunn  a  bedded  vein,  resembling 
greenstone,  in  the  mica-schist,  contains,  in  addition  to  numerous 
other  minerals,  more  or  less  cassiterite ;  and  traces  of  this  last 
have  been  found  even  in  the  silver-lodes  around  Freiberg. 

At  some  distance  from  the  Erzgebirge  occurs  the  tin-ore 
locality  of  Schlackenwald  !  in  Bohemia,  with  the  same  character- 
istic mineral  combination,  as  lodes  and  impregnations,  in  a 
district  of  gneiss  and  granite,  which  last  cuts  through  the  first. 

From  all   this  it   follows,    that  in    this   portion   of  Germany 

1  See:  §  136;  Riicker,  in  Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichsanst.  vol.  XIV.  p.  8. 

31* 


484  OTHER  TIN-DEPOSITS 

a  broad  belt,  of  old  plutonic  and  metainorphic  rocks,  has  been 
impregnated  in  different  ways  by  stanniferous  solutions,  which 
produced  mineral  deposits  and  alterations. 

Outside  of  this  region  tin-ores  are  found  in  Germany  only 
on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Rieseugebirge ;  where  they  occur 
sparingly,  as  an  impregnation,  at  Querbach  l  and  Voigtsdorf,  in 
a  belt  of  mica-schist  which  is  embedded  in  gneiss.  The  minerals 
usually  associated  with  cassiterite  are  for  the  most'  part  wanting. 
In  their  places  appear  iron-pyrites,  a  peculiar  specular  iron, 
galena,  blende  and  cobalt  ores  occur  in  the  same  bedlike 
impregnation. 

The  occurrence  of  tin-ore  at  Querbach  somewhat  resembles 
in  shape  that  of  Pittkaranda  in  Finland ;  it  is  a  zone  of  impreg- 
nation in  hornblende-schist  lying  between  granite.  The  charac- 
teristic wolfram  and  molybdenite  are  not  wanting;  but  in  addi- 
tion to  these  copper-ores,  iron-pyrites,  pyrrhotine,  magnetite, 
galena,  blende,  garnet,  actinolith,  malacolith,  etc.  are  also  present. 

This  is  the  only  locality  of  tin-ore  known  to  exist  in  the 
Eastern  portion  of  Europe,  none  having  been  found  in  the  Urals, 
or  even  in  Scandinavia  so  rich  in  granite. 

In  addition  to  those  mentioned,  workable  tin-deposits  are 
only  found  on  the  European  continent  in  Brittany,  in  the  Haute- 
Vienne,  in  Western  Spain,  and  in  Portugal. 

At  Ploermel,  Villeder,  Piriac,  Questembert,  and  in  the  Ouste 
Valley,  the  tin-ore  occurs  in  quartzose  veins  within  the  granite, 
together  with  tourmaline,  beryl,  topaz,  and  mispickel;  in  addition 
to  which,  however,  impregnations  occur  in  the  same  neighbor- 
hood within  hornblende-schist,  together  with  garnet  and  epidote. 

At  Vaury,  and  Puy-les-Vignes  ( Haute- Vienne),  lodes  occur 
in  granite  and  greisen,  with  wolfram,  mispickel,  molybdenite, 
and  copper-pyrites. 

At  Penouta  and  Romilio,  near  Verin,  and  in  the  Montes  and 
Avion  mountains  (Spain),  lodes  and  pockets  occur,  in  granite 
and  mica-schist,  containing  hornblende,  which  also  contain  wolf- 
ram and  beryl. 

In  Cornwall2  the  miners  distinguish  regular  lodes,  which 
traverse  granite,  killas,  and  elvans,  irregular  tin-floors  in  granite, 
and  impregnations  in  granite  and  hornblende-schist.  Wolfram 


1  See  §  148. 

2  See  §  231. 


IN,  AND  OUT  OF,  EUROPE.  485 

is  found  among  the  accessory  minerals,  while   more  recent  cop- 
per-ores are  often  combined  with  it. 

Tin-placers,  or  stream-works,  have  been  also  worked  in  the 
majority  of  these  European  tin-districts,  which  alone  would  not 
afford  any  sufficient  explanation  of  the  nature  of  the  original 
deposits.  This  is  also  the  case,  to  a  great  extent,  at  the  tin- 
mines  on  the  Islands  of  Banca,  Billiton,  Malacca,  and  Carimon, 
which  appear  to  be  the  only  tin-localities  worth  noticing  outside 
of  Europe,  although  tin- ores  have  been  found  in  a  few  localities 
in  North  and  South  America.1  From  the  mineral  fragments, 
which  occur  together  with  the  tin  on  these  islands,  and  from 
the  rocks  which  crop-out  to  the  surface,  according  to  De  Groote's 
account,  in  the  neighboring  mountains  (granite,  greisen,  gneiss, 
etc.)  there  appears  to  be  a  great  general  resemblance  with  the 
manner  in  which  tin  occurs  in  Europe.  From  the  Island  of 
Billiton  only  have  I  seen  fragments  of  a  tin-lode  in  argillaceous 
mica-schist,  which  consisted,  at  its  out-crop,  chiefly  of  quartz, 
and  limonite ;  and  in  which  I  was  unable  to  find  the  character- 
istic minerals  generally  accompanying  the  cassiterite. 
;,t  In.  general  the  mineralogical,  as  well  as  the  geological  rela- 
tionship of  all  these  occurrences  of  tin-ore  is  evidently  very 
great  ;  and  they  appear,  from  what  has  been  said,  to  be  almost 
entirely  found  in  true  plutonic,  granitic  rocks.  The  converse 
cannot,  however,  be  asserted,  that  the  tin-ores  are  constant 
companions  of  these  rocks;  for  the  number  of  granite  dis- 
tricts, which  contain  no  tin,  far  exceed  those,  where  it  is  to 
be  found. 

The  distribution  of  tin-ore  in  the  earth's  crust,  so  far  as 
we  know,  is  remarkably  unequal. 

In  some  regions  it  is  uncommonly  frequent,  while  in  very 
large  districts  on  the  other  hand  no  trace  of  it  has  as  yet  been 
found.  How  does  it  happen  that  so  much  tin-ore  is  found  pre- 
cisely in  the  Erzgebirge,  Brittany,  Castile,  Cornwall,  and  some 
East  India  islands,  adjacent  to  one  another,  while  outside  of 
these  localities  it  is  rarely  met  with? 

It  may  well  be  asserted,  that  even  gold  is  much  more 
equally  distributed,  and  is,  in  so  far,  more  common;  although 
it  has  in  no  single  locality  been  found  to  such  an  extent  as  tin ; 


1  It  does  not  yet  seem  to  be  a  solved  problem,   whether  the   tin-mines 
of  Tenniscal  in  California  can  be  profitably  worked. 


486  FREIBERG  OLDER  SILVER-LODES. 

it    also    appears/    that    wolfram    takes    part    in    this    unequable 
distribution. 

Hardly  another  group  of  ores  and  their  accompanying 
minerals  can  be  found  recurring  in  such  a  constant  manner,  with 
and  under  such  analagous  geological  conditions,  with  varying 
form  of  the  deposits,  as  that  of  the  tin-ores. 

FREIBERG    OLDER    SILVER-LODES. 

§  263.  Quartz  and  carbonates  occur  combined  with  galena, 
blende,  pyrites,  and  rich  silver-ores.  The  following  three  forma- 
tions of  these  lodes  are  distinguished  around  Freiberg,  and  have 
been  already  described : 

1.  Noble  Quartz  Formation,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
matrix   of   certain    lodes,    which    consist  for    the    most    part  of 
quartz  or  hornstone;    and  which  contain,    disseminated  through 
this  gang,  or  in  geodes,  here  and  there,  rich  silver-ores,  argen- 
tiferous mispickel,  more  or  less  galena  and  blende.    The  minerals 
already  mentioned  under  this  head,  in  the  paragraph  on  Freiberg, 
occur  in  addition  to  the  quartzose  principal  matrix ;   which  are, 
however,   by  no   means   all  of  contemporaneous   formation,    and 
of  which  only  a  few  are  characteristic. 

2.  Pyritous  Lead-Formation.     The  matrix  of  the  lodes 
of  this   formation,    chiefly    consists    of    sulphurets    with    quartz. 
Galena  and  blende,  with  but  little  pyrites,  locally  predominate; 
in  some  lodes  on  the  contrary  copper-ores  prevail,  and  are  then 
classed  together  as   the    Copper   Formation.     The  principal 
minerals  are  in  general  irregularly  mingled  together,  signs  of  a 
parallel  combed    structure   being   but   exceptionally    observed  in 
the  lodes. 

3.  Noble  Lead- For  mat  ion.     The  essential  minerals  til- 
ling these  lodes  are  quartz,  brown  spar  or  dialogite,  galena,  and 
blende.     Rich   silver-ores    often    occur,    in  geodes,    and   strings. 
A  parallel  combed  structure  occurs  more  commonly  than  in  the 
last  mentioned  formation. 

For  the  totality  the  following  may  be  taken  as  examples 
of  other  occurrences:  in  Bohemia,  the  lodes  of  Przibram  in  the 
Silurian  formation,  those  of  Bleistadt  in  mica-schist,  those  of 
Adamstadt,  Kultenberg,  Ratiboritz,  and  Michelberg,  in  gneiss: 
in  Silesia,  the  older  copper  and  lead  lodes  in  the  green  schist 
of  Kupferberg:  in  the  Carpathians,  the  lodes,  accompanied  by 


BARYTIC  LEAD-FORMATION.  487 

impregnations,  of  Kirlibaba  (Bukowina),  those  in  the  Tertiary 
greenstone  (timazite)  of  Kapnik,  Turcz,  Porpatak,  Kremnitz, 
and  Schemnitz:  in  the  Alps,  the  lodes  in  the  clay-slate  of  the 
Pfundrersberg,  numerous  ones  in  the  mica-schist  of  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Mont  Blanc,  and  at  Allemont:  in  Brittany,  the  lodes 
in  the  clay-slate  of  Poullaouen  and  Huelgoat:  in  Wales,  the  veins 
in  the  clay-slate  of  Cardiganshire.  These  all  possess  a  common 
character,  and  especially  a  scarcity  of  heavy  spar,  which  occurs, 
at  the  most,  only  as  an  accessory  mineral. 

Possibly  the  auriferous  quartz-veins  ^  of  Culera  in  Spain,  as 
well  as  those  in  the  Salzburg  Alps,  and  numerous  veins  of 
various  districts  containing  copper,  nickel,  and  cobalt  ores,  may 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  this  class. 

BARYTIC    LEAD-FORMATION. 

§  264.  The  lead  and  silver  lodes  around  Freiberg,  con- 
taining considerable  amounts  of  heavy  spar,  can  be  easily  and 
distinctly  separated  from  the  others.  They  are  decidedly  of  more 
recent  age;  and  if  in  the  older  lodes  somewhat  of  heavy  spar 
or  fluor  spar  occasionally  occurs,  it  is  only  in  geodes.  The 
characteristic  marks  of  the  barytie  veins  is  the  predominant 
heavy  spar;  this  is  -combined  with  fluor  spar,  quartz,  galena, 
blende,  and  various  kinds  of  pyrites.  Their  structure  is  at  times 
a  very  distinctly  combed  one,  and  their  geodes  often  contain 
beautiful  crystallizations. 

With  slight  modifications,  especially  as  to  the  sort  of  ore 
they  carry,  these  lodes,  characterised  by  heavy  spar,  recur  in 
numerous  portions  of  the  globe,  and  under  tolerably  dissimilar 
geological  conditions.  The  periods  of  their  formation  also 
appear  to  have  been  very  different.  It  is  at  least  certain,  that 
some  of  those  known  were  first  formed  toward  the  end  of  the 
Tertiary  Period. 

The  heterogeneousness  of  their  wall-rock  and  of  the  kind  of 
metal  they  contain,  may  be  seen  from  the  subjoined  table,  in 
which,  though  very  incomplete,  the  essential  metals  are  men- 
tioned. 


488 


VARIETY  OF  METALS,  AND  WALL-ROCK, 


District. 

Locality. 

Wall-Rock. 

Characteristic  Metals. 

V:"* 

Erzgebirge. 

Marienberg. 

Gneiss.     ,* 

Lead,    silver,     copper, 

cobalt,  and  nickel. 

Ehrenfriedersdorf. 

Mica-schist. 

Silver,  and  copper-ores. 

Annaberg. 

Gneiss. 

Silver,    cobalt,     nickel, 

-  •  j  '  '       "  ~* 

and  bismuth. 

Weipert. 

Gneiss. 

Lead,  and  silver  ores. 

Joachimsthal    (with 

Mica-schist,  quartz- 

Lead,     silver,    copper, 

but    little    heavy 

porphyry,  and  ba- 

cobalt,    nickel,     and 

spar). 

salt. 

bismuth. 

Schneeberg   (a  por- 

Clay-slate, and  mica- 

Lead,     silver,     cobalt, 

tion  of  the  lodes). 

schist. 

nickel,  and  bismuth. 

Hartz.             Clausthal.                  Subcarboniferous 

Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 

Formation. 


Rhenish  Mts. 

Holzappel  (with  but 
little  heavy  spar). 

Clay-slate. 

Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 

Black  Forest. 

Wolfach. 
Wittich. 

Schappachthal. 

Sulzburg. 
Badenweiler. 

Miinsterthal. 

Gneiss,  and  granite. 
Gneiss,  and  granite. 

Gneiss. 

« 

Gneiss,  and  granite. 
Granite,   and  varie- 
gated sandstone. 
Gneiss,  and  por- 
phyry. 

Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 
Lead,      silver,     cobalt, 
nickel,  and  bismuth. 
Lead,    silver,     copper, 
and  bismuth. 
Lead,  and  silver. 
Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 

Lead,  and  silver. 

Riesenge- 
birge. 

Kupferberg. 

Diorite  slate. 

Lead,    silver,     copper, 
cobalt,  and  nickel. 

Hungary.        |Felsobanya.  |Tertiary  greenstone.  Lead,  silver,  gold,  and 


1    ; 

antimony. 

Alps. 

Stubegg. 

Clay-slate. 

Lead,  and  silver. 

Brixlegg. 

Guttenstein  lime- 

Silver, and  copper. 

stone. 

Schwatz. 

Guttenstein  lime- 

Silver, and  copper. 

stone. 

Italy. 

Val  di  Castello. 

Mica-schist.               Lead,  and  silver. 

Massetano. 

Strata   of  the   Cre- 

Lead,  and  silver. 

taceous  Period. 

IN  LEAD-  AND  SILVER-LODES  OF  EUROPE. 


489 


District. 

Locality. 

Wall-Rock. 

Characteristic  Metals, 

The  Vosges. 

Urbeis. 

Gneiss,  and  granite. 

Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 

Lembach. 

Sandstone. 

Lead,  silver,  and  zinc. 

Giromagny. 

Porphyry. 

Lead,    silver,     copper. 

and  gold. 

Central 

St.  Julien. 

Granite,  and  gneiss. 

Lead,  and  silver.    .  , 

France.      |St.    Just,    and    St. 

Granite,     .porphyry, 

Lead,  and  silver. 

.•    -^ 

Germain. 

and  Carboniferous 

Formation. 

*  _•   ,-',-•    '.  •  *  ' 

Villefranche  and 

Gneiss,  porphyry, 

Lead,    silver,     copper, 

Najac.                    j    and  Triassic  strata     and  nickel. 

Asprieres. 

Gneiss,  granite,  and  Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 

diorite. 

Corbieres.                  Clay-slate,  and          Lead,    silver,     copper, 

gneiss. 

and  antimony. 

Milhau.                       Granite,  mica-schist, 

Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 

Trias  and  Lias. 

Spain.             Hiendelencia. 

Crystalline  schist. 

Lead,    silver,    and   an- 

timony. 

Carthagena 

Silurian   strata   and  Lead,  silver,  and  copper. 

trachyte? 

Sierra  Almagre'ra. 

Mica-schist,  and       Lead,  and  silver. 

clay-slate. 

Linares. 

Granite,  and  Trias-  Lead,  and  silver. 

sic  sandstone. 

Great  Britain  Llanidloes. 

Clay-slate. 

Lead,  and  silver. 

and  Ireland. 

Derbyshire. 

Mountain-limestone. 

Lead,  and  silver. 

Cumberland. 

Mountain-limestone. 

Lead,  and  silver. 

Wicklow. 

Granite. 

Lead,  and  silver. 

These  examples,  only  taken  from  Europe,  will  suffice  to 
show  the  great  distribution  of  the  vein-formation,  characterised 
by  heavy  spar,  but  otherwise  very  unequally  developed.  The 
same  is  known  to  exist  in  nearly  all  countries,  where  vein- 
mining  is  carried  on. 

Since  the  older  silver-lodes  and  the  more  recent  barytic  ones- 
occur  together  in  the  same  district  around  Freiberg,  an  enume- 
ration of  the  chemical  elements  found  in  them,  either  in  common 
or  separately,  may  be  of  interest.  I  have  endeavored,  as  far  as- 
possible,  to  arrange  them  according  to  the  frequency,  or  the 
quantity,  of  their  occurrence. 


490  VEINS  OF  IRONSTONE. 

There  have  been  found,  common  to  the  older  and  more 
recent  lodes;  silicium,  sulphur,  iron,  oxygen,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
calcium,  magnesium,  lead,  zinc,  arsenic,  copper,  silver,  antimony, 
manganese,  chlorine,  bismuth,  gold,  cobalt,  uranium,  tungsten, 
cadmium,  aluminum,  and  indium.  Phosphorus  belongs  to  both, 
but  probably  not  as  an  original  ingredient.  In  the  older  lodes 
alone,  occurs  tin;  in  the  more  recent  ones  alone,  as  originally 
present,  barium,  fluorine,  nickel,  titanium,  and  selenium.  (?) 

The  conformity  of  both  is  thus  very  great;  particularly  as 
we  may  assume  that  it  is  merely  accidental,  that  nickel,  tita- 
nium, and  selenium,  have  not  yet  been  discovered  in  the  older 
lodes;  since  barium  and  fluorine  also  occur  in  the  drusy  cavities 
of  the  older  veins. 

About  a  half  of  all  the  known  elements  are  therefore  repre- 
sented in  the  Freiberg  lodes;  they  differ,  however,  from  those 
which  predominate  in  the  widely  distributed  rocks  of  whatever 
kind. 

The  entire  absence  of  potassium  and  sodium  is  most  strik- 
ing, as  also  the  very  subordinate  occurrence  of  aluminum. 

Even  this  great  chemical  difference  teaches  us,  that  the  for- 
mation of  the  Freiberg,  like  all  similar,  lodes  must  have  been 
a  different  one  from  that  of  the  igneous,  sedimentary,  or  meta- 
morphic  rocks.  The  absence  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  alumi- 
num, throws  some  light  on  the  manner  of  formation.  The  com- 
pounds of  aluminum  were  probably  too  slightly  soluble  to  reach 
the  vein-fissures  in  solutions;  the  alkalies,  however,  remained, 
as  being  most  easily  soluble  in  the  solution,  and  flowed  off  with 
this  as  mineral  springs. 

VEINS  OF  IRONSTONE. 

§  265.  These,  consisting  of  hematite  and  limonite,  with  quartz, 
hornstone,  and  ferruginous  quartz;  appear  to  be  in  the  Erzgebirge 
every  where  the  youngest.  They  often  contain,  besides  the 
minerals  mentioned,  ores  of  manganese,  calc-spar,  heavy  spar, 
and  many  other  minerals;  among  the  latter  also  ores,  such  as 
chiefly  occur  in  the  older  veins.  Their  separation  from  these 
is  by  no  means  a  sharp  one.  In  southern  Saxony  they  are 
joined  by  veins  of  spathic  iron  containing  copper-ores,  which 
are  at  their  out-crop  almost  entirely  altered  to  veins  of  limonite. 
These  and  similar  conditions  found  in  other  countries  (as  the 


GREENSTONE  ORE-DEPOSITS  NEAR  SCHWARZENBERG.      491 

so-called  'gossan'  of  numerous  lodes  etc.)  may  have  given  rise 
to  the  idea,  that  many  of  the  veins  of  ironstone  are  possibly 
but  the  upper  portions  of  other  kinds  of  lodes.  In  this  manner 
the  average  recent  age  of  most  veins  of  limonite  and  hematite 
would  be  explained;  since  it  is  certain,  the  like  have  been  formed 
during  all  periods. 

It  might,  if  the  idea  was  proved,  act  similarly  with  them, 
as  with  the  volcanic  and  plutonic  rocks;  i.  e.  the  upper  portion 
of  the  older  veins  rich  in  iron,  which  corresponds  to  the  vol- 
canic portion  of  the  igneous  masses^  is  destroyed  and  washed 
away  in  the  most  cases;  and  then  only  the  lower  portions  are 
found,  which  chiefly  contain  other  ores,  and  in  part  altogether 
different  minerals.  Only  in  the  younger  veins  has  that  upper 
portion  commonly  been  retained;  and  possibly  for  this  reason 
the  veins  of  limonite  and  hematite  are  observed,  on  an  average, 
as  the  most  recent  of  the  lodes.  There  is,  however,  much 
wanting  in  support  of  such  a  hypothesis,  which  must  not  deter  a 
farther  examination. 

In  fact  copper-ores  occur  at  a  considerable  depth  beneath 
limonite,  hematite,  and  magnetite,  in  the  bedded  veins  of  Berg- 
gieshiibel  in  Saxony.  At  Przibram  the  out-croppings  of  some 
lead-silver  lodes  have  been  worked  as  veins  of  ironstone.  Near 
Katzenthal  in  the  Vosges  only  iron-ores  were  obtained  in  the 
upper  workings;  at  a  greater  depth  also  argentiferous  galena 
with  blende,  calamine,  and  heavy  spar. 

These  are  a  few  examples,  which  may  be  pointed  to,  as 
favoring  the  preceding  hypothesis;  though  it  must  be  confessed, 
they  afford  but  slight  proof. 

I  will  here  remark,  that  the  manganese  lodes  of  the  Thu- 
ringian  Forest,  and  around  Ilfeld  in  the  Hartz,  must  be  included 
in  this  group.  The  manganese-ores  only  happen  locally  to  pre- 
dominate in  them. 

THE    METALLIFEROUS    GREENSTONES    IN    THE 
NEIGHBORHOOD  OF  SCHWARZENBERG. 

§  266.  In  addition  to  these  lode-formations,  and  impreg- 
nations accompanying  them,  another  special  group  of  ore-depo- 
sits occurs  in  the  Erzgebirge,  which  differs  from  the  ordinary 
vein-deposits,  and  is  also  mineralogically  somewhat  differently 
composed.  This  group  is  that  mentioned  in  the  heading.  They 


492  GREENSTONE  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

were  formerly  termed  bedded  veins  in  mica-schist;  I  showed  in 
1838, l  that  they  are  joined  to  rocks  of  a  greenstone  character, 
which  traverse  the  mica-schist  tolerably  parallel  to  its  foliation; 
and  are  consequently  bedded  veins.  The  ores  are  locally  inter- 
woven with  these  rocks  in  such  a  manner,  that  they  may  be 
termed  local  impregnations  in  the  same.  Breithaupt  in  his 
Paragene'sis  2  distinguished  this  occurrence,  as  the  Pyroxene 
garnet-pyrites-blende-formation.  By  this,  however,  only  some 
of  the  principal  minerals  of  these  deposits  (very  rich  in  minerals) 
are  mentioned,  which  while  possessing  a  common  general  charac- 
ter are  locally  quite  differently  composed.  It  is  not  here  neces- 
sary again  to  mention  all  the  minerals  which  have  been  found 
in  these  deposits,  the  following  may  be  regarded  as  particularly 
characteristic;  pyroxene,  hornblende,  actinolith,  idocrase,  garnet, 
axinite,  helvin,  epidote,  prase,  pyrrhotine,  iron-pyrites,  copper- 
pyrites,  galena,  blende,  lolirigite,  mispickel,  specular  iron,  and 
cassiterite. 

The  greenstones,  which  locally  contain  these  peculiar  mineral 
aggregations,  very  frequently  accompany  embedded  masses  of 
granular  limestone,  evidently  belonging  to  the  mica-schist. 

This  is  of  itself  an  enigmatical  phenomenon,  since  there  is 
no  apparent  reason,  why  the  penetration  of  the  igneous  green- 
stones so  frequently  followed  the  lime-beds.  This  is  the  case, 
however,  not  only  in  the  district  of  the  crystalline  schist ;  but 
the  same  is  repeated  in  the  Silurian  strata  of  southern  Saxony, 
where  certain  diorites  principally  occur  with  limestone. 

It  would  appear  as  if  some  of  the  peculiar  minerals  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Schwarzenberg  owe  their  origin  to  the  contact 
of  such  heterogeneous  rocks,  although  not,  I  think,  to  the  in- 
fluences of  igneous-fluid  eruptive  masses  alone,  but  also  to  the 
subsequent  effects  of  solutions  under  the  influence  of  such 
heterogeneous  rocks. 

The  garnet  predominates  in  places  to  such  a  degree,  that 
the  mass  may  be  termed  garnet-rock ;  in  other  places  masses  of 
magnetite  occur,  while  in  still  others  various  kinds  of  pyrites, 
or  zincblende,  predominate.  Erlanite3  also  occurs,  combined 
with  these  peculiar  deposits. 

1  See:  Erlauterungen  z.  geognost.  Karte  von  Sachsen. 

*  See:  Breithaupt,  die  Paragenesis  der Mineral! en,  Freiberg,  1849, p.  134. 

3  See :  §  85,  and  Erlauterungen  z.  geogn.  Karte  v.  Sachseri,  II.  1838,  p.  219. 


TRANSYLVANIA  TELLURIC  AND  AURIFEROUS  LODES.       493 

Some  foreign  occurrences  may  be  joined  to  these  deposits 
in  the  Erzgebirge,  as  being  more  or  less  closely  allied  to  them ; 
still  the  variations  are  so  great,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  form 
a  determined  group. 

I  would  designate  the  following  deposits  as  belonging  here: 

1.  Those  in   the   gneiss   of  Bodenmais l    in   Bavaria,    which 
consist  of  irregular  mixtures  of  pyrrhotine,  blende,  galena,  mag- 
netite, iron-pyrites,   copper-pyrites,  iolith,  actinolith,  garnet,  pyr- 
oxene, feldspar,  quartz,  amethyst,  serpentine,  etc. 

2.  The  contact-deposits  which  occur,  in  the  Banat  and  Ser- 
via,    between  'granular  limestone   and  banatite,    or  also  between 
granular    limestone    and    mica-schist.      They    consist   of   similar 
irregular  mixtures  of  pyrites,  galena,  blende,  magnetite,  etc.  and 
are    also   combined   with    garnet-rock   and  its    related  minerals; 
and  even   though  the   garnet-rock  is   here    evidently  of  another 
and  older  origin   than  the  ores;   still  the  whole  occurrence  is  a 
tolerably   similar,   and   locally   changing   one,    as   at  Schwarzen- 
berg.      From    their    geological    position    much    more    distinctly 
opened,    and  in  so  far  more  instructive,    than   those  of  Schwar- 
zenberg,    are  the   deposits    of  the  Banat;    in  which  it   might  be 
possible  to  distinguish  minerals  actually  formed  by  contact,  from 
such  as  have  been  formed  by  subsequent  infiltrations. 

3.  Belonging-  to  the   same  class,    as   the   contact-deposits  of 
the  Banat   and  Servia,    as    being   in  every   way  analogous,    are 
those  of  Rezbanya  in  Hungary  and  Offenbanya  in  Transylvania ; 
and  both  resemble,    according  to  the  descriptions   of  H.  Miiller 
and  G.  Rose,   the  copper-deposits  which  occur  near  Bogoslowsk 
in  the  Urals,    accompanied  by  garnet-rock,   between   greenstone 
and    limestone.      Both    the   copper-ores    of  Chessy    near  Lyons, 
and  of  Rio  Tinto  in  Spain,  occur  at  the  contact  of  greenstones. 

All  these  form  in  common  a  not  clearly  defined  group,  but 
still  belonging  together. 


THE  TELLURIC  AND  AURIFEROUS  LODES  OF 
TRANSYLVANIA. 

§  267.     Returning  to  the  lodes  proper,  and  no  longer  start- 
ing from  the  Erzgebirge  as  the  normal  type,  we  can  distinguish 

1  See  §  134. 


494  SILVER-LODES  IN  THE  HARTZ. 

the  telluric  and  auriferous  lodes  of  Transylvania  as  a  particular 
group. 

The  tellurium,  as  the  single  element  with  which  gold  is 
found  mineralized,  is  the  characteristic  of  these  lodes;  and  this 
element  belongs  to  the  peculiarly  jAre/  ones.  Up  to  the  present 
time,  but  very  few  regions  are  known,  in  which  ores  of  tellurium 
occur.  The  Tertiary  greenstones  in  the  neighborhoods  of 
Nagyag,  Zalathna  and  Offenbanya1  are  traversed  by  nssures  in 
which  ^auriferous  tellurium-ores  have  been  deposited  together 
with  quartz,  brown  spar,  and  some  other  minerals. 

This  was,  until  recently,  the  single  important  occurrence 
of  the  kind;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  tellurium-ores  of  Sawo- 
dinsk  in  the  Altai  Mountains,  of  Spottsylvania,  Fluvanna  and 
Stafford  Counties  in  Virginia,  of  Davidson  County  in  North  Caro- 
lina, and  of  Dahlonega  in  Georgia  appear  to  be  inconsiderable. 

Very  recently  rich  tellurium-ores,  containing  gold,  silver, 
and  lead,  have  been  found  in  Calaveras  County,  California, 
forming  lodes  which  traverse  metamorphic  schists. 

THE  SILVER-LODES   OF   ANDREASBERG    IN  THE 

HARTZ. 

§  268.  These,  together  with  those  of  Knngsberg  in  Nor- 
way, form  a  separate  group.  The  sulphurets,  elsewhere  so 
common  to  lodes,  are  here  very  subordinate.  The  most  com- 
mon ores  are  rich  silver  ones,  from  which  native  silver  has 
frequently  been  formed,  combined  with  calc-spar,  quartz,  and 
all  sorts  of  zeoliths,  which  elsewhere  occur  but  rarely  in  lodes. 

SEGREGATIONS    OF   PYRITES. 

§  ,269.  The  copper-deposits  of  Goslar,  Agordo,  Schmollnitz, 
and  Falun,  form  a  fine  group.  They  consist,  for  the  most  part, 
of  large  aggregations  of  pyrites  in  clay-slate  or  mica-schist. 
Their  forms  approach  the  lenticular,  almost  parallel  to  the  strata ; 
outwardly,  they  are  surrounded  by,  or  are  connected  with,  im- 
pregnations of  pyrites  in  the  slate ;  inwardly  they  show,  in  part, 
traces  of  parallel  structure,  corresponding  to  the  enclosing  slate: 


1  See:   Cotta's  Erzlagerstatten  Ungarns  u.  Siebenbiirgens,  1862,  p.  65; 
Berg-  u.  htittenm.  Zeit.  1865,  p.  374. 


SEGREGATIONS  OF  PYRITES.  495 

they  contain  in  places  friction-surfaces.  Iron-pyrites  predomi- 
nates in  all  of  them;  copper-pyrites  is  mixed  with  the  preceding 
to  a  subordinate  degree ;  while  galena,  blende,  quartz,  and  heavy 
spar,  occur  locajly ;  traces  of  other  ores,  impossible  to  distinguish 
with  the  eye,  are  mixed  with  them;  containing  gold,  silver,  cobalt, 
nickel,  and  even  some  tin. 

I  have  shown,  that  the  broad  pyrites-mass,  of  the  Rammels- 
berg  near  Goslar,  consists  properly  of  a  combination  of  smaller 
irregular  lenses  grouped  together.  This  can  be  recognised  at 
Schmollnitz1  in  Hungary,  while  at  Agordo  in  the  Alps,  and 
Falun  in  Sweden,  the  mass  at  least  contains  layers  of  slate. 
It  is  possible,  that  these  immense  segregations  of  pyrites  are 
also  thus  divided  into  smaller  masses,  which  may  be  easily 
overlooked  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  working  them. 

In  all  of  them  the  origin  of  such  immense  aggregations  of 
'sulphurets  remains  unintelligible.  They  can  in  no  case  be 
regarded  as  subsequent  fillings  of  cavities  so  large,  as  the  space 
they  now  occupy.  Since  their  composition,  and  their  being 
completely  enclosed  on  every  side,  is  not  compatible  with  the 
supposition  of  an  igneous-fluid  injection ;  there  only  remains  the 
choice  between  contemporaneous  deposit,  and  subsequent  impreg- 
nation-; which  last,  however,  like  pseudomorphs  by  replacement, 
must  have  been  combined  with  the  partial  destruction  and  car- 
rying away  of  the  schistose  rock.  The  pyrites-masses  of  Rio 
Tinto,  and  of  the  Province  of  Huelva,  in  Spain  generally, 
resemble  those  here  mentioned  in  form  and  composition ;  but 
their  geological  position  appears  to  be  different.  According  to 
Lan's  description,  they  occur  at  the  junction  of  igneous  rocks 
with  clay-slate ;  consequently  they  resemble  much  more  the  con- 
tact-segregations in  Servia  and  the  Banat. 

The  classes  of  the  products  of  nature,  which  we  form  for 
a  readier  review  and  comparison,  all  carry  more  or  less  the 
stamp  of  incompleteness,  or  even  of  arbitrariness;  they  do  not 
suffice  for  the  totality  of  the  phenomena. 

Certain  of  nature's  bodies  may  be  capitally  classed  together; 
but  others  occur,  which  may  be  joined  less  well  together,  which 
unite  in  themselves  the  properties  of  two  natural  groups,  and 


1  See:  Cotta's  Erzlagerstatten  in  Ungarn  u.  Siebenbiirgen,  p.  53;  Berg- 
u.  huttenm.  Zeit.  1861,  p.  195,  1862,  p.  452;  Oesterreich.  Zeitsch.  1803, 
pp.  101,  235. 


496          LEAD  AND  ZINC  IN  LIMESTONE  AND  DOLOMITE. 

consequently  can  be  placed  between  them  as  uniting  members; 
or  even  such  as  vary  quite  considerably  from  all.  In  this  manner 
the  pyrites-segregations  are  joined  by  the  pyrites-beds,  which 
themselves  appear  at  times  to  consist  of  irregular  lenticular 
bodies;  or  which  locally  extend  infco  mere  impregnations.  Ex- 
amples of  these  are  the  cupriferous  pyrites-beds  in  mica-schist  at 
Poschorita  and  Domokos  in  the  Bukowina,  and  in  Transylvania, 
in  chloritic  schist  of  Kitzbiihel  in  the  Tyrol,  and  in  clay-slate 
near  Mitterberg  in  the  Salzburg  Alps,  also  those  in  the  talcose 
chloritic  schist  of  Roraas  in  Norway. 

LEAD    AND    ZINC    DEPOSITS    IN    LIMESTONE 
AND   DOLOMITE. 

§  270.  Irregularly  formed,  more  rarely  veinlike,  in  part 
very  massive  aggregations  of  galena,  blende,  calamine,  and  smith- 
sonite,  occur  in  limestones  and  dolomites,  of  very  dissimilar  age, 
in  Upper  Silesia,  in  Westphalia  and  Belgium,  at  Wiesloch  in 
Baden,  in  the  Carinthian  Alps,  near  Anduze  in  France,  in  the 
Spanish  Province  of  Santander,  as  well  as  in  the  States  of  Wis- 
consin, Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri;  they  are  all  of  a  similar, 
but  by  no  means  contemporaneous  origin.  Great  districts  must 
have  been  penetrated  by  metalliferous  solutions;  from  which  the 
precipitation  of  the  above  ores  took  place,  for  the  greater  part, 
only  in  dolomite  or  limestone,  frequently  at  their  expense. 

To  be  more  clear,  the  solution  traversed  the  considerably 
fissured  rock;  and  this  re-acted  in  such  a  way  on  it,  that  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  magnesia  were  dissolved,  the  ores  being 
deposited  in  their  place.  These  are  pseudomorphs  by  replacement, 
on  the  grandest  scale,  and  without  crystal  form,  whose  forma- 
tion must  have  occupied  a  long  period.  At  the  same  time 
existing  cavities  or  fissures  were  filled  up. 

It  is  altogether  inadmissible  to  suppose,  that  the  deposition 
of  the  ores  occurred,  in  these  cases,  contemporaneously  with 
those  of  the  limestone  or  dolomite ;  the  whole  manner,  in  which 
the  ore  is  distributed,  is  opposed  to  this;  entirely  apart  from 
the  fact,  that  these  rocks  belong  to  very  dissimilar  formations, 
and  that  occasionally  the  marine  fossils  are  even  entirely  mine- 
ralised; the  animals  consequently  would  have  been  compelled  to 
have  lived  in  a  metalliferous  solution,  if  the  formation  of  the 
ores  was  a  contemporaneous  one.  The  ores  occur  partly  in  the 


LOCALITIES  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS  TABULATED. 


497 


rock  and  intermixed  with  it,  partly  in  vein -fissures  or  on  the 
clefts  of  stratification;  and  have  penetrated  from  these  to  a 
greater  or  less  distance  in  the  rock.  The  deposits,  in  the  fis- 
sures and  clefts  of  the  stratification,  are  decidedly  of  more  recent 
origin  than  the  rock;  they  are,  however,  entirely  of  the  same 
condition  as  the  other  ores.  This  is  most  evident  in  the  lead- 
deposits  in  the  mountain-limestone  of  Derbyshire  and  Cumber- 
land; which  chiefly  fill  vein-fissures,  in  part  with  very  regular, 
symmetrical  combed  texture,  in  which  the  ores  are  combined 
with  considerable  heavy  and  fluor  spar,  from  which  these  rake- 
veins  assume  the  character  of  the  Freiberg  barytic  lead-formation^; 
while  the  same  ores  occur  combined  with  them  in  the  fissures 
of  stratification  (flat-veins),  and  in  irregular  spaces  (pipe-veins) ; 
from  which  fact  they  join  most  closely  on  the  above-mentioned 
deposits.  It  is  worth  noticing,  that  the  most  of  these  deposits, 
rich  in  galena,  contain  an  uncommonly  small  amount  of  silver, 
much  less  than  is  commonly  found  in  the  galena  occurring  in 
true  fissure-veins.  Whether  the  limestone  re-acted  less  on  the 
silver,  or  whether  these  solutions  contained  but  a  very  small 
percentage  of  the  same,  is  a  still  open  question. 

It  appears  to  me  proper,   for  the   sake    of  convenience,   to 
tabulate  the  different  localities  in  which  these  ore-deposits  occur. 


Locality. 

Formation. 

Nature  of  Deposit 

Where  Described. 

Santander  in 
Spain. 

Magnesian  limestone 
of  the  Jura  or 
Cretaceous  Period. 

Segregated  and  bed- 
like  impregnations 
of  calamine,  ga- 
lena, and  blende; 
with  copper-nickel 
and  arsenic  ores. 

.':  j  -•'-  , 

Compt.  rend.  1858,  vol. 
47,  p.  728;  and  185$, 
vol.  49,  p.  553  ;  Min- 
ing. Mag.  1861,  p.  73; 
Berg-  u.  htittenm. 
Zeit.  t863,  p.  163; 
Jahrb.  f.  Mineral. 
1864,  p.  849. 

Pallieres  near  Magnesian  limestone  Segregations  of  ga-|Anu.    d.   mines,    1859T 
Anduze    in     of  the  Black  Jura,     lena,  blende,  and!    vol.  15,  p.  47. 
France.  calamine;    with 

pyrites,   quartz, 

calc-spar,   and 

fluor  spar. 


32 


498 


TABLE  OF  THE  LOCALITIES,  etc. 


Locality. 


Formation.         !  Nature  of  Deposit.      -Where  described. 


Bleiberg  in 
Carinthia. 

Hallstatter  limestone 
(Upper  Triassic). 

Segregations,  and 
,   lodes,   gf   galena, 
blende,  and  cala- 
mine. 

Berg-  u.  hiittenm.  Zeit. 
1863,    p.  9,    et    seq. 
Jahrb.  d.  geol.  Reichs- 
anst.    1855,    p.    169; 
1856,  p.  369;  1861-62, 
p.  292;  and  1863,  p. 
25. 

Windisch- 
Bleiberg  in 
Carinthia. 

Hallstatter  lime-       Impregnations  of  ga- 
stone.                        lena    and    blende 
alongside  of  clefts. 

Miss  near 
Bleiburg  in 
Carinthia. 

Hallstatter  lime- 
stone. 

Segregated   impreg-  Oesterreich.     Zeitschr. 
nations,     pockets,      1863,  pp.  52,  173,  373, 
and  masses,  of  ga-     382. 
lena  and  blende. 

Raibl  in  Ca- 
rinthia. 

Dolomite  of  the  Gut- 
tenstein  limestone 
(Lower  Triassic). 

Bedlike     impregna- 
tions and  matrices 
of  fissures. 

Hollenthal, 
etc.,  in  the 
Wetter- 
stein  dis- 

Hallstatter lime- 
stone. 

Impregnations    of 
lead  and  zinc  ores, 
alongside    of   fis- 
sures. 

Gtimbels  BayrischesAl- 
pengebirge,  p.  245 

trict  of  the 

Alps. 

- 

Wiesloch  in    Trochyten  limestone  j  Segregations  of  ga-,Jahresbericht  d.  Mann- 
Baden,  of   the    Muschel-j    lena,  blende,  and;     heimer  Vereins  f.  Na- 


kalk  formation. 

calamine. 

turkunde,  1860,  p.  36; 
Ludwig,  Reised.Russ- 
land,  1862,  p.  9. 

Tarnowitz 
and     Beu- 
then  in  Up- 
per Silesia. 

Dolomite  of  the'Mu- 
schelkalk  forma- 
tion. 

Bedded  segregations 
of  calamine,  and 
pockets  of  galena. 

Jahrb.  f.  Mineral.  1864, 
p.  482;  Berg-  u.  hiit- 
tenm.  Zeit.  1864,  p. 
353. 

Oskusz  in  Po- 
land. 

Dolomite  of  the  Mu- 
schelkalk  forma- 
tion. 

Similar  to  Upper 
Silesia. 

Derbyshire      Mountain-limestone. iLodes,    bedded   fis-|     Wallace,  Lead-ore  of 


and  Cum- 
berland in 
England. 

i 


sures,  and  segre- 
gations ;  galena, 
blende,  pyrites, 
heavy  &  fluor  spar. 


Alston  Moor,  1861; 
Berg-  u.  hiittenm. 
Zeit.  1862,  p.  447. 


OF  ORE-DEPOSITS. 


499 


Locality. 


Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  and 
Belgium. 


Formation. 


Nature  of  Deposit. 


Where  Described. 


In  mountain-lime- 
stone, at  its  junc- 
tion with  Carbo- 
niferous or  Devo- 
nian Slate. 


Segregations  and  im- 
pregnations of  ga- 
lena, blende,  and 
calamine. 


Ruhr  district  At  the  junction  of;  Segregations,    rami- 


in  West- 
phalia. 


the  magnesian 
limestone    of  the 


fications,  and  im- 
pregnations,       in 


Devonian    forma-     limestone;  galena, 
tion  with  the  blende,  &  pyrites,  j 

Lenne  slates. 


Bergisch 
Gladbach. 


At   the  junction 
the  Devonian  lime- 
stone    with     the 
overlying    Lignite 
formation. 


of  Incrustations,  and 
pockets,  of  galena, 
blende,  and  cala- 
mine. 


Wisconsin,     j  Magnesian  limestone  'Segregated   masses, 


Whitney's    Rep.    of   a 


Illinois,  of  the  Silurian  for- 1    and  matrices  of  fis-     Geol.  Surv.  of  the  Up- 

lowa,  and      mation.  sures;    consisting     per  Mississippi  lead- 

Missouri,  of  galena,  blende,     region,    1862;    Berg- 

calamine,  and  py-     u.  hiittenm.  Zeit.  1863, 
rites.  p.  310;  Journ.  d.Min. 

1864,  vol.  VI.  p.  479. 

In  this  table,  arranged  according  to  the  age  of  the  enclosing 
formations,  under  calamine,  are  included  both  the  carbonate  and 
silicate  of  zinc,  as  is  in  common  use  among  miners.  In  addition 
to  the  principal  ores  characteristic  gangstones  alone  have  been 
mentioned.  Books  of  recent  date  are  alone  cited. 

In  addition  to  the  localities  mentioned,  I  might  add  one 
other,  that  of  Kuczaina  in  Servia ;  and  although  this  occurrence 
of  calamine  does  not  altogether  agree  with  the  preceding  ones, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  instructive  cases.  The  compact  Jurassic 
limestone  is  broken  through  near  Kuczaina  by  a  porphyritic 
rock,  which  contains  crystals  of  quartz,  feldspar,  hornblende, 
and  mica,  in  a  compact  matrix.  At  the  junction  with  the  por- 
phyry, there  are  found  in  the  limestone  irregular  aggregations 
of  argentiferous  galena,  blende,  and  pyrites;  these  correspond 
with  the  remarkable  contact-segregations,  which  traverse  the 
Banat  from  South  to  North,  and  also  with  those  of  Maidenpek. 
The  unaltered  Jurassic  limestone  contains,  at  Kuczaina,  in  ad- 

32* 


500  FALLBANDS. 

dition  to  the  contact-segregations  (consisting  of  sulphurets), 
enclosed  pockets,  and  open  eroded  depressions,  consisting  to  a 
great  extent  of  calamine  without  a  trace  of  sulphurets.  These 
evidently  stand  in  some  connection  to  the  contact-segregations. 
They  are  either  products  of  alteration  of  the  same,  or  they 
were  deposited  from  the  same  solutions  as  these,  but  nearer  the 
surface,  under  different  conditions,  and  only  in  limestone,  not 
as  contact-segregations  at  the  junctions  with  the  porphyritic  and 
siliceous  rock. 

The  granular  deposits  of  galena  in  sandstones,  as  those  of 
Commern  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  are  to  some  degree  related  with 
the  irregular  lead-ore-deposits  in  limestone  and  dolomite;  they 
are  evidently  to  be  regarded  as  impregnations  penetrating  into 
the  rocks  from  innumerable  clefts. 


The  nine  groups  of  ore-deposits  already  mentioned  can  be 
easily  distinguished  and  separated  relatively,  at  least  where  they 
have  been  characteristically  developed.  This  is  more  difficult 
with  those  now  to  be  mentioned;  material  and  form  vary  more 
and  more ;  and  the  theme  would  not  be  solved,  were  a  grouping 
of  all  the  known  ore-deposits  to  be  attempted  in  this  manner. 

FALLBANDS. 

§  271.  Certain  zones  in  the  mica-schist,  at  Kongsberg  in 
Norway,  were  first  called  Fallbands;  which  contained  small 
particles  of  pyrites  and  other  sulphurets:  they  are  themselves 
not  exploited,  but  appear  to  have  exerted  a  considerable  in- 
fluence on  the  distribution  of  the  silver-ores  in  the  vein-like 
deposits  which  traverse  them.  It  appears  doubtful,  whether  these 
particles  of  ore  belonged  originally  to  the  rock,  or  whether  they 
penetrated  into  it  by  subsequent  impregnation.  Their  form  and 
manner  of  distribution  correspond  to  zones  of  impregnation. 

Other  ore-distributions  of  the  same  character,  especially  in 
crystalline  rocks,  were  subsequently  called  Fallbands;  for 
example,  those  containing  ores  of  cobalt  at  Snarum  and  Skut- 
terud  in  Norway,  those  containing  ores  of  copper  and  tin  at 
Pittkaranda  in  Finland,  those  containing  tin-ore  and  pyrites  at 
Querbach  in  Silesia.  They  thus  form  less  a  determined  group, 
than  a  determined  form  of  occurrence. 


COPPER-ORE  IMPREGNATIONS.  501 

IMPREGNATIONS    OF    COPPER-ORES   IN   MECHANICAL 

SEDIMENTS. 

§  272.  Probably  the  earliest  known  were  those  in  the  sand- 
stones and  argillaceous  shales  of  the  Permian  formation  along 
the  western  edge  of  the  Urals. 

Malachite,  azurite,  and  volborthite ;  more  rarely  also  red- 
copper,  copper-pyrites,  and  tetrahedrite ;  occur  unequally  dis- 
tributed, for  the  most  part  in  sandstone. 

They  traverse  its.  mass  like  a  cement,  they  cover  its  clefts, 
and  especially  occupy  the  places  of  fossil  plants,  which  are  in 
part  completely  mineralised. 

From  the  entire  nature  and  manner  of  distribution  of  these 
ores  in  originally  mechanical  sediments,  it  follows  without  doubt,  that 
they  penetrated,  as  impregnations,  subsequently  to  the  formation 
of  the  rocks.  The  solutions,  from  which  they  were  deposited, 
appear  to  have  proceeded  from  the  partial  destruction  of  original 
copper-deposits  occurring  in  place  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  which 
essentially  consisted  of  sulphurets;  on  which  account  the  impreg- 
nations occur  only  near  the  edge  of  the  mountains ;  while  the 
same  mechanical  deposits,  mostly  sandstones,  extend  for  a  great 
distance  into  the  flat  hill-country,  but  entirely  barren  of  ores. 

Remarkably  enough  similar  impregnations  of  copper-ores 
were  found  in  two  separate  portions  of  Bohemia,  in  strata  of 
about  the  same  age,  and  lithologically  closely  related.  They 
occur  in  the  Rothliegendes,  which  occurs  at  the  southerly  base 
of  the  Riesengebirge,  at  Hohenelbe,  Starkenbach,  etc.,  and  at 
Bohmisch-Brod  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  sulphurets 
are  more  completely  absent,  than  in  the  Permian  district,  the 
impregnations  are  generally  poorer,  and  more  irregularly  dis- 
tributed in  certain  strata  of  sandstone  or  bituminous  argillaceous 
shale.  The  general  conformity  of .  the  ore-occurrence,  and  the 
almost  like  age  of  the  rocks  in  which  it  occurs;  has  given  rise 
to  the  supposition,  that  this  presence  of  copper  is  the  product 
of  a  particular  geological  period,  in  which  copper-ores  were 
especially  deposited;  some  persons  have  even  gone  so  far  as  to 
suppose,  that  the  copper-slates  of  Thuringia  were  deposited  by  .the 
same  cupriferous  sea  of  the  period.  But  the  copper-slate  is  not 
only  altogether  differently  composed,  it  also  belongs  to  a  some- 
what more  recent  period  of  deposit.  The  ores  appear  to  have 
actually  been  deposited  contemporaneously  with  the  strata  of 


502  DEPOSITS  OF 

mud;  as  a  consequence  of  which  they  are  much  more  equally 
distributed  through  these  last. 

On  the  other  hand  the  impregnations  in  the  Buntsandstein, 
at  Twiste  near  Arolsen  in  Tyrol,  very  much  resemble  those  in 
the  government  of  Perm,  and  in  Bohemia;  only  the  strata,  in 
which  they  occur,  are  much  more  recent;  from  which  it  becomes 
very  evident,  that  one  does  not  have  to  do  with  the  common 
result  of  a  contemporaneous  general  deposit  of  feopper-ore,  but 
with  the  subsequent  local  impregnation  of  certain  rock-strata; 
whose  formation,  with  regard  to  the  ores,  as  well  as  to  the  rocks, 
may  possibly  belong  to  very  different  periods. 

The  manner  of  occurrence  is  similar  at  all  these  localities, 
and  can  be  properly  united  into  a  natural  group.  It  would 
even  appear,  as  if  the  native  copper  of  Lake  Superior  partly 
occurred  in  a  similar  manner.  Mr.  Hague  recently  sent  speci- 
mens from  the  Albany  and  Boston  mining-company,  among  which 
were  red  sandstone  and  conglomerates  containing  copper,  partly 
disseminated,  partly  almost  as  cementing  medium;  while  the 
copper  in  that  region  was  formerly  almost  exclusively  worked 
in  igneous  rocks. 

DEPOSITS    OF    SPATHIC   IRON. 

§  273.  The  Palaeozoic  slates  of  the  eastern  Alps  are  par- 
ticularly rich  in  deposits  of  Spathic  Iron,  some  of  which  attain 
very  large  dimensions :  similar  deposits  extend  down  into  the 
Azoic,  in  .part  already  metamorphosed  schists;  and  others  occur 
in  a  much  higher  geological  horizon  between  Triassic,  or  even 
still  more  recent  deposits.  The  frequent  irregularity  of  their 
form,  and  their,  locally,  often  immense  dimensions,  have  given 
rise  to  their  being  considered,  partly  as  masses  segregated  in 
form,  partly  as  the  matrices  of  fissures.  They  have  even  been 
explained,  as  being  eruptive  or  (better)  injected  rock-formations. 
Von  Schouppe  has  proven,  in  the  best  known  and  probably 
most  extensive  occurrence  of  this  kind,  that  of  the  Erzberg 
near  Eisenerz  in  Styria;  and  for  some  of  the  neighboring  ones; 
that  they  form  irregular,  but  evidently  contemporaneous  deposits 
in  a  particular  horizon  of  the  Devonian1  slates.  According  to 


1  Baron  Adrian  subsequently  supposed  that  the  iron-ores  of  the  Erz- 
berg belonged  to  a  higher  geological  horizon,  that  of  the  Werfner  slates. 


SPATHIC  IRON.  503 

this,  they  are  true  bedded  segregations,  or  beds  of  irregular 
extent,  often  approaching  a  lenticular  shape.  It  is  very  probable 
that  the  greater  portions  of  the  spathic  iron-deposits  in  the 
eastern  Alps  form  such  bedded  segregations  between  deposits 
of  a  somewhat  dissimilar  age;  still  true  fissure-deposits  occur  in 
the  same  region.  It  would  be  difficult  to  clearly  separate  these 
occurrences  one  from  the  other;  quite  as  difficult,  however, 
satisfactorily  to  explain  a  like  origin  for  both.  Accurate  exami- 
nations are  here  wanting.  Spathic  iron  forms  the  principal  in- 
gredient in  all;  but  this  is. combined  with  ankerite,  dolomite, 
calc-spar,  specular  iron,  pyrites,  and  some  other  minerals,  which 
only  occur  sporadically,  and  possibly  only  in  veins.  In  any 
case  these  deposits  form  a  groupx  in  the  eastern  Alps,  to  which 
may  be  joined  some  more  or  less  analogous  occurrences  in  other 
localities;  thus  the  very  thick  spathic  iron,  on  or  between  clay- 
slate,  near  Dobschau  in  Hungary ;  the  masses  of  spathic  iron  in 
the  Zechstein  of  the  Mommel  and  'Stahlberg,  in  the  southwestern 
edge  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  which  from  Danz'  description 
are  very  irregularly  embedded;  the  spathic  iron  in  Zechstein 
on  the  Hiiggel  southerly  of  Osnabriick;  and  even  broad  veins 
of  spathic  iron  in  the  Rhenish  Devonian,  whose  chief  represen- 
titive  is  exploited  at  the  Stahlberg  near  Miischen.  This  group 
is  united,  however,  by  such  veins,  to  numerous  other  lodes,  in 
which  spathic  iron  predominates  more  or  less  as  the  chief  ore; 
while  various  other  ores  accompany  itj  as  in  the  southern  part 
of  Saxony. 

Since  spathic  iron  is  often  converted  near  the  surface  into 
limonite,  it  is  a  matter  of  course,  that  the  deposits  here  men- 
tioned generally  also  contain  much  limonite.  Others  seem,  so 
far  as  they  have  been  examined^  to  have  been  entirely  altered 
into  limonite;  for  example  the  thick  bed  in  mica-schist,  at  Arz- 
berg  near  Wunsiedel  in  Bavaria;  and  the  very  extraordinary 
aggregation  of  pure  limonite,  at  Gyalar  near  Hunyad  in 
Transylvania;  which  appears  to  be  in  fact  but  a  continuation 
of  the  iron-stone  bed,  partly  still  consisting  of  spathic  iron,  in 
the  same  mica-schist  at  Ruszkiza  in  the  Banat. 

Spherosiderite  is  merely  a  compact  condition  of  the  spathic 
iron;  it  is  remarkable,  however,  that  this  condition  inclining  to 
the  formation  of  spheres,  has  every  where  been  found  under 
similar  geological  conditions;  viz.  in  the  Carboniferous  formation, 
or  between  bituminous  shales,  entirely  independently  of  their 


504  MODES  OF  OCCURRENCE  OF  THE  CHIEF 

age.  It  is  rarely  altogether  wanting  in  such  deposits,  while  it 
is  hardly  ever  found  between  other  rocks.  It  is  not  indeed 
found  in  sufficient  quantities,  to  render  its  exploitation  a  pro- 
fitable one  in  all  coal-formations  or  bituminous  shales;  but  single 
masses  of  the  same  are  not  often  entirely  wanting. 


In  the  preceding  grouping  of  ore-deposits  according  to  their 
general  relations,  the  kind  of  metal,  from  which  they  become 
important  in  practice,  could  be  but  partially  noticed,  and  then 
only  in  those  cases,  where  a  metal  is  combined  with  a  particular 
manner  of  occurrence. 

Very  commonly,  howerer,  the  ores  of  several  useful  metals 
occur  combined  in  the  same  deposit.  It  is  of  especial  interest 
to  the  miner,  to  clearly  understand,  under  what  different  condi- 
tions the  same  metals--are  found,  especially  in  such  combinations,, 
and  under  such  circumstances,  that  their  exploitation  appears  to 
be  profitable.  This  last  condition  excludes  a  large  number  of 
occurrences,  particularly  of  the  cheaper  metals,  which  science 
cannot  leave  unnoticed.  A  review  to  this  end,  though  very  in- 
complete, is  still  of  scientific  interest. 

I  shall  therefore  try  to  sketch  the  manner,  in  which  some 
of  these  metals  occur,  as  concisely  as  possible ;  often  merely  re- 
ferring to  the  preceding  groups,  thus  calling  attention  simply  to 
what  is  characteristic. 

I.  Gold:  occurs  native,  visible  to  the  eye,  or  invisibly 
mixed  with  various  sulphurets,  by  whose  decomposition  an 
auriferous  ochre  is  sometimes  formed :  it  occurs  mineralised  only 
by  tellurium: 

1.  in  lodes,  which  occur  in  crystalline  schist,  plutonic 
igneous  rocks,  clay-slate,  quartzite,  sandstone,  and  very  rarely r 
also,  limestone:  the  lodes  are  predominantly  quartzose,  but  also 
contain  various  sorts  of  pyrites,  silver,  lead,  copper,  and  anti- 
mony ores,  as  well  as  carbonates,  heavy  spar,  and  fluor  spar: 
when  they  are  much  decomposed  near  the  surface,  then  a  porous, 
cellular,  or  drusy  quartz  often  contains  an  auriferous  ochre  or 
recognisable  gold. 

The  lodes  in  which  gold  occurs  mineralised  by  tellurium 
form  a  separate  group. 

Auriferous  lodes  are  known  to  exist  in  great  numbers,  but 
containing  very  variable  amounts,  in  Vermont,  Virginia,  North 


METALS:  GOLD,  SILVER,  LEAD,  505 

and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  California,  Colorado,  and  many 
other  States  of  the  Union  ;  Canada,  Mexico  Central  America, 
Peru,  Chili,  Brazil,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Alaska,  China, 
Hungary,  Ural  Mountains,  arid  in  small  quantities  in  Great. 
Britain,  Sweden,  Thuringian  Forest,  Bohemia,  the  Alps,  Py- 
renees, etc. 

2.  in  bedlike  zones,  perhaps  as  impregnations,  most 
commonly  in  quartzose,   talcose  or  chloritic  schists;  at  Salzburg, 
Carinthia,    and    Tyrol,    South    Carolina:    as    impregnations    in 
sandstones  along  with  lodes,  at  Vorospatak  in  Transylvania : 

3.  in   surface-deposits,  as  placers,   very   common;  mostly 
very  pure  gold. 

II.  Silver:   mineralised   by   sulphur,    antimony    or  arsenic, 
frequently  also  native;  and,  still  more  commonly,    imperceptibly 
distributed    in    galena,    somewhat    more    rarely    in   tetrahedrite, 
blende,    pyrites,    or    the    like;    also,    as    amalgam,   as   chloride, 
bromide,     iodide,    selenide    or  telluride.       All    these    silver- ores 
occur  combined  with  all  sorts  of  other  ores,  with  quartz,  carbo- 
nates, heavy  spar,  and  fluor   spar : 

1.  in  lodes;  which  are  found  traversing  crystalline  schists, 
plutonic  igneous  rocks,  or  sedimentary  strata,  as  recent   as    the 
Tertiary:     the    best    known   localities    are    Colorado,    Montana, 
Idaho,  Arizona,  Utah,   and   Nevada  in  the  United   States;   Chili 
and  Peru  in  South   America;   the  Erzgebirge,  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
the  Hartz,  Westphalia  and  Black  Forest  in  Germany ;  the  Vosges, 
Alps,  Brittany,  and  Central  France;  Hungary,  and  Transylvania, 
the    Pyrenees,    and    Southern    Spain;    Wales,    Derbyshire,    and 
Cumberland;   and    Kongsberg    in    Norway:    while  in  the   Urals, 
silver-lodes  proper  are  scarcely  known  to  exist: 

2.  as  a  true  bed,  exploitable   silver  is   only  found  in  the 
copper-slates  of  Thuringia: 

3.  segregated  or  irregularly  shaped";  the  argentiferous 
ores  occur  as  such  in  the  Banat,  at  Kuczaina  in  Servia,   and  at 
Sinka  in  Transylvania;  probably  also,  at  Schwatz  in  the  Tyrol, 
and  in  some  mines  of  Derbyshire  and  Cumberland:  it  is  stated, 
that    the    ores    form    a    large    segregation    at  Schlangenberg  in 
the  Altai  Mountains: 

4.  impregnations     occur.,  frequently   alongside    of   lodes. 
Surface-deposits,    from   which   silver    is    extracted,    are   not 
known,  nor  do  they  probably  exist. 

III.  Lead:  most  commonly  as  sulphuret  (galena) ;  arid  then, 


506  ZINC,  COPPER, 

as  a  rule,  also  somewhat  argentiferous,  and  combined  with  blende : 
oxidized,  and  combined  with  various  acids,  especially  at  the 
outcroppings  of  deposits;  sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  native; 
as  at  Pajsberg  in  Sweden,  and  Northwest  of  Lake  Superior. 

These  ores  occur  with  those  of*  various  other  metals,  espe- 
cially of  silver,  copper,  cobalt,  and  nickel ;  as  well  as  with  those 
minerals,  which  form  characteristic  vein-stones  of  the  silver- 
ores.  As  a  rule,  lead  and  silver  are  extracted' from  the  same 
deposits : 

1.  in  lodes  like  the  silver-ores; 

2.  in  true  beds,  scarcely  any- where  exploitable; 

3.  segregated,  often  together  with  zinc-ores; 

4.  grains,  and  small  bunches,  in  the  variegated  sandstone 
of  Commern  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  in   the   Keuper   sandstone 
of  Franconia. 

IV.  Zinc:  as  calamine-   (silicate   or  carbonate),  and  blende 
with    galena,    etc.    segregated    in    limestones    or    dolomites,   of 
various  formations:  also    in    numerous    lodes,   from  which   other 
metals  are  obtained. 

V.  Copper:  native,  as  sulphuret,  or  combined  in  an  oxidized 
condition  with  various   acids,  together  with  other    ores,   quartz, 
carbonates,  heavy  arid  fluor  spar: 

1.  in  lodes;   which   occur    in    crystalline    schists,    plutonic 
igneous  rocks,  or  sedimentary  strata,  as  far  up  as  the  Tertiary : 
very  common: 

2.  as  bed,    finely  disseminated  in  the  copper-slates  of  Thu- 
ringia:  the  beds,  or  impregnations,  of  copper-pyrites  in  mica  and 
chloritic    schists:    the    bed,    rich    in   copper-pyrites,  in  the  horn- 
blende-schist of   Pittkaranda  in  Finland,  is  probably  an  impreg- 
nation : 

3.  segregated;    irregular    lenticular    segregations    of  py- 
rites, in  clay -slate  or  mica-schist; 

4.  contact-segregations,    containing   much   copper  ore, 
at  the  junctions  of.  igneous  rocks,  especially  with  limestones. 

5.  irregular  strings  of  tetrahedrite,  and  copper-pyrites, 
combined  with  gypsum,  in  clay-slate  at  Herrengrund  in  Hungary, 
and   irregular    pockets   and   impregnations   in    decomposed 
igneous  rock  at  Parad  in  Hungary; 

6.  oxidized  copper-ores,  rarely  with  sulphurets  of  copper; 


TIN,  COBALT  &  NICKEL,  MERCURY,  IRON.  507 

as    impregnations    in    sandstones,    conglomerates,    and  argil- 
laceous shales: 

7.  Masses,  and  pockets,   of  native  and  oxidized    copper,    in 
serpentine  and  its  accompanying  rocks. 

VI.  Tin:  almost   only    as  oxide  (cassiterite),   rarely  as  sul- 
phuret,  in  various  formed   deposits;    which   however    all  belong 
to    a    geological    group    of   great   age:    not  found  in  limestones. 
In  addition  to  this,  surface-deposits  (placers)  are  common;   from 
which  the  tin  is  alone  obtained  in   the  islands  of  Banca,  Billiton, 
and  Carimon. 

VII.  Cobalt,  and  Nickel:  the  ores  of  these  metals  occur, 
as  a  rule,  together ;  commonly  also  with  silver,  lead,  and  copper 
ores;  with  quartz,  hornstone,  calc-spar,  spathic  iron,  heavy  spar, 
and  numerous  other  minerals: 

1.  Lodes;    in    crystalline   schists,    plutonic   igneous    rocks, 
and  sedimentary  strata  up  to  the  Tertiary: 

2.  Impregnations;   in    crystalline   schists,    at    Skutterud 
and  Snarum  in  Norway  (almost  free  from  nickel): 

3.  Segregated  masses;  in  granular  limestone,  or  between 
this  and  gneiss;  at  Tunaberg  in  Sweden,  where  a  large  number 
of  minerals  occur  with  them. 

VIII.  Mercury:    most    commonly,   as    cinnabar;    but    also 
native,  as  amalgam,  or   as  chloride  (calomel): 

1.  in   lodes;    which  occur  in  crystalline  schists,  clay-slate, 
the  strata  of  the  Carboniferous  formation,  and  also  some  igneous 
rocks,  together  with  tetrahedrite,   pyrites,  brown  spar,  calc-spar, 
heavy  spar,  and  quartz:  found  at  New   Almaden  and  elsewhere 
in    California,    Moschlandsberg    in    the    Palatinate,    Almaden    in 
Spain,     Szclana     in     Hungary,     in     Transylvania,     and     South 
America : 

2.  Bedded;  but  probably  as   impregnations,   with  but  few 
accessory  minerals ;  in  the  bituminous  shales  of  Idria  and  St.  Anna 
in  Austria,   Vallalta  near  Agordo,   in   the   talcose  schist  of  Ripa 
in    Northern    Italy,   also   traces   in   clay-slate   at   Hartenstein   in 
Saxony. 

IX.  Iron:  we  must  here  consider  the  various  ores  separately; 
still  the  most  of  them  occur  together: 

1.  Spathic  iron;    forms    lodes,    beds,    and   bedded  segre- 
gations, in  clay-slate,  Zechstein,  etc. 

2.  Spherosiderite,    and    clay-ironstone;    form    beds, 
or  lenticular  masses,  parallel  to  the  foliation,  in  almost  all  coal- 


508  VAKIOUS  IRON-ORES. 

deposits,  and  bituminous  shales;  also,  as    grains,    in   an  Eocene 
sandstone,  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  Alps: 

3.  Magnetite;  very  frequently  with  somewhat  of  specular 
iron,    chlorite,   amphibole,    garnet,   quartz,   and   numerous    other 
minerals;  forms  beds,  lodes,  segregated  masses,  and  impregnations 
in  crystalline  schists,  near  their  junctions  with  granular  limestone, 
or  of  basic  igneous  rocks: 

4.  Chromic  iron;  almost  every  where  associated  with  ser- 
pentine or  gabbro;    a    small    admixture  of  chromic  iron   is  pro- 
bably   never    altogether    wanting    in   these  rocks,  but  the  same 
sometimes    forms    masses, .  segregations,    or  the  tilling  of  fissures 
in  the  same,  which  can  be  mined: 

5.  Specular  iron;  forms  lodes   in   crystalline  schists,   and 
igneous  rocks,   even   in   lavas;   at  times  associated   with  quartz, 
lievrite,  etc.     As  beds  of  micaceous  iron-schist,  between  chloritic 
schist,  itacolumite,  or  granular  limestone,  combined  with  quartz : 

6.  Hematite;  compact,  ochreous,  or  fibrous;    more   rarely 
oolithic;  frequently  with    ores  of  manganese,   quartz,    hornstone, 
or  clay;    more    rarely    with    carbonates,    heavy   and  fluor  spar; 
forms    beds,    lodes,    and  contact-segregations,   for  the  most  part 
in  crystalline  schists,   or  at  least  in  old  sedimentary  formations; 
often  at  the  limits  of  crystalline  limestone,  or  also  at  the  limits 
of   plutonic    igneous   rocks,   at  the  same  time  forming    lodes    in 
these :  the  hematite  in  the  Erzgebirge  appears  to  be  principially 
associated  with  granite  or  quartz-porphyry: 

7.  Limonite;    compact,    ochreous,    or    fibrous;     with   the 
same    accessory    minerals    as    hematite,    also    under    the    same 
conditions   of  bedding,  but   extending  into  the  most  recent  sedi- 
mentary   strata:   the    accompanying    limestone   is   as    frequently 
compact  as-  granular,  the  igneous  rocks,  at  whose  limits  contact- 
deposits  occur,  are  also  volcanic;  as  for  example,  basalt. 

In  addition  to  these  modes  of  occurrence,  which  the  limo- 
nite  possesses  in  common  with  hematite ;  very  recent  deposits 
of  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  also  occur,  as  ochre,  at  the  mouth 
of  springs;  in  marshy  regions,  as  bog-ore;  also  in  many  lakes, 
as  sea-ore ;  also  filling  all  kinds  of  cavities,  .in  limestone  and 
dolomite,  which  are  near  the  surface: 

8.  Pea- ore;  round  grains,  which  consist,  either  of  hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron,  or  silicate  of  iron;  they  fill  depressions,  fissures, 
or  real  cavities  in  limestones :  particularly  common  in  Jurassic 
limestones. 


MANGANESE.  509 

X.  Manganese:  as  wad,  manganite,  varvicite,  hausman- 
nite,  braunite,  polianite,  pyrolusite  or  psilomelane ;  often  accom- 
panied by  iron-ores,  or  the  accessory  minerals  usually  with  them : 
these  ores  form  beds,  lodes,  pockets,  segregations;  contact- 
segregations,  etc.  in  crystalline  schists,  and  sedimentary  forma- 
tions; frequently  occurring  in  limestone  or  dolomite,  as  well  as 
in,  and  on,  various  kinds  of  plutonic  igneous  rocks. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

§  274.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  discover  fixed 
laws,  with  regard  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  ore-deposits, 
but  as  yet  in  vain. 

When  they  are  examined  in  their  generality,  or  in  their 
separate  natural  groups;  they  do  not  appear  to  change  toward  the 
equator,  or  the  poles,  either  in  frequency  or  richness ;  they  occur 
just  as  frequently  in  the  interior  of  continents,  as  on  their  coasts 
or  on  islands ;  similar  deposits  have  been  found  beneath  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  in  the  highest  mountains.  Ore-deposits  are  more 
commonly  found  in  mountains,  than  in  plains ;  as  these  last 
generally  consist,  at  the  surface,  of  very  recent  sedimentary 
deposits,  in  which  ore-deposits  are  found  as  an  exception. 

After  a  full  examination  of  the  facts,  it  cannot  be  said,  that 
in  Europe  there  is  a  northern,  and  a  southern  region,  in  which 
ore-deposits  occur:  a  southern  one  extending  from  the  Iberian 
Peninsula  to  the  Caucasus;  and  a  northern  one  comprising 
Great  Britain,  Scandinavia,  and  the  Ural  Mountains. 

These  distributions  are  only  consequences  of  the  mountain- 
ous districts  in  both  the  European  elevated  plateaux,  subject 
to  be  missing  where  the  mountains  are  wanting. 

One  cannot  speak  of  ore-belts  correctly  on  such  a  vast 
scale.  But  mountainous  regions  do  not  always,  nor  every  where, 
contain  ore- deposits.  Nor  are  these  deposits  governed  by  any 
known  law. 

Those  mountains  contain  the  least,  in  which  all  igneous 
rocks  are  wanting;  for  example,  the  Jura  and  the  Northern 
Carpathians. 

There  is  consequently  no  recognised  law  for  the  geographical 
distribution  of  the  ore-deposits. 

But  the  answer  is  different,  when   we   ask  after  the  geolo- 


510  DISTRIBUTION  OF 

gical  distribution.  Ore-deposits,  in  general,  occur  more  fre- 
quently in  older,  than  in  the  recent  rocks;  and  are  more  com- 
mon at  the  junction  of  various  kinds  of  rocks,  than  in  the  midst 
of  large,  districts  of  a  uniform  rock:  these  rules  are  much  more 
characteristic  in  regard  to  lodes,  :  segregations,  and  impreg- 
nations, than  as  applied  to  beds;  but  we  have  already  become 
acquainted  with  the  probable  reasons  for  this  in  the  General 
Part. 

The  question  has  been  raised,  as  to  the  distribution  of  the 
ore-deposits;  and  especially  of  the  lodes,  segregations,  arid 
impregnations  of  the  separate  ores ;  whose  individuals  were, 
according  to  their  nature,  confined  to  relatively  small  extents, 
and  not,  like  the  beds,  spread  over  large  districts. 

In  order  .to  more  thoroughly  discuss  the  question,  and  not 
merely  to  decide  from  a  general  valuation,  I  have  attempted 
to  draw  the  principal  ore-districts  on  charts,  by  means  of  various 
colors.  The  work  was  a  laborious  one,  but  led  to  no  satis- 
factory, or  rather  to  an  almost  negative  result.  No  particular 
law  of  the  distribution  of  ore-deposits  could  be  recognised  on 
the  map  of  Europe;  neither  a  grouping  in  very  long  belts,  nor 
one  around  a  central  point,  about  corresponding  to  rows  of  or 
central  volcanoes. 

At  times  a  recognisable  predominant  direction  of  distri- 
bution, or  belt,  could  be  seen  for  separate  districts;  but  in  no 
case,  of  such  a  considerable  length,  that  it  could  be  used  in  a 
general  terrestrial  relation.  There  was  always  shown  merely 
local  belts,  or  districts  corresponding  to  the  general  geological 
character;  for  example,  that  of  the  Erzgebirge.  The  broad,  but 
indefinitely  limited  silver-belt  extends,  as  Baron  von  Beust  has 
long  since  shown,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Meissen  obliquely, 
v  at  an  acute  angle  over  the  ridge  of  the  Erzgebirge,  to  Blejstadt 
in  Bohemia,  the  principal  towns  passed  over  being  Scharfenberg, 
Freiberg,  Marienberg,  Annaberg,  Schneeberg,  Johanngeorgen- 
stadt,  and  Joachimsthal.  This  belt  can,  however,  in  no  manner 
be  brought  into  an  assignable,  or  even  probable  connection  with 
any  other  special  geological  phenomenon  of  the  Erzgebirge. 
Neither  particular  varieties  of  rocks,  nor  their  limits,  nor  any 
conditions  of  texture  of  the  same,  can  be  proved  to  be  parallel 
to  this  belt.  The  belt  strikes  predominantly  through  large 
districts  of  gneiss,  mica-schist,  and  clay- slate;  although  indeed 
dikes  of  quartz-porphyry  occur  in  the  same,  especially  at  or 


ORE-DEPOSITS.  511 

near  Freiberg,  Oederan,  Marienberg  (rock  difficult  to  determine), 
Annaberg,  Joachimsthal,  and  Bleistadt. 

The  silver-lodes  are  not  every  where  accompanied  by  dikes 
of  porphyry ;  nor  the  porphyry-dikes,  or  masses,  every  where  by 
silver-lodes;  the  porphyries  also  branch,  on  both  sides,  to  a 
considerable  distance  beyond  the  ore-belt,  without  showing  any 
particular  direction  of  the  distribution. 

Even  where  the  dikes  ofx  porphyry  occur  within  the  belt, 
no  fixed,  or  in  any  way  constant  relation  to  a  special  fre- 
quency, or  particular  richness  of  the  lodes,  can  be  recognised. 
I,  myself,  am  much  inclined  to  believe,  that  tKe  presence  of 
these  porphyries  has  locally  a  certain  connection  with  the 
formation  of  the  silver-lodes  in  the  Erzgebirge,  whose  special 
conditions  are  not  yet  sufficiently  known.  This  opinion  or  sup- 
position cannot,  however,  cause  me  to  ignore  the  fact;  that 
neither  the  distribution,  nor  the  direction  of  the  porphyry-dikes, 
exhibits  any  constant  parallelism  with  the  belt  of  silver-lodes, 
or  with  the  separate  lodes,  which  themselves  strike  within  the 
belt  in  tolerably  variable  directions:  only  the  extents  of  their 
distribution  partially  coincide. 

If  this  silver-belt  in  the  Erzgebirge  is  followed  still  farther 
North-East,  or  South- West,  in  its  direction  of  strike;  plumbi- 
ferous  silver-lodes  are  met  with  at  Erbendorf,  beyond  the 
granitic  Fichtelgebirge,  resembling  some  of  those  around  Frei- 
berg, in  whose  neighborhood,  as  in  the  latter,  quartz-porphyries 
are  also  found:  but  between  these  is  a  large  district  containing 
no  ores. 

The  continuation  is  still  more  doubtful  toward  North-East. 
In  the  syenite-granite  hills  beyond  the  Elbe  the  traces  of  ore 
are  .much  scattered  and  uncertain. 

The  most  distinct  are  those  in  the  Kupferberg  at  Gros- 
senhain. 

The  total  length  of  this  silver-belt,  from  Grossenhain  to 
Erbendorf,  is  but  130  miles,  and  by  thus  extending  it  we  con- 
sequently cover  even  uncertain  traces. 

This  cannot  be  called  a  geographical  belt  of  general  im- 
portance; t.  e.  one  of  importance  for  the  entire  earth.  Still  this 
district  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  all  those  known,  since 
it  does  not  follow  the  principal  trend  of  the  Erzgebirge ;  but 
rather  intersects  this,  with  a  certain  independence,  obliquely; 
arid  since  the  gaps  in  the  same  appear  to  be  mostly  caused  by 


512  DISTRIBUTION  OF  LODES. 

granitic  rocks  (granite,  syenite,  and  red  gneiss),  which,  in  this 
district  at  least,  seem  to  have  been  unfavorable  to  the  formation 
of  silver-lodes. 

Silver  lodes  occur  in  the  Hartz,  at  Harzgerode,  Andreasberg, 
and  Clausthal,  about  corresponding  'to  its  axis  of  elevation ;  with 
which  the  course  of  most  of  the  separate  lodes  also  coincides. 
It  almost  appears,  as  if  the  fissures  they  occupy,  were  conse- 
quences of  one  of  the  elevations  of  this  mountain-ellipse,  whose 
longest  axis  is  only  45  to  50  miles  long:  beyond  this  no  trace 
of  a  prolongation  can  be  found,  at  least  I  should  consider  it 
very  much  forced,  were  it  attempted  to  combine  them  in  any 
way  with  the  lodes  of  Kupferberg  and  Eisenkoppe  near  Alten- 
berg  in  Silesia ;  since  these  (although  without  any  relation  as  to 
direction)  are  much  nearer  to  the  silver-lodes  in  the  Erzgebirge 
and  Bohemia.  These  last  are  particularly  instructive,  from  the  entire 
irregularity  of  their  distribution.  The  separate  localities,  where 
the  lodes  occur,  can  in  no  manner  be  united  into  a  belt;  although 
curiously  enough  a  North-South  course  of  the  separate  lodes  greatly 
predominates.  They  are  irregularly  distributed  over  a  broad 
surface  like  the  crystalline  rocks  of  Southern  Bohemia;  whose 
limits,  however,  the  lodes  exceed,  penetrating  into  the  Silurian 
strata. 

The  silver-lodes  of  Holzappel,  about  parallel  to  ihe  strike 
of  the  slates,  form  a  belt  about  40  miles  long;  closely  allied  to 
which  are  the  copper,  nickel,  and  cobalt  lodes;  which,  irre- 
gularly distributed  over  the  whole  Devonian  formation,  without 
any  recognised  cause,  attain  in  places  a  sufficient  richness  to 
render  them  exploitable;  as  at  Dillenburg,  Siegen  near  Siegburg, 
and  at  Rheinbreitenbach. 

In  the  great  Central  district  of  France  no  other  law  of 
distribution  can  be  recognised,  than  that  which  arises  from  the 
cropping-out  of  the  older  rocks  in  a  very  irregular  form ; 
although  a  majority  of  the  lodes  strike  from  North- West  to 
South-East. 

In  Spain  we  find  a  silver-belt  on  the  southern  coast  between 
Carthagena  and  Malaga;  it  ceases  with  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and 
is  consequently  dependent  on  the  upheaval  of  this  range. 

Similar,  much  isolated,  groups  of  lodes  occur  at  Linares 
and  near  Hiendelencia  in  the  interior  of  the  country. 


SILVER-MINES  OF  CHILI.  513 

According  to  Pis  sis/  'all  the  silver-mines  of  Chili  o,ccur  in  a 
small  belt,  which  extends  from  26°  30'  to  34°  South  Latitude 
in  the  valley-depression,  which  accompanies  the  western  base 
of  the  Andes,  and  is  called  in  the  Southern  Provinces  Llano 
Longitudinal.  The  stratified  rocks  in  this  region  are  every 
where  much  altere'd,  principally  by  the  effect  of  the  trachytes, 
which  have  broken  through.  The  ore-deposits  do  not  occur 
equally  distributed  over  the  entire  belt,  but  appear  principally 
in  the  neighborhood  of  those  places,  where  the  trachytes  crop-out 
to  the  surface. 

.  Since  this  last  takes  place  more  frequently  to  the  North, 
the  silver-ores  occur  more  frequently  in  the  North,  especially  in 
the  province  of  Atacama.  Thus  the  province  of  Santiago  pos- 
sesses only  four  mines  of  slight  importance.  The  province  of 
Aconcagua,  in  which  the  trachyte  is  very  rare,  contains  but 
one  mine.  In  the  province  of  Coquimbo  occurs  the  mine  of 
Arqueros,  much  more  important  than  any  of  the  preceding; 
while  the  Province  of  Atacama  possesses  the  mines,  from  which 
come  almost  all  the  silver  exported  from  Chili.  In  this  last- 
mentioned  province  the  ore  occurs  partly  in  somewhat  tilted 
strata,  which  are  here  traversed  in  all  directions  by  small  me- 
talliferous strings,  and  are  called  by  the  miners  mantos.  The 
rock  traversed  by  the  strings  of  ore  varies,  in  the  various  lo- 
calities both  in  age  and  composition;  in  many  places  it  belongs 
to  the  Silurian  formation,  as  in  Tres-Puntas,  where  a  string  of 
ore  occurs  in  gneiss;  in  other  places,  to  the  Devonian  formation, 
as  at  Zapalar,  Romero,  and  Cabeza  de  ,Vaca ;  or  to  the  red 
{Sandstone  or  the  Lias,  as  at  San  Antonio,  Chanarcillo,  and 
Agua  Amarga.  The  lodes  are  poor,  when  in  contact  with  many 
rocks ;  and  become  strikingly  richer,  the  nearer  they  approach 
rocks  otherwise  composed.  The  variety  of  the -ores  also  varies 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  wall-rock :  chloride,  bromide,  and 
iodide  of  silver,  occur  in  considerable  'quantities  only  in  lime- 
stone; sulphurets  and  ruby-silver  belong  to  the  red  Sandstone  or 
the  Devonian  formation;  finally,  galena  occurs  in  gneiss  or 
schist.  These  changes  can  be  most  distinctly  represented ;  if  it 
be  supposed,  that  a.  lode  traverses  the  whole  succession  of  strar 
tified  rocks  from  the  Lias  to  the  gneiss:  chloride  of  silver  and 
native  silver  would  occur  in  the  'Lias ;  in  the  lower  layers  of 


1  See:  Neumann's  Zeitschrift  fur  Erdkunde,  1860,  p.  251. 

33 


514  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  SILVER-BELT: 

this  formation,  and  in  the  Redstone,  would  commence  pyrar- 
gyrite  (?  el  rosicler};  following  this  would  be  proustite  with 
cobalt-ores,  and  finally  galena.  Some  of  the  mines  at  Chanar- 
cillo,  which  have  reached,  a  depth  of  more  than  650  feet,  con- 
firm this  supposition;  while  at  TreVPuntas,  where  the  Lias  is 
wanting,  ruby-silver  predominates;  and  the  mines  of  Zapalar, 
which  occur  in  the  Devonian  formation,  chiefly  contain  galena. 
The  percentage  of  silver  in  the  ores  consequently  decreases  with 
the  depth;  and  since  the  ore-strings  .of  the  mantos  only  come 
from  the  fact,  that  the  upper  portion  of  a  lode  has  split  up  in 
a  porous  layer,  the  uncommon  richness  of  the  same  is  easily 
explained;  as  for  example,  the  mantos  of  Mandiola  and  Ossa 
in  Chanarcillo,  and  the  Manto  de  la  Presidents  in  Cabeza  de 
Vaca.'  -: 

The  distribution  of  this  very  long  belt  is  not  an  independent 
one,  but  evidently  dependent  on  mountain  elevations,  or  certain 
igneous  rocks. 

The  farther  it  is  attempted  to  extend  such  belts,  and 
districts  of  lodes ;  the  more  undefined,  or  the  more  dependent 
on  other  circumstances,  do  they  become.  With  a  slight  power 
of  imagination  it  is  easy  to  discover  fancied  belts  of  this  kind; 
which,  on  a  more  careful  examination,  are  soon  found  to  be 
very  defective ;  and  very  frequently  altogether  different  directions 
of  strike  might  equally  well  be  claimed. 

Necessarily  therefore  much  more  uncertainty  and  arbitra- 
riness occur  in  the  determination  within  the  limits  of  the  ore- 
deposits,  than 'in  the  following-up  of  mountain-elevations;  being, 
as  a  rule,  much  more  dependent  on  phenomena  of  a  scattered 
and  disconnected  nature. 

On  a  close  examination  of  the  gold-deposits  in  the  Alps, 
yielding  a  very  small  percentage  of  gold,  there  may  be  found 
a  sort  of  so-called  gold-district,  which  extends  from  La-Gardette, 
with  numerous  gaps,  to  the  Rathhausberg  near  Gastein. 

This  district  is  composed,  partly  of  auriferous  veins, 
partly  of  beds,  in  which  quartz  forms  the  principal  veinstone. 

The  axis  of  the  Alpine  chain  splits  in  its  eastern  portion; 
its  northern  branch  passing  through  Pressburg,  forms  the  con- 
nection with  the  Carpathians.  Nevertheless  the  geologists  of  the 
Viennese  Reichsanstalt  think,  they  can  prove  a  geological  con- 
tinuation of  the  Alps,  somewhat  more  southerly,  through  the 
mountains  at  Neusohl.  At  Schemnitz  and  Kremnitz,  consequently 


GOLD-BELT?  OBJECTIONS.  515 

more  southerly,  again  occur  auriferous  lodes;  is  it  attempted  to 
unite  them  as  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the  Alpine  gold-belt, 
itself  very  incomplete,  there  is  opposed  to  it; 

1.  The  difference  of  the   geological   axis,    according   to  the 
results  of  the  Reichsanstalt; 

2.  The   entire   dissimilarity    of  the   wall-rock;    in   the  Alps 
crystalline  schists,    at   Schemnitz   and   Kremnitz    greenstones   or 
timazites,  which  belong  to  the  Tertiary  Period,  rocks  which  do 
not  occur  in  the  Alps; 

3.  The    entire    variation    in    the    course    of   the   individual 
lodes,  in  the  Salzburg  Alps  N. — S.  and  NW.— SE.,  at  Schemnitz 
NE.-SW.; 

4.  The  very  dissimilar  composition    of  the   gold-deposits  at 
Schemnitz,  and  in  the  Alps; 

5.  The    much   greater  geological  conformity  of  the  Schem- 
nitz deposits  with  the   gold-deposits  of  Nagybanya,    Felsobanya, 
Offenbanya    and    Nagyag,    which    do    not    for    the  greater  part 
occur  in  the  same  direction; 

6.  The  very  similar  deposits  of  Eule,  Tok,  and  Bergreichen- 
stein  in  Bohemia,  lie  much  nearer   to   the  Alpine  gold-deposits, 
than    those    of   Schemnitz    and  Kremnitz;   while   the   quite    dif- 
ferently composed  ones  of  Baza,  Magurka,   etc.   occur    in    their 
geological  axis. 

If,  however,  the  mountainous  borders  of  the  great  Hunga- 
rian basin  are  reduced,  there  already  follows  a  gold-enclosure, 
much  interrupted,  but  more  in  accordance  with  nature. 

There  remains  at  least  a  common  geological  relation  of 
the  gold  at  Schemnitz,  Kremnitz,  Nagybanya,  Felsobanya, 
Kapnik,  Borsabanya,  Olalaposbanya,  OfFenbanya,  Vorospatak, 
and  Nagyag.  These  deposits  occur  every  where  in  certain  rela- 
tions to  trachytic  or  timazitic  greenstones,  porphyries,  or  Tertiary 
sandstones. 

I  do  not  lay  much  importance  on  this  fact,  but  still  some- 
what more  than  on  the  apparent  direction  of  strike  of  a  gold-belt 
under  such  dissimilar  geological  conditions. 

In  the  Urals  there  occurs  a  long  belt  of  gold-deposits  and 
their  remains  in  placers;  but  this  is  essentially  a  consequence 
of  the  long  extended  mountain-elevation,  whose  general  geological 
character  is  every  where  a  consonant  one. 

The  result  of  our  examination  is:  that  ore-districts  have 
merely  an  extent  and  importance  corresponding  to  mountain 

33* 


516  RELATIONS  OF  ROCKS  TO  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

districts,  but  beyond  this  are  entirely  independent  of  each  other. 
This  also  agrees  with  a  sound  theory,  according  to  which  lodes, 
segregations,  and  impregnations,  are  the  consequences  of  local, 
not  general  geological  occurrences;  vas  is  more  and  more  recog- 
nised for  the  igneous  rocks.  No  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from 
their  mineralogical  similarity ;  these  are  consequences  of  general 
chemical  laws,  modified  by  local  conditions  or  events ;  precisely 
as  geologists  no  longer  consider  the  much  more  conformable 
mineralogical  composition  of  the  igneous  rocks,  as  a  reason  for 
their  contemporaneous  formation  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

RELATIONS  OF  THE  ROCKS  TO  THE  ORE- 
DEPOSITS. 

§  275.  The  relations  between  the  rocks  and  ore-deposits, 
already  referred  to,  deserve  special  attention.  They  may  be  con- 
sidered both  as  general  contact-phenomena,  and  as  particular 
relations  of  certain  rocks  to  certain  ore-deposits. 

Experience  shows  that  lodes,  segregations,  and  impregnations, 
are  usually  found  at  or  near  the  junctions  •  of  igneous  rocks 
with  sedimentary  or  metamo'rphic  ones. 

From  the  many  cases  of  this  kind,  which  occur,  the  con- 
clusion may  be  drawn;  that  lodes,  segregations,  and  impregna- 
tions, generally  are  the  direct  or  indirect  consequences  o'f  the 
junction  of  dissimilar  rocks,  -and  especially  of  the  penetration  of 
igneous  rocks  between  others ;  they,  therefore,  like  many  mineral 
springs,  are  the  consequences  of  plutonic  action.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, to  be  assumed,  that  ore-deposits  every  where  occur  where' 
igneous  rocks  have  penetrated,  since  the  contrary  can  easily  be 
shown.  ' 

The  ;  conditions  of  formation  were  not  everywhere  fulfilled. 
Consequently  the  igneous  rocks  are  by  no  means  in  all  cases 
accompanied  by  the  presence  of  ores ;  while,  on  the  other  hand 
relatively  few  lodes,  segregations,  or  impregnations,  are  known, 
which  cannot  be  brought  into  a  certain  connection  with  neigh- 
boring igneous  rocks. 

In  truth  the  conclusion,  when  so  generally  considered,  is  of 
but  slight  practical  value. 

The  facts  encrease,  however,  in  importance;  if  we  arrange 
them  according  to  natural  groups.  For  this  purpose  I  will 
classify  the  rocks  into: 


GROUPING  OF  ROCKS,  AND  ORES.          517 

I.  Igneous: 

1.  Rich  in -silica,  or  acidic;  granites,  trachytes,  etc. 

2.  Poor  in  silica,  or  basic;  greenstones,  basalts,  etc. 

II.  Metamorphic: 

1.  Crystalline  schists  composed  of  silicates, 

2.  Crystalline  limestones  and  dolomites; 

III.  Sedimentary: 

1.  Siliceous;  sandstones,  etc. 

2.  Magnesian;  clay-slate,  etc. 

3.  Calcareous;  limestone,  dolomite,  etc. 

The  ore-deposits  I  separate  according  to  their  composition 
in  the  three  natural  groups  already  mentioned  (I  entirely  pass 
over  the  true  beds,  as  being  altogether  sedimentary  deposits): 

I.  Tin-lodes,  segregations,  or  impregnations; 

II.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  copper,  cobalt,  nickel,  antimony, 
and  quicksilver  lodes,  segregations,  or  impregnations;  which  may 
be    also    regarded    according  to   the  separate    predominating  or 
characteristic  metals; 

III.  Iron-  (and  manganese-)  lodes,  segregations,    or  impreg- 
nations-. 

The  demarcations  of  these  groups,  from  rocks  and  deposits, 
are  not  always  distinct  and  fixed;  nevertheless  this  grouping 
appears  to  me  a  very  natural  one.  In  order  to  avoid  repeti- 
tions, and  uncertainties,  I  shall  comprehend  lodes,  segregations, 
and  impregnations  (here  with  exclusion  of  the  beds),  under  the 
common  name  of  ore- deposits,  and  only  make  exceptions, 
when  a  particular  value  is  to  be  given  to.  the  form  of  the  oc- 
currence. 

Iron-ore-deposits  occur  very  often,  at  the  limits  of  acidic, 
or  basic,  igneous-rocks,  as  immediate  or  indirect  contact- 
formations  ;  thus,  in  many  parts  of  the  Erzgebirge  (especially  at 
the  limits  of  granite),  in  the  Thuringian  Forest,  in  the  Hartz,  in 
Westphalia,  in  Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Silesia,  in  the  Banat,  in 
Italy,  in  the  Vosges,  in  Brittany  and  the  Pyrenees,  in  Norway 
and  Sweden. 

Magnetic  iron-ore  occurs  very  often  under  very  peculiar 
relations  of  contact;  in  numerous  regions  especially ,  with  em- 
bedded masses  of  granular  limestone  or  dolomite,  between  crys- 
talline schists,  or  at  the  edges  of  granitic  rocks  or  greenstones : 
thus,  around  Schwarzenberg,  and  Oberwiesenthal,  in  the  Erz- 
gebirge; in  the  Banat;  at  Dannemora,  Nora,  and  on  the  Island 


518  IRON,  AND  MAGNETITE,  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

of  Utoe,  in  Sweden.  It  is  then  associated  with  numerous  other 
ores,  and  certain  minerals,  which  can  be  partly  explained  by 
combinations  of  lime  with  silicates.  To  the  common  occurrence 
of  granular  limestone  with,  magnetite,  also  join-on;  other  ore- 
deposits  in  which  magnetite  is  frequently  but  subordinate  5  thus, 
at  Schwarzenberg,  and  Kupferberg,  in  the  Erzgebirge ;  near 
Oravitza  in  the  Banat,  at  Offenbanya  in  Transylvania,  near 
Christiania  in  Norway,  at  Sula  and  Tunaberg  in'  Sweden,  and 
near  Bogoslowsk  in  the  Urals;  so  that  these  contact-deposits  of 
the  limestone  again  form  in  common  a  sort  of  natural,  but  among 
themselves  very  varied,  subordinate  group. 

Since  these  deposits  chiefly  occur  between  and  with  such 
rocks,  as  the  majority  of  geologists  consider  to  be  metainorphic ; 
the  question  arises,  whether,  in  the  succession  of  the  sedimen- 
tary rocks,  combinations  do  not  already  occur,  through  whose 
alteration  they  might  be  formed.  This  is  in  fact  the  case: 
compact  limestones  occur  combined  with  deposits  of  spathic  iron, 
limonite,  or  hematite,  in  sedimentary  rocks,  which  have  not  yet 
become  crystalline;  for  example,  in  the  Devonian  of  Southern 
Saxony,  of  the  Hartz,  and  of  the  Ehine;  in  the  brown  Jura  of 
Wiirtemberg,  and  of  Bavaria;  in  the  Muschelkalk  and  Jurassic 
of  Upper  Silesia,  in  the  Devonian  of  the  Alps,  etc.  Also,  the 
very  constant  occurrence  of  oolithic  ore  in  fissures,  funnels,  and 
cavities  of  limestones,  in  the  Swabian  Alp,  in  the  Jura,  near 
Thionville,  etc.,  must  be  considered  as  belonging  here.  These 
are,  indeed,  in  part  true  beds,  but  still  often  of  very  irregular 
shape,  which  by  the  occurrence  of  alterations  might  easily 
become  still  more  irregular,  and  thus  assume  more  the  form  of 
segregations.  A  sort  of  transition  occurs,  near  Arzberg  in  the 
Fichtelgebirge,  where  the  limestone  between  the  mica-schist  is 
altered  to  crystalline  limestone,  the  iron-ore  remaining  in  the 
condition  of  spathic  iron  (or  decomposed  from  this  into  limonite). 

Many  of  the  segregations  of  magnetite,  especially  the 
Swedish;  exhibit  forms,  which  much  resemble  irregular  beds; 
and  the  numerous  minerals,  which  they  contain  besides  the 
iron-ore,  can  mostly  be  explained  by  the  possibility,  that  by  the 
alteration  numerous  combinations  of  lime,  silica,  magnesia,  and 
iron,  were  formed. 

I  must  confess,  that  I  am  inclined  to  consider  these  segre- 
gations of  ore  combined  with  granular  limestone,  as  more  or 
less  altered  sedimentary  beds,  which  partly  altered  their  shape 


RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  GOLD-ORE.  519 

in  a  semi-fluid  condition,  and  whose  mass  at  times  would  have 
penetrated  into  the  adjoining  fissures  of  the  less  softened  wall- 
rock.  It  is  remarkable,  that  they  are  frequently  traversed  by 
more  recent  granite  dikes ;  which  is  also  the  case  in  the  granular 
limestone  of  Miltitz  near  Meissen,  and  of  Kothigen  Biebersbach 
in  the  Fichtelgebirge. 

Should  the  proposed  hypothesis  prove  correct,  there  would 
still  remain  unanswered  the  question,  why  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  or  other  ores,  should  have  originally 
been  so  often  deposited  immediately  alongside  of,  or  over,  one 
another  ? 

Somewhat  different  is  the  very  constant  ocurrence  of  bedded 
spherosiderites  in  such  sedimentary  deposits,  which  also  contain 
coal,  no  matter  what  their  age  may  be. 

Gold  is,  in  its  original  position,  mostly  combined  with  such 
rocks,  as  contain  but  little  lime.  We  must  not,  however,  while 
considering  the  rule,  forget. the  exception.  I  am  only  aware  of 
the  following:  the  somewhat  auriferous  Liassic  limestone  of 
Grave  in  the  Western  Alps;  according  to  de  Marni  the  auri- 
ferous limestones  of  Kameno-Pawlowsk  in  the  Ilmen  mountains; 
the  auriferous  chromic  dolomite  of  Russia,  described  by  Breit- 
haupt;  and  the  auriferous  quartz-veins,  in  mountain-limestone, 
of  the  Tobol  district.  Could  the  gold  in  the  limestone  at  Grave 
be  considered  as  an  extremely  fine  mechanical  deposit,  this 
occurrence  would  then  form  no  exception  as  contradicting  the 
rule ;  the  presence  of  gold  in  the  limestone  of  Kameno-Pawlowsk 
is  only  a  supposition,  and  I  am  ignorant  under  what  conditions 
it  occurs  in  the  chromic  dolomite.  The  lodes  in  the  mountain- 
limestone  of  the  Tobol  certainly  vary  altogether  from  the  rule- 
while  on  the  other  hand  this  law  finds  a  sort  of  direct  confir- 
mation in  the  gold-lodes  of  the  Salzburg  Alps,  which,  where 
they  continue  in  limestone,  contain  silver-ores  instead  of  gold. 
Characteristic  of  the  occurrence  of  gold  is,  also,  its  frequent 
combination  with  quartzose,  talcose,  or  chloritic  rocks;  thus,  in 
the  Alps,  in  Merionethshire  (England),  in  the  Urals,  in  Brazil,  in 
California,  Georgia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  and  Nova  Scotia. 
Still  a  fixed  law  cannot  be  deduced  from  these  cases;  since  the 
number  of  gold  occurrences  known  not  to  be  combined  with 
such  rocks,  may  be  just  as  great,  as  those  where  they  are. 
It  appears  to  me,  therefore,  impossible  to  deduce  hopes  of  the 
presence  of  gold  a  priori  from  general  lithological  analogies. 


520  RELATIVE  POSITIONS  OF  SILVER,  COPPER, 

Rich  silver-ores,  and  very  argentiferous  lead-ores,  occur 
more  commonly  in  siliceous  or  argillaceous  rocks,  than  in  lime- 
stones or  dolomites;  more  frequently  than  gold  in  these  last. 
While  galena,  when  in  immediate  contact  with  limestones,  con- 
tains but  little  if  any  silver,  and  i^  commonly  associated  with 
blende,  smithsonite,  or  calamine.  For  example,  in  Iowa,  Wis- 
consin, Illinois,  and  Missouri,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  and  Liege,  near  Wiesloch  in  Baden,  in  'Upper  Silesia, 
the  Carinthian  Alps,  the  Bavarian  Alps,  at  Pallieres  in  France, 
in  the  Province  of  Santander  in  Spain,  in  Cumberland  and 
Derbyshire  in  England.  In  all  these  localities  the  ores  appear, 
as  it  were,  to  have  been  deposited  at  the  expense  of  dissolved 
magnesian  limestone,  which  they,  in  part,  permeated. 

It  is  worth  noticing,  that  silver-lodes  have  been  much  more 
commonly  found  in  grey  gneiss  and  mica-schist,  than  in  granite 
and  red  gneiss.  In  several  districts,  where  these  various  rocks 
occur  together,  they  appear  to  avoid  the  granite  and  red  gneiss ; 
being  either  entirely  wanting,  or  in  such  small  quantities,  as  not 
to  be  exploitable;  thus,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  Erzgebirge, 
partly  also  in  the  Black  Forest,  in  Bohemia,  near  St.  Julien  in 
France  and  at  Kupferberg  in  Silesia;  where,  however,  the  rock 
is,  for  the  most  part,  a  schist  rich  in  hornblende. 

Copper-ores  are  found  especially  in  chloritic  schists,  in  horn- 
blende-schist, or  in  greenstones  and  serpentines,  as  well  as  com- 
bined with  granites.  Beds  of  copper-ore  occur  most  frequently 
between-  those  schists.  Besides  the  above,  two  peculiar  modes 
of  occurrence  of  copper-ores  are  to  be  mentioned ;  viz.  first,  the 
impregnations  in  the  older  rocks,  mostly  sandstones  or  schists, 
containing  the  remains  of  plants;  as  near  Twiste,  Starkenbach, 
Hohenelbe,  in  the  Permian  district  of  Russia,  and  in  Chili, 
where  (according  to  Philippi's  Journey  through  the  Desert  of 
Atacama)  a  copper-sandstone  occurs  of  the  same  age  as  the  Per- 
mian. The  copper-ores  in  Thuringia  occur  probably  as  an  im- 
pregnation. 

Secondly,  the  broad  segregated  masses  composed  of  copper 
and  iron  pyrites,  which  occur  in  like  manner  in  the  Devonian 
slates  near  Goslar,  in  clay-slate  near  Schmollnitz,  Agordo,  and 
Rio  Tinto,  as  well  as  in  mica-schist  or  quartzite  at  Falun;  in 
several  of  these  localities,  immediately  surrounded  by  talc- 
schistose  layers. 

It  is  incomprehensible,   under  what  peculiar   circumstances 


COBALT,  NICKEL,.  QUICKSILVER,  AND  TIN-ORES.  521 

such  broad  masses  of  these  sulphurets  can  have  been  locally 
aggregated;  scarcely  at  the  s*ame  time  with  the  deposit  of  the 
enclosing  rock;  but  it  is  almost  as  difficult  to  explain  their  sub- 
sequent penetration  in  any  satisfactory  manner;  still  the  occur- 
rence of  the  segregations  near  Schmollnitz,  within  a  belt  of 
schist  containing  disseminated  pyrites,  would  tend  to  indicate  a 
peculiar  manner  of  subsequent  impregnation. 

Cobalt  and  Nickel  ores,  these  almost  constant  mutual  com- 
panions, scarcely  appear  united  with  particular  rocks.  We  find 
them  forming  lodes  at  Schneeberg  (Saxony)  in  clay-slate  and 
mica-schist;  at  Saalfeld,  Schweina,  and  Riegelsdorf  (inThuringia), 
in  the  copper-slate ;  near  Friedrichsroda,  in  the  Rothliegendes ; 
near  Dobschau  (Hungary)  in  a  rock  resembling  gabbro,  as  also 
above  the  gabbro  as  pockets  in  spathic  iron;  at  Schladming 
(Styria),  like  a  Fallband  within  a  belt  of  mica-schist;  on  the 
Nockelberg  (Alps),  in  magnesian  limestone;  in  the  Annivaer 
Valley,  in  chloritic  mica-schist;  and  at  Skutterud,  Norway  (ex- 
ceptionally almost  altogether  cobalt-ores  without  nickel),  as  im- 
pregnation in  mica-schist. 

It  would  be  still  more  difficult  to  lay  down  laws  for  the 
occurrence  of  antimony-ores,  than  for  those  of  cobalt  and  nickel. 

Quicksilver-ores  occur  under  various  forms  and  geological 
conditions,  but  rarely  in  exploitable  quantities.  They  occur,  as 
lodes,  and  as  impregnations,  in  old  metamorphic  schists,  in  rocks 
of  the  Carboniferous  formation,  as  well  as  in  more  recent  ones; 
thus,  in  the  Tihu  Valley  in  Northern  Transylvania.  It  might 
appear  important,  that  the  strata  containing  deposits  of  mercury 
in  the  Alps  are  recognised  to  be  about,  but  not  quite,  of  the 
same  age,  «as  those  traversed  by  quicksilver-lodes  in  the  Pala- 
tinate. These  are  but  two  cases,  of  the  agreement  in  age  of  the 
country-rock,  and  difference  in  the  nature  of  their  deposits;  they 
cannot  consequently  be  used  as  the  starting  point  of  a  law. 

The  tin-ores  exhibit,  on  the  contrary,  a  strikingly  constant 
relation  of  their  geological  occurrence.  They  have  been  found 
in  place  only  in  plutonic,  and  more  or  less  metamorphosed  rocks 
of  great  age,  never  with  limestones  or  dolomites,  most  frequently 
in  granite  districts,  or  at  their  junctions  with  metamorphic  rocks, 
or  very  old  sedimentary  ones.  Their  combination  with  granitic 
rocks  really  occurs  so  often,  that  it  may  be  correct  to  regard 
them  as  local  contact-formations  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the 
term. 


522  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ORES 

We  find  the  tin-ores  at  the  junctions  of  granite,  very  charac- 
teristically, in  the  deposits  of  Alteriberg,  Zinnwald,  Ehrenfrieders- 
dorf,  Geyer,  Eibenstock,  Johanngeorgenstadt,  Joachimsthal  (all 
in  the  Erzgebirge),  Schlackenwald  (Bohemia),  Brittany,  and 
Cornwall.  At  Graupen  and  Marierffoerg  the  granites  are  some- 
what more  distant,  or  replaced  by  porphyries;  the  geological 
relations  of  the  deposits  in  Spain  are  not  sufficiently  known. 
At  Pittkaranda  (Sweden),  the  cassiterite  occurs,  Vith  the  other 
ores  and  minerals,  as  a  bedded  lode,  or  belt  of  impregnation, 
in  hornblende-schist  traversed  -by  granite  dikes,  under  similar 
conditions  as  at  Breitenbrunn  (Erzgebirge).  From  what  is  known 
of  the  occurrence  of  tin-ore  on  the  islands  of  Banka  and  Bil- 
liton,  the  original  deposits  occur  there  between  granitic  rocks. 
No  other  metal  appears  to  be  so  constant  in  its  occurrence: 
I  shall  return  to  the  possible  cause  of  these  phenomena. 

From  what  precedes  it  would  appear,  that  the  ores  of  the 
various  metals  occur,  for  the  most  part,  combined  with  certain 
rocks,  although  there  are1  exceptions  to  this. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  ORES  IN  THE  DEPOSITS. 

§  276.  Ores  generally  occur  in  true  beds  equally  distri- 
buted. The  number  of  real  beds,  however,  will  greatly  diminish; 
if  we  omit  those  which,  though  called  beds,  are  properly  bedded 
veins,  .or  impregnations.  In  the  case  of  lodes,  segregations,  and 
impregnations,  the  distribution  of  ores  is,  as  a  rule,  found  much 
more  unequal  than  in  beds. 

Inasmuch  as  no  other  causes  of  distribution  ca»  be  recog- 
nised, for  segregations  and  impregnations,  than  those  which  most 
distinctly  occur  in  the  lodes;  I  confine  myself  to  what  is  stated 
in  the  general  part,  adding  some  remarks  suggested  by  a  review 
of  the  examples  mentioned  in  this  part. 

Differences  of  depth,  which  are  partly  original,  partly  secon- 
dary, caused  by  alteration  from  above,  occur  in  many  localities. 
It  is  believed,  that  original  differences  of  depth  combined  with 
secondary  ones  have  been  observed  at  Freiberg,  Berggieshiibel, 
Seiffen,  Joachimsthal,  Clausthal,  Przibram,  Felsobanya,  Schem- 
nitz,  in  the  Salzburg  Alps,  on  the  Monte  Catini,  in  the  Katzen- 
thal,  in  the  Sierra  Almagrera,  neai  Linares,  in  Cornwall,  at 
Beresow,  in  South  Carolina,  at  Oruro  in  Potosi,  and  near  Caravella 


IN  THE  DEPOSITS.  523 

in  Peru.  I  consider  the  cases  especially  important,  in  which 
the  upper  portions  of  lead,  silver,  or  copper  lodes  are  actually 
more  ferrugineous,  and  mostly  free  from  other  ores;  as  at 
Przibram,  Berggieshiibel,  and  Katzenthal ;  as  well  as  the  pyritous 
lead-veins  at  Freiberg,  and  many  lodes  in  Nassau,  which  appear 
to  be  actually  more  ferrugineous,  and  to  contain  less  lead,  at 
the  surface,  than  at  greater  depths. 

The  idea,  that  gold-veins  are  richer  near  the  surface  than 
at  considerable  depths,  must  now  be  given  up,  at  least  as  being 
a  universal  law ;  the  lodes  at  Grass  Valley  in  California,  being 
as  rich  1000  feet  below,  as  at  the  surface. 

Natural  causes  for  the  constant  original  differences  of  depth 
might  be  easily  found  in  the  dissimilar  degrees  of  pressure  and 
heat.  Here  theory  has  preceded  observation,  and  is  prepared 
to  explain  phenomena  which  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
observed;  which  is  for  the  greater  part  explained  by  the  fact, 
that  mines  have  mostly  not  attained  sufficient  depth  for  this 
i  purpose.  The  secondary  differences  of  depth  may  be  still  more 
easily  explained  by  decompositions  and  alterations,  which  occur 
so  commonly,  that  I  consider  examples  unnecessary. 

Where  chlorides,  bromides,  and  iodides,  of  silver  occur  near 
the  surface ;  it  may  be  supposed  that,  during  or  after  the  formation 
of  the  lodes,  they  were  covered  by  the  sea. 

Influence  of  the  breadth  on  the  distribution  of  ores,  natu- 
rally leaving  the  encreased  volume  out  of  account,  and  only 
noticing  the  relative  percentage,  has  been  but  slightly  observed : 
broader  portions  contain  richer  ores  at  Geldkronach  and  Linares ; 
the  narrower  portions  are  stated  to  be  richest  at  Andreasberg, 
Clausthal,  Carthagena,  and  Kongsberg. 

The  influences  of  the  wall-rock  have  as  yet  been  most  fre- 
quently observed:  in  these  we  are  obliged  to  distinguish  modi- 
fications varied  by  their  nature;  viz.  intersection  by  other  ore- 
deposits  or  metalliferous  rocks,  original  disparities  of  the  rocks, 
disparity  in  their  state  of  decomposition,  and  finally  mechanical 
influences  of  the  wall-rock  on  the  formation  of  fissures.  Here 
must  also  be  considered  the  frequent  occurrence  of  contact- 
deposits  at  the  junctions  of  two  different  rocks,  and  especially 
of  aggregations  of  ores  at  such  junctions. 

Intersected  ore-deposits  or  metalliferous  belts  of  rocks  (Fall- 
bands)  occasion  enrichment;  as  at  Freiberg,  Ehrenfriedersdorf, 
Johanngeorgenstadt,  Schneeberg,  Camsdorf,  Schweina,  Riegels- 


524  INFLUENCE  OF  WALL-ROCK, 

dorf,  Dillenburg,  Horzowitz,  Kupferberg  in  Silesia,  Schladming; 
in  Cornwall,  and  Cardiganshire,  and  at  Kongsberg:  at  Nagyag, 
on  the  contrary,  the  junctions  of  the  telluric  gold-veins  appear 
to  be,  for  the  most  part,  poor. 

The  original  difference  ol  thff  country-rock  shows  itself  to 
exert  an  influence  on  the  metalliferous  contents  of  the  lodes  at 
Freiberg,  Graupen,  Geyer,  Joachimsthal,  Johanngeorgenstadt, 
Eibenstock,  Schneeberg,  Tilkerode,  Lehrbach,  Harzburg,  Zorge, 
Pfaffenberg,  Andreasberg,  Clausthal,  Dillenburg,  Wetzlar,  Ober- 
moschel,  Wittich  in  the  Kinzigthal  and  Miinsterthal,  at  Schlag- 
genwald,  Przibram,  Adamstadt,  Kuttenberg,  Starckenbach,  Roch- 
litz,  Kupferberg,  Vorospatak,  Offenbanya,  Felsobanya,  Schemnitz, 
Dobschau,  in  the  Salzburg  Alps,  on  the  Callanda  and  Miirtsch- 
en-Alp,  in  the  district  of  the  Aveyron,  in  Cornwall,  Derbyshire, 
and  Cumberland,  at  Kaafjord,  Reipas,  Sala,  in  the  Urals,  on 
Lake  Superior,  in  South  Carolina,  at  Piedad  in  Mexico,  and  in 
Chili. 

A  decomposed  condition  of  the  wall-rock  has  had  a  favor- 
able influence  at  Nagyag,  Offenbanya,  and  in  Cornwall;  an 
unfavorable  one  at  Holzappel,  and  in  Cardiganshire.  Both  can 
be  explained,  if  it  be  admitted  that  the  solution  of  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  wall-rock  (for  example,  the  alkalies),  taking  place 
during  the  formation  of  the  lode-matrix,  has  exercised  some  in- 
fluence on  the  deposition  of  the  ores.  And  thus  a  decomposition 
taking  place,  before  the  formation  of  the  lode,  must  have  in- 
fluenced in  a  different  manner  (probably  more  unfavorably)  the 
deposition  of  the  ores,  than  if  the  same  had  taken  place  during 
the  formation  of  the  lode. 

Decomposed  wall-rock,  as  is  well  known,  is  a  very  common 
occurrence  alongside  of  most  lodes ;  the  observation,  with  regard 
to  the  influence  of  this  condition  on  the  constitution  of  the  lode, 
is  but  slight.  Where  all  the  wall-rock  is  decomposed,  no  such 
observations  are  possible;  these  can  on  the  contrary,  be  only 
made  in  the  more  rare  cases,  where  only  certain  portions  of  the 
wall -rock  exhibit  locally  more  decomposition;  and  these  have 
been  properly  attended  to  in  the  process  of  mining.  I  come, 
finally,  to  the  unequal  distribution  of  ores,  for  which  no  deter- 
mined causes,  or  rather  no  constant  connection  with  other  pheno- 
mena, have  as  yet  been  recognised. 

It  is  a  very  old  experience  in  vein-mining,  that  the  masses 
of  ore  are  not  only  distributed  unequally  in  the  lodes,  but  also 


AND  COUNTRY-ROCK.  525 

extend  with  a  certain  local  regularity  through  the  same.  Very 
often  they  extend  with  an  almost  regular  breadth,  consequently 
ribbonlike,  either  obliquely  towards  one  side  of  the  direc- 
tion of  s-trike,  or  parallel  to  .the  <Jip>  in  the  direction  of 
depth.  This  manner  of  occurrence  is  called  in  America 
'Chimney',  in  France  Colonne.  On  horizontal  plans  this  condi- 
tion is  often  clearly  seem  from  the  form  and  distribution  of  the 
workings.  This  mode  of  the  ore-distribution  often  coincides, 
indeed,  with  the  corresponding  bed  of  the  rock-alternation  and 
its  limits;  and  then  the  consequences  are  most  probably  to  be 
regarded,  as  caused  by  the  unequal  influences  of  the  country- 
rock;  though  their  proper  reason  cannot  be  farther  proved. 
Still,  in  many  cases,  such  a  relation  has  not  yet  been  recognised, 
either  from  want  of  observation,  or  because  not  actually  present. 
Such  examples  are  those  of  Schneeberg,  Holzappel,  Heizenberg, 
Kleinkogel,  and  Schwatz  in  Tyrol,  Ahrn,  La  Pause,  Aveyron 
district,  Pontgibaud,  Poullaouen,  Linares,  Cardiganshire,  and 
Pittkaranda. 

It  is  to  be  regretted,  that  the  observations  in  this  connec- 
tion often  leave  much  to  be  desired;  but  it  is  very  natural  that 
the  practical  miner  should  only  follow  and  extract  his  mass  of 
ore,  without  troubling  himself  about  slight  changes  in  the  wall- 
rock;  especially  where  the  lodes  are  so  broad,  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  remove  any  of  the  country-rock.  I  therefore  sup- 
pose, that  a  portion  of  those  still  enigmatical  chimneys  of  ore 
could  be  traced  back,  by  more  careful  observation,  to  influences 
of  the  wall-rock,  or  perhaps  also  to  unequal  conditions  of  breadth; 
but  there  still  remain  some  carefully  examined  cases,  in  which 
as  yet  no  material  causes  have  been  recognised. 

In  most  localities  the  ore-chimneys  are  parallel  to  one 
another,  but  at  Poullaouen  in  Brittany  they  diverge  in  their 
course,  which  renders  their  explanation  still  more  difficult. 
Durocher  has  attempted  to  explain  such  like  phenomena  by 
currents  of  vapor. 

The  most  enigmatical  are  those  in  the  Tyrol,  stated  to 
recur  at  equal  distances  apart ;  once  in  lodes  of  tetrahedrite  in  mag- 
nesian  limestone;  a  second  time  in  an  auriferous  bed  or  clay-slate. 

I  do  not  attempt  to  offer  any  opinion  of  such  peculiar  phe- 
nomena, for  which  there  is  no  explanation.  So  long  as  they 
occur  so  rarely,  they  may  still  be  regarded  as  merely  accidental, 
and  at  least  must  not  have  too  much  value  attached  to  them. 


526  CONDITIONS  OF  AGE 

CONDITIONS   OF  AGE  OF  THE  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

§  277.  The  conditions  of  bedding,  the  enclosure  oi'  fossils, 
of  fragments,  and  of  pebbles,  serve  us  for  ascertaining  and 
determining  the  relative  age  of  the*  rocks  essentially  composing 
the  earth's  crust  These  aids  can  only  partially,  or  in  an 
indistinct  degree,  aid  us  in  the  case  of  the  ore-deposits. 

The  determination  of  the  age  of  true  ore-beds  is  still 
the  easiest,  their  formation  coincides  with  that  of  the  rock  en- 
closing them.  Is  the  age  of  the  last  known,  so  is  also  that 
of  the  beds  they  contain;  thus,  the  period  of  the  formation  of 
the  copper-slates  of  Thuringia  belongs,  beyond  a  doubt,  to  that 
of  the  Zechstein  formation. 

The  determination  of  the  age,  in  the  case  of  lodes,  segre- 
gated aggregations,  or  impregnations,  is  entirely  different,  and 
far  more  difficult.)  I  shall  attempt  to  discuss  this  question  some- 
what more  closely  in  regard  to  the  lodes,  as  the  most  common 
and  most  distinctly  stamped  of  these  forms. 

These  is  no  doubt  that  lodes  are  always  more  recent  than 
the.  rocks  which  they  traverse ;  since  it  is  unnecessary  to  attend 
to  the  possibility  that  an  outcrop,  rendered  projecting  by  erosion, 
may  subsequently  be  enclosed  by  a  new  rock,  as  in  the  outcrop 
of  a  bed  of  copper-ore  on  the  Schatten  Mount  near  Kitzbuhel ; 
such  exceptional  cases  may  be  always  recognised,  by  a  careful 
examination,  to  be  what  they  really  are. 

From  this,  however,  we  merely  ascertain,  that  all  lodes  are 
more  recent  than  their  wall-rock.  How  much  more  recent  they 
are,  does  not  appear.  The  difference  of  age  may  be  very  great, 
or  very  small ;  besides,  a  result  obtained  in  this  manner,  at  one 
locality,  cannot,  without  something  farther,  be  used  for  another 
locality,  where  similar  lodes  occur. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  that  lodes  are  always  older  than 
those  veins  or  rocks,  by  wrhich  they  are  distinctly  in  any  manner 
intersected.  The  difference  in  age  is,  here  too,  undeterminable; 
and  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  the  possible  delusion,  that  the  inter- 
section is  but  an  apparent  one,  perhaps  caused  by  a  fault, 
which  does  not  coincide  in  age  with  that  of  the  apparently 
intersecting  mass,  but  arose  from  a  subsequent  fissure.  Distinct 
intersections  are,  however,  always  decisive  of  the  relative  age. 

Less  certain  are  the  conclusions,  drawn  from  the  overlaying 
of  the  outcrops  of  lodes,  by  rocks  into  which  the  lodes  do  not 


OF  THE  ORE-DEPOSITS.  527 

extend.  Only  by  greater  positiveness  and  distinctness  of  the 
relations,  is  it  possible  to  draw  a  certain  conclusion  as  to  the 
relative  age.  The  want  of  continuation  oT  narrower  lodes;  or 
such  as  split  up  in  this  direction,  in  rocks  of  another  "character 
over,  alongside,  or  beneath ;  can  easily  find  an  explanation  from 
the  fact,  that  one  rock  was  not  inclined  in  a  similar  degree  to 
be  fissured  that  the  other  was;  since  it  possibly  possessed  a 
certain  plasticity,  by  which  the  formation  of  fissures,  which  would 
remain  open,  was  hindered. 

Fragments  of  lodes  in  other  rocks  decide  with  the  greatest 
certainty  concerning  the  greater  age  of  the  lodes  in  comparison 
to  the  rock  which  contains  portions  of  these.  Such  phenomena 
are  as  yet  but  seldom  distinctly  observed ;  which  is  very  na- 
tural, if  we  consider  the  slight  solidity,  and  easy  decomposition, 
of  the  ores  forming  the  lodes. 

Fossils  belonging  to  their  period  of  formation  do  not  occur 
at  all  in  lodes.  Where  organic  remains  have  exceptionally  been 
found  in  them,  they  always  proceeded  from  the  wall-rock,  and 
only  accidentally  fell  into  the  fissures. 

Consequently,  the  possibility  of  a  certain  determination  of 
the  age  of  lodes  is  confined  to  the  above  few  cases,  in  so  far 
as  these  are  from  their  nature  distinct.  Beyond  this,  only  hy- 
potheses can  be  made,  which  depend  on  accompanying  pheno- 
mena, on  the  similarity  of  the  composition,  on  the  direction  of 
the  strike,  and  such  like;  or  which  proceed  from  general  the- 
oretical views.  These  are,  however,  arguments,  which  cannot 
be  carelessly  used,  but  need  a  particularly  careful  examination. 

After  Werner's  constantly  asserted  doctrine,  of  the  successive 
formation  of  the  rocks,  rising  from  granite  and  gneiss  to  the 
basalt  and  the  most  recent  deposits,  had  obtained  a  commanding 
influence;  it  was  supposed,  that  the  age  of  the  rocks  could  be 
determined  from  their  mineralogical  composition.  This  opinion, 
subsequently  recognised  as  erroneous,  was  still  to  a  certain 
extent  retained;  after  the  incorrectness  of  many  of  Werner's 
theories,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  rocks  were  formed,  was 
admitted.  Long  subsequently  it  was  generally  believed,  that  the 
formation  of  the  separate  kinds  of  rocks  belonged  to  determined 
geological  periods;  for  example,  a  period  of  the  formation  of 
granite,  of  the  formation  of  porphyry,  of  the  formation  of 
greenstone,  trachyte,  or  of  basalt,  as  well  as  a  period  of  the 
formation  of  mica-schist  or  clay- slate,  could  be  recognised; 


528  RELATIVE  AGE  OF  ORES,  AND  ROCKS. 

that  the  age  of  the  rocks  could  be  ascertained  from  the 
rocks  themselves.  Many  repeated  disillusions  were  necessary, 
before  this  convenient  method  of  determining  the  age  of  rocks 
was  abandoned.  By  an  examination  of  the  mineralogical  struc- 
ture of  the  rocks  it  may  be  determined,  whether  they  possess  more 
or  less  of  a  plutonic  character,  and  whether  a  less  or  greater 
alteration  has  taken  place  in  them;  but  not  whether  they  were 
formed  or  metamorphosed  at  a  very  early  or  at  'a  later  period. 

The  character  of  the  rocks  can  hence  be  used,  as  an  aid 
in  the  determination  of  age,  in  but  very  confined  geological 
limits,  within  the  extent  of  associated  geological  events;  thus, 
in  districts  composed  of  igneous  or  sedimentary  rocks,  and  even 
there  not  a  priori,  but  only  after  the  succession  of  the  forma- 
tions has  been  recognised  at  some  one  point.  Beyond  this  it 
too  easily  misleads  to  uncertain  conclusions.  In  districts  sepa- 
rated from  one  another,  the  lithological  conformity  can  only 
serve  as  a  proof,  that  certain  events  of  the  formation,  and  con- 
ditions, have  repeatedly  recurred  both  in  extent  and  time;  the 
similarity  or  equality  of  the  rocks  does  not  show  their  equal; 
nor  their  dissimilarity,  their  unequal  age.  Like  rocks  may  as 
well  belong  to  like,  as  to  different  periods  of  formation;  and 
just  the  same  reversed.  This  well  recognised  truth  does  not, 
however,  exclude  certain  rocks,  wherever  they  are  observed,  from 
being  as  a  rule  of  a  very  old,  and  others  of  a  very  recent 
formation.  This  fact  is  no  contradiction  of  the  preceding  rule; 
and  is  easily  understood,  if  it  be  admitted,  that  certain  kinds 
of  rocks  are  only  formed  in  the  interior  of  the  earth  (plutonic), 
or  by  metamorphosis;  whereas  others  were  products  of  the  earth's 
surface. 

It  is  known  with  certainty,  that  some  granites  are  older 
than  neighboring  Silurian  strata;  whilst  others,  with  no  essen- 
tial difference  from  the  former,  have  broken  through  and  altered 
Triassic  or  Jurassic  strata.  That  true  clay-slates  occur  widely 
distributed  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  which  formation  belongs  to  the 
Cretaceous  or  to  the  Eocene;  yet  so  similar  as  to  be  easily 
mistaken  for  the  finest  Silurian  or  Devonian  roofing-slates  of 
the  Hartz  or  the  Thuringian  Forest;  is  so  well  known,  as  to 
prevent  any  value  from  being  attached  to  such  similarity  in 
rocks,  as  determining  their  age;  unless  they  occur  in  immediate 
connection,  or  at  least  in  districts  geologically  united.  Precisely 
the  same  is  true,  however,  for  all  other  igneous  and  sedimen- 


RELATIVE  AGE  OF  ROCKS.  529 

tary  rocks,  as  well  as  for  stlch  as  are  metamorphic;   this  could 
be  proved  by  numerous   examples. 

If  nevertheless  the  granitic  rocks  for  example,  wherever 
they  have  been  found,  are  of  greater  age  than  the  trachytic  or 
basaltic,  and  perhaps  older  than  the  Tertiary  period;  it  by  no 
means  follows,  that  the  formation  of  the  granites  ceased  with 
the  Tertiary  period,  and  every  where  belongs  only  to  a  very 
early,  though  long  continued  geological  age.  That  fact  finds 
just  as  satisfactory  explanation  in  the  supposition,  that  all  gra- 
nites are  true  plutonic,  igneous,  or  metamorphic  rocks;  which 
during  the  period  of  their  formation  never  attained  the  surface, 
but  became,  or  still  become,  what  they  are,  under  great  pres- 
sure in  the  interior  of  the  earth.  Are  they,  as  is  very  probable, 
eruptive  masses  formed  by  hardening  from  an  igneous-fluid  con- 
dition? If  so,  their  original  outcrop  under  a  less  pressure,  and 
by  a  quicker  cooling  off,  may  have  taken  and  still  take  another, 
perhaps  more  trachytic  character.  Such  rocks,  formed  at  some 
depth,  can  only  attain  the  surface,  and  become  accessible  to 
observation,  through  considerable  alterations,  elevations,  and 
erosions  of  the  surface;  which  must  necessarily  occupy  a  long 
period.  What,  therefore,  is  seen  of  them  must  always  be  toler- 
ably old.  Precisely  the  same  is  true  of  the  syenites,  and  their 
related  rocks;  and  very  simply  explains  the  entire  want  of  all 
true  volcanic  phenomena  on  such  rocks. 

It  appeared  necessary,  that  the  preceding  remarks  should  be 
made;  though  the  idea  of  determining  the  age  of  rocks,  by  their 
nature,  or  by  analogy,  has  long  been  abandoned ;  for  this  aban- 
donment has  not  become  universal  respecting  lodes,  segrega- 
tions, and  impregnations.  In  this  last  case  one  often,  at  this 
day,  meets  with  the  attempt  to  establish  the  contemporane- 
ousness of  their  formation  from  their  mineralogical  character, 
even  where  the  geological  districts  are  widely  separated.  If  the 
last  be  proved  from  other  causes,  then  the  homogeneousness 
may  always  be  rendered  prominent.  But  it  cannot  then  itself 
give  a  new  support  to  the  proof;  just  as  little  as  would  be  the 
case  in  two  occurrences  of  granite,  which  have  been  recognised 
as  of  contemporaneous  age  in  districts  altogether  separated  from 
one  another;  while,  in  many  other  places,  granites  quite  like 
these  are  known  to  be  of  very  different  age. 

The  more  widely  extended,  and  more  frequent,  certain 
mineral  combinations  of  the  lodes  are ;  as  for  example  those,  of 

34 


530  LIKE  COMPOSITION,  NO  PROOF. 

heavy  spar  and  quartz,  with  lead,  sifoer,  and  other  ores ;  so  much 
the  less  do  they  authorise  the  conclusion,  that  they  are  of  con- 
temporaneous age,  so  much  the  more  must  it  be  assumed,  that 
the  chemical  condition  for  this  combination  was  a  very  general 
terrestrial  one,  which  has  frequentl/  recurred  both  in  extent  and 
time,  furnishing  similar  results  modified  by  local  conditions. 
In  completing  this  law,  I  fear  it  may  in  so  far  be  misunderstood, 
as  if  I  wished  to  regard  the  rarer  mineral  combinations,  as  still 
belonging  to  determined  geological  epochs.  The  terms  'the  more 
frequent',  'the  more  rarely'  have  in  fact  merely  the  meaning, 
that  mineral  formations,  which  are  very  frequently  found,  and 
which  have  been  observed  in  many  localities,  and  under  very 
various  conditions,  were  probably  formed,  very  often,  at  very 
different  periods;  while  many  rarer  mineral  combinations  arose 
under  altogether  peculia  rlocal  circumstances;  and  consequently, 
perhaps  accidentally,  are  only  known  in  one  period. 

One  reason  why,  particularly  in  relation  to  the  lodes,  the 
preconceived  opinion,  that  like  composition  betrays  like  age, 
could  be  longer  maintained,  than  in  respect  to  the  rocks ;  is,  that 
in  the  former  an  actual  proof  of  age  is  often  impossible  to  find  ; 
and  this  has  naturally  led  to  an  adhesion  to  the  preconceived, 
even  though  erroneous,  opinion  on  this  subject.  This  but  ren- 
ders it  the  more  desirable  to  use  all  possible  negative  or  positive 
aids  for  establishing  the  period  of  formation,  and  the  equality 
or  non-equality  in  age  of  some  lodes. 

To  aid  in  this  will  now  be  my  effort. 

The  lodes  of  the  Central  District  of  France;  especially 
characterised  by  heavy  spar  and  galena,  often,  however,  very 
quartzose;  reach,  according  to  Gruner,  upwards  to  between  the 
lower  strata  of  the  Jurassic,  but  nowhere  in  this  region  into 
the  upper  strata  of  this  formation.  Gruner  and  Baron  Beust 
conclude,  from  this,  as  well  as  from  other  subordinate  circum- 
stances, that  the  formation  of  these  veins  (in  that  district)  be- 
long to  the  Jurassic  period. 

The  barytic  lodes  of  the  Black  Forest  containing  silver, 
lead,  cobalt,  and  nickel  ores,  occasionally  intersect,  according 
to  Daub,  the  Jurassic  limestone,  which  is  the  upper  division 
of  this  formation  in  Swabia;  hence  they  must  be  of  more  recent 
formation  than  the  similar  ones  in  Central  France. 

Lodes,  very  similarly  composed  to  those  just  mentioned, 
intersect  deposits  near  Massetano  in  Tuscany;  which  are  cer- 


RELATIVE  AGE  OF  LODES.  531 

tainly    much   more   recent   than  the  Jurassic,  and  belong  either 
to  the  upper  divisions  of  the  Cretaceous,  or  even  to  the  Eocene. 

The  broad  champion-lode  of  Felsobanya  in  Eastern  Hungary, 
also  consists  in  part  of  heavy  spar,  quartz,  and  galena.  It 
traverses  a  greenstone  or  timazite,  which  has  evidently  broken 
through  strata  of  the  Eocene,  and  is  consequently  more  recent 
than  these:  the  lode  is  naturally  still  more  recent  than  the 
greenstone. 

It  appears  from  Daubree's  researches,  that  the  mineral  water 
of  Plombieres  still  deposits  minerals,  which  are  characteristic  of 
the  variety  of  lodes  mentioned;  and  it  is  by  no  means  impos- 
sible, that  there,  at  a  corresponding  depth  below  the  surface, 
such  lodes  are  still  forming. 

We  have  thus  become  acquainted  with  the  lodes  charac- 
terised by  heavy  spar  and  quartz,  which  were  most  probably 
formed  during  the  Jurassic  period ;  and  others  of  a  very  similar 
composition,  which  are  much  more  recent,  perchance  are  still 
forming.  For  older  periods  of  formation,  indications,  if  not 
proofs,  are  found. 

The  lodes  of  Derbyshire  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of 
heavy  spar,  quartz,  fluor  spar,  and  galena.  They  traverse  the 
strata  of  the  mountain-limestone,  as  well  as  the  lowest  sandstone- 
layers  of  the  Carboniferous  formation;  but  they  have  nowhere 
been  found  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  Carboniferous;  which  is 
extensively  represented  in  this  district.  I  admit,  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  arrive  at  a  positive  decision  from  these  facts;  since 
it  is  possible,  that  these  upper  layers,  through  their  clayey  and 
plastic  nature,  have  (as  is  the  case  to  a  less  degree  in  the 
embedded  argillaceous  layers  of  the  mountain-limestone)  offered 
a  mechanical  obstacle  to  the  formation  of  the  veins.  The  fact 
is,  however,  entitled  to  as  much  attention,  as  some  opposed  the- 
oretical views,  or  as  the  similar  occurrences  in  other  countries, 
in  which  so  little  agreement  in  age  is  apparent ;  thus  in  France, 
Swabia,  Northern  Italy,  and  Eastern  Hungary. 

Ezquerra  del  Bayo  remarks,  on  the  very  argentiferous 
barytic  lodes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hiendelencia  (Spain),  that 
torn- off  fragments  of  the  same  are  found  in  an  adjoining  layer 
of  mica-schist.  I  grant,  that  this  fact  needs  a  more  accurate 
examination,  before  positive  conclusions  can  be  based  on  it. 

For  the  barytic  iodes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Freiberg,  very 
similar  to  the  above,  it  can  only  be  determined,  in  regard  to 

34* 


532  RELATIVE  AGE  OF  LODES, 

their  age,  that  they  are  younger  than  the  other  silver-lodes  of 
this  district;  which  must  themselves  be  for  the  greater  part  more 
recent  than  the  quartz-porphyries;  which  last,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  older  than  the  conglomerates  of  the  adjoining  Rothliegendes, 
in  which  pebbles  of  the  porphyries  are  found.  There  are  no 
measurable  observations,  to  determine  how  much  more  recent  the 
barytic  lodes  around  Freiberg  are  than  the  other  veins;  if  it 
be  not  concluded,  from  the  mutual  occurrence  in  one  and  the 
same  district  of  veins,  and  from  the  occasional  presence  of  heavy 
spar  occurring  sporadically  in  geodes  of  the  older  lodes,  that 
the  formation  of  all  those  veins  may  belong  to  one  and  the 
same  great  geological  period,  and  are  connected  in  a  certain 
manner  with  one  another.  No  great  value  can  indeed  be  placed 
on  such  a  conclusion;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  determination 
of  the  age,  from  the  similarity  with  a  corresponding  district  of 
veins,  would  be  still  less  authorised. 

Many  circumstances  render  it  probable,  that  the  process  of 
the  vein-formation  at  Freiberg  stands  in  a  certain  connection 
with  the  upheaval  of  the  quartz-porphyries.  H.  Miiller  has 
even  proved,  of  the  oldest  lodes  at  Freiberg,  that  they  are  in 
some  cases  intersected  and  heaved  by  porphyries,  that  they 
are  therefore  older  than  these;  which  does  not  contradict  the 
fact,  that,  as  a  rule,  all  the  lodes  around  Freiberg  intersect  the 
porphyries.  Then  neither  the  porphyries  nor  the  lodes  were  all 
formed  contemporaneously  around  Freiberg;  and  it  might  thus 
well  have  happened,  that  the  last  irruption  of  porphyry  found 
some  of  the  lodes  already  completed.  But  precisely  this  cir- 
cumstance renders  it  very  probable,  that  at  least  a  portion  of 
the  Freiberg  lodes  about  corresponds  to  the  period  of  the  por- 
phyry-irruption, or  the  last  portion  of  this  great  period);  and 
consequently  about  coincides  with  the  period  of  the  Rothliegendes, 
with  whose  deposits  the  porphyries  are  so  intimately  connected 
by  tufas  and  conglomerates.  If,  however,  the  silver-lodes  around 
Freiberg,  so  productive  in  quartz,  pyrites,  and  carbonates; 
whose  difference  in  age  has  been  recognised  to  be  but  slight ;  once 
belong  to  about  the  period,  in  which  the  porphyries  were  formed ; 
it  then  appears  to  me  most  probable,  that  the,  somewhat  younger 
it  is  true,  barytic  silver-lodes  of  the  same  district,  are  also  not 
far  removed  from  this  period,  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  last 
products  of  a  great  process  in  the  formation  of  the  veins;  until 
some  facts  are  observed,  supporting  different  views. 


HOW,  AND  HOW  FAR,  DETERMINED.  533 

The  probable  determined  geological  age  of  the  quartzose, 
pyritous,  and  carbonaceous  silver-lodes,  or  the  so-called  'noble 
quartz-,  pyritous,  and  noble  lead-formations'  around  Freiberg, 
again  give  rise  to  a  new  series  of  comparisons.  We  have  seen, 
that  these  must  be  considered  as  about  of  like  age  with  the 
Rothliegendes. 

Near  Schemnitz,  we  find  lodes,  on  the  contrary,  whose 
composition  is  so  similar,  partly  with  the  noble  quartz-veins, 
partly  with  the  pyritous  lead-veins  of  Freiberg;  that  single 
cabinet-specimens  from  the  two  localities  might  certainly  be  con- 
founded. Both  combinations  cannot  be  separated  at  Schemnitz 
according  to  their  age,  both  traverse  trachytic  greenstones  or 
timazites,  which  evidently  belong  to  the  Tertiary  period.  The 
veins  are  naturally  younger  than  the  rocks. 

A  similar  case  recurs  in  the  ore-district  of  North-eastern 
Hungary.  The  composition  of  the  lodes  at  Kapriik  extraor- 
dinarily resembles,  partly  those  of  the  pyritous  lead-veins,  partly 
those  of  noble  lead-veins,  rich  in  dialogite,  around  Freiberg. 
They  again  traverse,  however,  trachytic  greenstones,  or  timazites, 
which  have  broken  through  strata  of  the  Eocene.  We  find, 
westwardly  of  Kapnik,  under  entirely  analogous  geological  con- 
ditions, between  the  same  Tertiary  country-rock,  the  broad  lode 
of  Felsobanya,  which  contains  in  part  much  heavy  spar,  and 
shows  in  many  parts  a  great  similarity  with  the  barytic  lead- 
veins  of  Freiberg;  while  in  other  parts  its  composition  more 
nearly  approaches  the  pyritous  lead-veins.  Still  farther  to  the 
west,  we  find  then  again,  near  Nagybanya,  under  precisely  the 
same  geological  conditions,  lodes  which  consist  predominantly 
of  quartz  with  gold  and  a  little  galena,  Eastwardly  of  Kapnik, 
at  Olalaposbanya  in  Transylvania,  joins  on  a  vein  chiefly  con- 
sisting of  quartz,  copper-pyrites,  argentiferous  galena,  blende, 
and  iron  pyrites;  consequently  similarly,  composed  to  the  pyri- 
tous lead-formation  of  Freiberg,  which  traverses  an  Eocene 
sandstone. 

All  these  various  veins  of  Northeastern  Hungary  are,  there- 
fore, more  recent  than  the  Eocene,  and  probably  belong  to  the 
second  half  of  the  Tertiary  period.  In  their  totality  they 
tolerably  represent  all  four  of  the  Freiberg  vein-formations; 
but  there  occurs  no  reason  to  transpose  the  time  of  their  for- 
mation to  very  different  periods.  Only  in  their  age  in  general 
do  they  appear  to  be  very  different  from  that  of  the  Freiberg  lodes. 


534  AGE  OF  METALS. 

The  Cornwall  tin-lodes  are  certainly  of  more  recent  origin, 
than  the  Devonian  slates  which  they  traverse ;  according  to 
Lyell ]  they  are  even  younger  than  the  Carboniferous  epoch. 
Apart  from  containing  copper-ore  themselves,  they  occur  together 
with  copper-lodes,  which  are  here*  always  of  more  recent  age 
than  those  of  tin;  how  much  more  recent,  is  not  known.  At 
Wexford  in  Ireland,  not  very  distant  from  Cornwall,  but  in  a 
different  geological  district,  Silurian  slates  are  cut  through  by 
lodes  of  copper  and  lead;  which,  according  to  the  as  yet 
undoubted  examination  of  the  Government-Geologists  of  Ireland, 
are  older  than  the  Devonian  strata  overlying  them,  in  which 
streaks  or  layers  of  derivative  copper  occur.  These  copper-lodes 
of  Wexford  are  consequently  older  than  the  tin-lodes  of  Corn- 
wall, and  much  older  than  the  copper-lodes  of  the  same.  Unfor- 
tunately they  have  not  been  mineralogically  compared  with  them ; 
at  any  rate  the  preceding  fact,  its  correctness  being  granted, 
contradicts  the  very  usual  supposition;  founded,  it  is  true,  on 
many  observations;  that  tin-veins  are  generally  the  oldest  of  all 
lodes. 

This  presupposition  may  possibly  be  correct  for  each  region, 
but  not  for  two  dissimilar  geological  districts,  when  compared 
together.  To  be  more  explicit,  if  tin-lodes  also  occurred  in 
Wexford,  it  is  very  probable,  from  previous  observations,  that 
they  would  be  older  than  the  above  mentioned  copper-lodes. 


AGE   OF  METALS. 

§  278.  The  preceding  leads  me  to  an  allied  subject;  viz. 
to  the  supposition  of  determined  geological  periods  for  the  for- 
mations of  the  different  metals.  Such  a  hypothesis  has  not, 
it  is  true,  been  logically  argued  by  any  one ;  but  corresponding 
ideas  are  frequent;  tand  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  many  facts 
may  be  given  such  an  interpretation,  that  it  would  seem  as  if 
certain  metals  had  been,  for  the  most  part,  deposited  during 
certain  periods. 

Especially  in  the  case  of  tin,  gold,  and  copper  ore-deposits, 
has  the  idea  at  times  arisen,  that  they  belong  for  the  most  part 
to  certain  geological  periods. 


1  See:  L yell's  Elements  of  Geology,  6th  Ed.  p.  768. 


RELATIVE  AGE  OF  METALS.  535 

Tin-ores  in  place,  are  in  fact  only  found  in  very  ancient 
rocks.  From  this,  however,  it  by  no  means  follows,  as  I  have 
already  indicated,  that  tin-ores  were  formed  only  in  very  early 
geological  periods.  If  the  formation  of  the  granitic  rocks,  with 
which  they  are  as  a  rule  combined,  is  only  possible  deep  in  the 
interior  of  the  earth,  and  if  the  same  is  perhaps  true  for  tin- 
ores;  it  is  then  very  comprehensible,  that  we  can  only  observe 
these  last,  where  such  true  plutonic  formations  have  been  laid 
bare  by  elevations  and  denudations  requiring  great  periods  of 
time.  Under  this  supposition,  the  observable  ones,  and  such  as 
are  accessible  for  mining,  must  always  be  of  great  age.  In  this 
it  is,  however,  easily  imaginable,  that  granites  and  deposits  of 
tin-ore  are  still  forming  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  that 
the  same  have  been  formed  in  all  periods  under  corresponding 
circumstances. 

For  gold,  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  and  Oscar  Lieber  in  par- 
ticular, have  expressed  the  opinion,  that  its  formation,  or  depo- 
sit, essentially  belongs  to  one  or  two  determined  geological 
periods.  Murchison  says,  in  his  'Siluria',  that  the  original  occur- 
rence of  gold  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  Palaeozoic,  or 
still  older  rocks;  that  it  occurs  in  the  mostly  metamorphic  rocks 
of  this  early  period,  partly  disseminated  in  crystalline  schists, 
partly  in  quartz-veins  which  cut  through  these  schists  in  the 
neighborhood  of  igneous  rocks.  This  assertion  contains,  however, 
another  interpretation,  than  might  at  first  be  expected;  in  that 
Murchison  farther  concludes,  the  gold  might  first  have  got  into 
these  rocks  and  veins,  at  least  in  the  Urals,  subsequently  to  the 
Permian  formation,  and  even  only  after  the  formation  of  the 
older  Tertiary  strata;  since  in  these,  as  in  those,  nowhere  has 
the  slightest  trace  of  gold,  but  very  many  fragments  of  older 
rocks,  been  found.  Murchison  is  of  the  opinion,  that  the  for- 
mation of  the  gold-deposits  in  general  belongs  to  a  particular, 
and  that  a  very  recent,  geological  period.  The  formation  of  the 
original  gold-deposits  has,  according  to  him,  only  shortly  pre- 
ceded the  denudation,  and  collection,  in  Recent  or  Post-tertiary 
placers.  Lieber,  on  the  contrary,  expresses  much  more  defini- 
tively the  opinion,  that  the  formation  of  the  original  gold-deposits 
essentially  belongs  only  to  a  very  early  period,  which  about 
corresponds  to  the  Silurian  epoch.  He  regards  the  occurrence 
at  Vorospatak  as  an  exception,  which  he  does  not  further 
explain.  It  is  not  to  the  point,  that  he  considers  the  gold  to 


536  GOLD-PERIODS  OF 

have  been  deposited  contemporaneously  with  the  old  rocks,  and 
from  these  to  have  subsequently  penetrated  into  the  veins  cut- 
ting through  them. 

The  gold-periods  of  Murchison  and  Lieber  are  consequently 
very  dissimilar:  this  circumstance  /-must  occasion  doubts.  Let 
us  now  see,  how  the  gold-occurrences,  described  in  this  volume, 
suit  the  one  or  the  other  view;  no  regard  of  course  being  had 
to  the  quantity  of  gold  in  the  different  localities'*  since  this  is 
even  in  the  richest  gold-deposit  so  small,  in  comparison  with 
the  chief  mass  of  the  lode,  that  a  distinct  trace  has  almost  the 
same  geological  importance,  as  one  worth  mining. 

In  the  Tyrolese  and  Salzburg  Alps,  we  have  become  ac- 
quainted with  auriferous  slates,  and  in  or  near  these  auriferous 
veins,  which  would,  for  the  most  part,  be  compatible  with  Lie- 
ber's  hypothesis.  Still  there  remains  a  doubt  with  regard  to  the 
veins;  viz.  they  also  cut  through  granite,  which  appears  in  the 
Alps  to  be  of  a  relatively  recent  age.  In  order  to  satisfy  Lie- 
ber's  hypothesis,  the  penetration  of  the  gold  into  the  veins  must 
have  taken  place  much  later,  than  its  first  deposit.  On  the 
Callanda  in  Switzerland  we  have  seen,  that  an  auriferous  vein 
occurred  even  in  Jurassic  strata,  the  presence  in  which  of  gold, 
it  would  be  difficult  for  this  hypothesis  to  explain.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  auriferous  slates  of  California;  which  appear  to 
belong  to  the  Jurassic  and  Triassic  age.  Murchison's  hypo- 
thesis, of  impregnation,  is  still  applicable  to  all  these  cases,  so 
soon  as  it  is  conceded  to  be  admissible. 

But  near  Graves  in  Westphalia  the  Lias  limestone  is  some- 
what auriferous;  is  this  presence  of  gold  explicable,  either  by 
fine  mechanical  washing-in,  or  by  precipitation?  if  so,  it  is  not 
compatible  with  Murchison's  hypothesis,  nor  with  Lieber's  view, 
which  expressly  remarks,  that  the  erosion  and  deposit  of  gold 
first  took  place  at  a  Post-tertiary  period.  His  gold-period  of 
itself  would  not  indeed  contradict  such  a  washing-in. 

Traces  of  gold  have  also  been  found  in  the  Miocene  sand- 
stones and  conglomerates  of  the  Valley  of  the  Aar.  These,  like 
those  of  Graves,  presuppose,  even  when  they  have  merely  been 
mechanically  washed-in,  the  presence  of  gold-deposits  more 
ancient  than  the  Miocene,  and  probably  in  the  Alps,  from  which 
the  majority  of  boulders  in  the  Miocene  arose.  This  is  opposed 
to  Murchison. 

But  the  majority  of  the  Hungarian  and  Transylvanian  auri- 


MURCHISON  AND  LIBBER.  537 

ferous  deposits  are  altogether  opposed  to  Lieber's  gold-period, 
They  cut  through  Tertiary  rocks ;  and  must  therefore  have  been 
formed  in,  or  subsequent  to,  the  Tertiary  age.  In  these  districts, 
however,  older  auriferous  rocks  are  wanting,  from  which  the 
gold  might  have  been  transported  into  the  lodes.  The  majority 
of  the  auriferous  lodes  cut  through  trachytic  greenstones  or 
Timazites  of  Tertiary  age,  while  at  Vorospatak  and  Olalapos- 
banya  the  gold-veins  traverse  Tertiary  sandstones.  This  would 
appear  to  be  a  confirmation  of  Murchison's  hypothesis.  As  a 
rule  it  is  difficult  to  bring  facts  contradictory  of  this  last  hypo- 
thesis; which,  if  theoretically  correct,  explains  almost  all  gold- 
occurrences.  It  is  therefore  hardly  possible  to  oppose  this  hypo- 
thesis by  any  other,  than  logical  and  physical  reasons. 

According  to  Murchison,  gold  occurs  almost  exclusively  in 
very  old  rocks,  and  has  only  penetrated  these  at  the  close  of  the 
Tertiary  period.  The  first  assertion  is  incorrect ;  since  we  have 
shown,  that  gold  occurs  repeatedly  in  Jurassic  and  Tertiary 
rocks.  The  last  assertion  appears  to  me,  not  only  without  a 
motive,  but  also  theoretically  inadmissible:  in  so  far  without 
a  motive,  that  the  not  finding  of  gold  in  Permian  rocks,  and 
in  Siberian  Tertiary  strata,  gives  no  reason  to  assert,  that  it  had 
not  yet  existed  in  rocks  up  to  the  period  of  their  deposit,  espe- 
cially as  it  has  been  found  in  Alpine  strata  of  the  Lias  and 
Miocene,  besides  which  very  slight  and  finely  disseminated 
quantities  might  easily  be  passed  over:  inadmissible,  in  so  far, 
as  there  is  no  reason  to  see,  why  impregnations  of  such  an 
extent;  as  they  must  necessarily  have  been,  in  order  to  render 
the  old  rocks  of  the  Urals,  Brazil,  Carolina,  and  even  the  Alps, 
auriferous ;  should  not  also  have  touched  the  more  recent  rocks, 
and  deposits,  in  the  same  regions;  especially  since  the  older 
rocks  do  not  generally  and  essentially  differ  lithologically  from 
the  more  recent  ones.  A  gold-impregnation,  so  comprehensive 
on  the  one  side,  and  again  so  capriciously  limited  on  the  other, 
in  such  a  recent  period  of  gold-emanation ;  appears  to  me  to  be 
in  every  way  an  unnecessary  and  highly  verturesome  hypothesis; 
which  in  addition  supposes,  without  a  sufficient  reason,  a  limita- 
tion of  the  period  for  the  formation  of  gold,  which  we  know 
to  exist  for  no  other  metal,  nor  for  any  other  mineral;  which 
would  consequently  form  a  total  exception.  It  is  difficult  to 
oppose  such  a  hypothesis  by  facts,  since  the  former  would  be 
prepared,  for  example,  to  explain  the  existence  of  gold  in  the 


538  COPPER-ORES  IN 

Lias,  or  Miocene,  by  a  subsequent  impregnation,  but  for  the 
fact,  that  pebbles  of  the  conglomerate  (Nagelfluhe)  of  these  for- 
mations are  traversed  by  auriferous  threads. 

From  all  this  I  cannot  consider  a  particular  period,  for  the 
formation  of  gold,  to  have  T^een  either  proved,  or  probable.  Ac- 
cording to  Gahn,  there  is  scarcely  any  iron-pyrites,  in  which, 
by  a  careful  analysis,  slight  traces  of  gold  may  not  be  proved ; 
and  how  extended  is  iron-pyrites  in  almost  all  rtocks  and  for- 
mations. 

It  is  certainly  striking,  that  in  Europe  the  sedimentary 
deposits  of  a  particular,  though  very  great,  period  often  con- 
tain copper-ores.  The  most  important  cases  are  the  following: 

1.  The  lower  sandstones  of  the  Russian  Permian; 

2.  The  lower  Rothliegendes,  and  probably  also  the  strata  of 
the  Carboniferous  formation,    at  the   base  of  the  Riesengebirge ; 

3.  The  Rothliegendes  near  Bohmiseh-Brod  in  Bohemia; 

4.  The  Rothliegendes  near  Zwickau  in  Saxony; 

5.  The  copper-slates  in  Thuringia,  and  Hesse; 

6.  The  Buntsandstein  at  Tweste  near  Arolsen  (Tyrol); 

7.  The  Buntsandstein  at  Chessy  in  France. 

Should  we  be  justified  in  concluding  from  this,  that  an 
emanation  of  copper-ores  took  place,  which  includes  the  period 
from  the  Carboniferous  to  the  Muschelkalk? 

Let  us  examine  the  preceding  cases  somewhat  more  closely, 
and  then  add  others  for  comparison. 

The  lower  layers  of  the  Permian  formation  contain  copper- 
ore-impregnations  only  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ural  chain, 
evidently  springing  from  these.  Murchison  believes,  that  the 
metallic  solutions  have  streamed  from  the  fissures  of  the  moun- 
tains, into  the  material  composing  those  strata,  during  their 
deposit.  This  is  possible;  but  it  is  also  conceivable,  that  the 
solutions  have  penetrated  the  layers  at  some  period  subsequent 
to  their  deposit.  We  will  leave  this  question  here  undecided. 

The  copper-ore-impregnations,  at  the  southerly  base  of  the 
Riesengebirge,  have  evidently,  according  to  Porth's  description, 
subsequently  and  locally  penetrated  the  strata  of  the  Rothliegen- 
des and  Carboniferous  formations.  How  long  after  they  were 
deposited,  cannot  as  yet  be  determined;  it  may  just  as  well  have 
been  in  the  Cretaceous  or  Tertiary,  as  in  the  Zechstein  period. 
The  age  of  the  strata,  and  their  impregnation,  do  not  here 


SEDIMENTARY  DEPOSITS.  539 

stand  in  any  determined  'relation  to  one  another.  Th-e  case 
appears  to  be  similar  at  Bohmisch-Brod. 

At  Zwickau  sheets  of  native  copper  have  only  been  found 
very  locally  in  one  of  the  numerous  coalshafts,  in  the  fissures 
of  the  red  argillaceous  shale  which  occurs  with  porphyries  and 
amygdaloids.  These  are  also  evidently  of  subsequent  formation 
to  the  rock  enclosing  them;  still  it  may  be,  that  they  belong 
nearly  to  the  period  of  its  deposit;  and  their  formation  is  in- 
timately connected  with  the  upheaval  of  those  igneous  rocks. 

The  copper-ores  in  the  lower  subdivision  of  the  Zechstein 
formation,  especially  that  of  the  copper-slates  in  Thuringia  and 
Hesse,  undoubtedly  appear  to  have  been  deposited  contempo- 
raneously with  the  copper-slate;  since  its  distribution  is  a  far 
too  regular  one,  for  a  subsequent  impregnation.  This  is  there- 
fore a  characteristic  case  for  the  determination  of  the  age  of 
the  ore-deposits,  no  matter  how  the  metal  may  have  been  formed, 
nor  how  often  its  chemical  conditions  may  have  subsequently 
been  altered.  It  is,  however,  the  single  characteristic  case  in 
all  the  seven. 

The  copper-ore,  in  the  Buntsandstein  near  Arolsen  again, 
bears  the  character  of  a  subsequent  local  impregnation,  whose 
true  age  is  not  as  yet  by  any  means  determined;  and  the  cop- 
per-ores in  the  Buntsandstein  of  Chessy  are  products  of  decom- 
position, or  are  impregnations  caused  by  the  decomposition  and 
alteration  of  pyrites-segregations,  which  have  been  chiefly  deve- 
loped at  the  rock-junctions,  but  also  reach  up  into  the  strata  of 
the  Lias-formation,  and  are  consequently  of  a  more  recent  age 
than  these. 

As  it  now  appears,  of  the  seven  occurrences  of  copper-ores 
belonging  to  the  same  great  period,  there  is  but  little  support 
found  to  fix  a  copper-period;  and  it  other  deposits  of  copper- 
ores  are  noticed,  such  a  period  would  either  be  completely  ob- 
literated, or  extended  through  all  geological  ages. 

The  copper-lodes  of  Wexford  in  Ireland  are,  as  we  have 
seen,  older  than  the  neighboring  Devonian.  Gr.  Breuner  gives 
an  account  of  an  altogether  analagous  condition  of  lodes  of 
copper-pyrites,  at  Snowdon  in  Wales,  which  cut  through  gneiss 
and  clay-slates,  but  are  overlaid  by  Palaeozoic  rocks. 

Near  Poschorita,  in  Hungary,  copper-pyrites  forms,  together 
with  iron-pyrites,  a  true  bed  in  chloritic  mica-schist;  near  Unter- 
sulzbach,  in  the  Pietschgau,  in  chloritic  clay-slate.  Similar  beds 


540  NEITHER  METALS,  NOR  ORES,  CONFINED 

recur  more  than  once  in  the  Devonian,  Silurian,  or  still  older 
slates  of  the  Alps;  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kitzbiihel; 
these  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  subsequent  impregnations. 

The  segregated  masses  of  Goslar,  Schmollnitz,  Agordo,  Rio 
Tinto,  and  Falun,  in  part  accompanied  by  impregnations,  may 
be  somewhat  more  doubtful,  as  regards  their  age  and  origin ; 
but  it  still  remains  most  probable,  that  their  formation  belongs 
to  an  older  period  than  the  Carboniferous.  Thu&  the  copper- 
period  extends  downwards  into  the  Silurian  period.  Cases  of 
a  decided  character,  and  much  more  recent  age  than  the  Trias  - 
sic,  also  occur.  The  broad  lode  of  Olalaposbanya,  so  rich  in 
copper-pyrites,  and  the  cupriferous  lodes  of  Felsobanya,  are  both 
more  recent  than  the  Eocene;  since  they  cut  through  Tertiary 
rocks.  By  these  cases,  the  copper-period  extends  upwards  into 
the  Tertiary.  Therefore  there  is  nothing  remaining  as  a  defined 
copper-period;  but  we  must  recognise  the  fact,  that  the  ores  of 
this  period  were  deposited  at  all  geological  ages,  only  locally  at 
different  times. 

The  idea  might  also  have  easily  been  formed;  especially 
from  the  occurrence  of  calamine  and  smithsonite  with  lead-ores, 
as  in  Upper  Silesia;  that  they  belong  to  a  particular  period  of 
formation ;  since  these  ores  occur  under  similar  conditions  in  the 
Musclielkalk  near  Tarnowitz,  at  Wiesloch,  and  repeatedly  in  the 
Alps;  had  it  not  soon  been  seen,  that  these  ores  occur  every 
where,  only  combined  with  magnesian  limestones  as  secondary 
products ;  which  recur  similarly  also  in  the  magnesian  limestones 
of  the  Subcarboniferous  formation  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  of  the 
Devonian  near  Iserlohn,  of  the  Lias  near  Pallieres,  and  of  the 
Jura  formation  in  the  Province  of  Santander ;  while  similar  ores 
occur  in  numerous  lodes  of  the  most  various  age. 

I  think,  from  the  above  it  has  been  sufficiently  shown,  that 
neither  the  separate  metals,  nor  their  ores,  nor  the  metals 
generally,  belong  to  particular  geological  epochs.  The  relations, 
as  to  the  age  of  the  separate  ores  and  minerals  within  the 
deposits,  are  of  course  entirely  independent  of  this,  and  are  to 
be  recognised  through  their  deposit  on  one  another.  These  last 
are  consequences  of  chemical  processes,  which  have  been  re- 
peated in  the  most  various  geological  periods,  and  which  it  is 
chiefly  the  task  of  the  chemist  to  investigate;  we  already  owe 
much  in  this  relation  to  chemistry,  and  to  the  researches  of 
Gustav  Bischof.  I  speak  here  merely  of  the  geological  age-  of 


TO  ONE  AGE  OR  PERIOD.  541 

the  variously  composed  ore-deposits,  and  assert  that  the  homo- 
geneous ones  do  not  all  belong  to  the  same,  nor  the  heteroge- 
neous ones  to  dissimilar  geological  epochs ;  but  that  rather,  in 
general,  all  to  all  periods.  Still,  I  will  not  deny,  that  the  common 
occurrence  of  ore-deposits  permits  certain  differences  of  age  to 
be  recognised. 

All  known  tin-deposits  are  very  old. 

Deposits  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  copper,  cobalt,  nickel, 
and  bismuth  ores,  are  known  of  very  dissimilar  ages;  but  none 
are  decidedly  more  recent  than  the  Tertiary,  none  in  true  vol- 
canic rocks,  none  between  Post-tertiary  or  Recent  deposits;  with 
the  single  exception  of  the  secondary  superficial  deposits,  or 
placers. 

Deposits  of  iron-ores,  on  the  contrary,  occur  between  the 
oldest  and  the  most  recent  formations  and  rocks ;  only  they  vary 
somewhat  according  to  their  relative  age. 

Deposits  of  magnetic  iron  are  only  found  in  very  ancient 
rocks,  deposits  of  hematite  and  spathic  iron  between  somewhat 
more  recent  ones,  limonite  in  the  oldest  and  most  recent.  Bog- 
iron-ore  is  still  formed  in  marshy  districts,  iron  ochre  at  the 
mouths  of  springs,  and  specular  iron  in  the  fissures  of  volcanic 
rocks. 

Do  these  facts  rest  on  a  real  difference  of  age?  Did  the 
formation  of  tin-deposits  first  cease,  and  did  this  take  place 
about  the  Carboniferous  period?  Have  no  deposits  of  the  second 
class,  and  only  such  as  contain  iron  and  manganese,  been  formed 
since  the  Tertiary  period?  Such  views  might  be  put  forward; 
but,  as  it  appears  to  me,  they  would  prove  erroneous.  These 
apparent  differences  of  age,  could,  as  remarked,  be  traced  back 
to  differences  of  geological  horizon. 

Tin-deposits  were  only  formed  at  a  great  depth ;  they  would 
therefore  be  only  open  to  observation  after  a  long  process  of 
denudation,  and  preceding  elevation;  those  observed  are,  for  this 
reason,  always  old. 

Gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  cobalt,  nickel,  and  bismuth  ores 
were  also  never  formed  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  earth,  but 
always  at  a  certain,  though  slight,  depth  below  the  same.  It 
has  not  been  determined,  at  what  depth  the  possibility  of  their 
formation  commences;  perhaps  it  is  not  considerable;  but  as 
they  are  generally  observed  only  when  elevations  and  denuda- 


542  THREE  MAIN  GROUPS  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS, 

tions  have  occurred  subsequent  to  their  formation,  some  time 
since  which  having  passed,  antediluvial  ones  alone  are  known. 

Iron-ores,  on  the  contrary,  are  deposited  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face ;  and,  on  this  account,  iron-deposits  of  very  recent  forma- 
tion are  found.  Since  they,  however,  like  the  previously  men- 
tioned ore-deposits,  were  at  all  times  formed  here  and  there  ; 
such  occur  belonging  to  the  most  various  ages.  But  as  the 
older  deposits  of  iron-ores  were  frequently  subjected  to  the  cato- 
gene  influence  of  a  considerable  covering  of  rocks,  we  often  find 
them  consisting  of  magnetite,  hematite,  or  spathic  iron;  while 
the  more  recent  almost  exclusively  contain  hydrated  peroxide 
of  iron.  Still  the  older  ones  were  often,  after  their  catogene 
alteration,  subjected,  through  elevation  and  denudation,  to 
anogene  influences,  and  by  this  means  placed  in  the  condition 
of  the  more  recent. 

In  this  manner  are  formed  three  principal  series  of  ore- 
deposits,  which  we  have  distinguished  in  another  paragraph:  viz. 

1.  Tin-deposits,    occupying   the   lowest   formation,   therefore 
appearing  as  the  oldest; 

2.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  copper,    cobalt,    nickel,   and  bis- 
muth deposits,  belonging  to  an  intermediate  formation; 

3.  Iron-deposits    (including  those   of  manganese)    originally 
formed  in  an  upper   formation,   occurring   therefore  in  the  most 
recent  rocks,  but  not  wanting  in  the  older  ones. 

As  the  iron  and  manganese  ores  have  been  subjected  to 
many  changes,  in  a  catogene  or  anogene  sense,  through  oxyda- 
tion  and  reduction,  hydration,  and  dehydration,  absorption  or 
loss  of  carbonic  acid ;  so  their  condition  differs  in  a  degree 
corresponding  to  their  age  and  geological  horizon. 

The  three  groups  of  ore-deposits  are,  like  all  such  natural 
groups,  not  sharply  separated  from  one  another.  The  ores  of 
one  group  rather  occur  sporadically  in  the  deposits  of  another. 
Especially  are  the  widely  distributed  iron-ores  rarely  wanting 
in  any  deposit:  this  is  very  natural,  since  already  the  original 
influence  of  level  caused  no  defined  demarcation;  still,  after 
change  of  horizon  had  taken  place,  posterior  intermixture  might 
follow.  Besides,  I  am  far  from  intending  to  convey  the  idea, 
that  all  the  separate  minerals  of  these  deposits  could  only  be 
formed  in  certain  horizons,  under  particular  conditions  of  pres- 
sure and  temperature.  That  would  be  in  contradiction  to 
evident  facts,  especially  to  the  natural  and  artificial  formation 


NOT  SHARPLY  SEPARABLE.  543 

of  numerous  minerals  on  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  as  for  example, 
galena,  iron-pyrites,  blende,  copper-pyrites,  heavy  spar,  calc-spar, 
etc.  The  especial  grouping  in  deposits  seems  to  me  to  be  par- 
ticularly caused  through  certain  conditions  of  level.  When  there- 
fore, in  tin-lodes  for  example,  other  ores  of  a  higher  horizon 
often  occur;  these  might  have  been  formed  contemporaneously 
under  peculiar  conditions,  or  have  penetrated  subsequently  after 
a  change  of  level.  In  fact  they  are  recognised,  as  subsequently 
formed,  at  Zinnwald,  Marienberg,  and  in  Cornwall.  It  is  cer- 
tainly striking,  that  in  Cornwall,  at  Seiffen,  and  Marienberg, 
copper-ores,  where  they  occur  in  the  same  lodes  with  cassiterite, 
for  the  most  part  occupy  a  lower  level  than  the  latter ;  as  Hum- 
boldt l  states,  that  in  the  Veta  d'Estanno  at  Potosi  tin-ores 
occur  at  the  surface,  while  at  a  greater  depth  rich  silver-ores 
are  found.  Such  apparent  contradictions  may  find  their  expla- 
nation, through  their  formation  at  different  periods,  under  essen- 
tially changed  conditions. 

That  the  completion  of  lodes  has  occupied  very  great  geo- 
logical periods,  is  seen  from  their  texture,  from  the  succession 
of  minerals,  and  especially  also,  from  the  transformation  of  the 
minerals,  which  at  times  occurred  between  the  periods  of  for- 
mation. During  such  great  periods  of  formation  the  level,  and 
the  other  conditions,  may  have  been  manifoldly  altered.  Besides, 
I  do  not  attempt  to  estimate,  even  approximately,  the  amount 
of  difference  in  level,  which  favored  the  formation  of  the  one  or 
the  other  mineral,  in  case  the  necessary  matter  was  present.  The 
existence  of  the  mineral  matter  in  a  suitable  state  (in  solution, 
as  gas,  or  the  like)  is  of  course  the  first  condition  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  heterogeneous  ore-deposits:  the  remaining  condi- 
tions for  the  formation  may  all  have  existed;  if,  however,  this 
matter  was  wanting,  then  of  course  no  lodes  would  be  formed. 
From  this  cause  we  are  not  a  priori  to  expect,  that  all  three 
groups  of  ores  were  formed  above  one  another  in  every  vein- 
fissure  :  it  is  a  possible,  but  not  therefore  a  necessary  case.  The 
question  may  well  be  asked,  with  what  were  the  fissures  filled 
(especially  at  their  outcrop)  at  the  levels  unfitted  for  the  preci- 
pitation of  the  ore-solution  present?  The  limits  of  possibility  are 
here  very  great.  The  fissures  may  have  remained  open  cracks, 
or  have  been  filled  with  any  other  matter,  even  have  been 

1  See:  Humboldt's  Statistik  von  Mexico,  vol.  IV. 


544  HYPOTHESIS  OF  HORIZON. 

mechanically  filled  up ;  and  these  differing  upper  portions  of  the 
lodes  may  still  exist,  or  they  may  have  been  destroyed  by  sub- 
sequent erosion.  I  would  here  call  to  mind,  that  the  so  common 
gossan  of  numerous  lodes  appears,  in  many  known  cases,  not 
only  to  be  the  result  of  decomposition,  but  actually  to  contain 
more  iron  in  different  conditions,  than  the  deeper  portions  of 
the  lodes;  thus,  at  Przibram  argentiferous  lead-ores  are  said  to 
be  entirely  wanting  in  the  upper  portions.  Vogelgesang  states, 
that  the  lodes  at  Berggieshiibel  (Erzgebirge)  contain  almost  only 
iron-ores  in  their  upper  portions;  while  at  a  greater  depth  cop- 
per and  other  ores  are  associated  with  these.  Near  Katzenthal, 
in  the  Vosges,  there  is  a  vein  of  limonite,  in  whose  lower  por- 
tions argentiferous  lead-ores,  blende,  calamine,  and  heavy  spar, 
were  very  unexpectedly  met  with. 

These  appear  to  be  special  positive  confirmations  of  the 
hypothesis  of  horizon ;  which  rests  more  on  the  dissimilar  manner 
of  occurrence  of  various  ore-deposits,  than  on  such  rare  special 
cases. 

Probably  a  much  greater  number  of  such  cases  would  be 
known,  were  it  not  that  vein-mining,  owing  to  the  difficulties 
encreasing  with  the  depth,  is  confined  to  a  relatively  slight 
distance :  and,  as  a  consequence,  where  the  bounds  of  two  groups 
of  ores  do  not  accidentally  lie  near  the  surface,  the  miner  com- 
monly opens-up  only  the  level  of  one  group.  This  incompleteness, 
in  the  possibility  of  observation,  must  not  be  used  as  a  reason 
against  this  hypothesis.  Another  circumstance  in  its  favor,  to 
which  I  will  draw  attention,  is  the  extremely  rare  occurrence 
of  true  ore- beds  of  the  same  composition  as  the  two  lower  ore- 
groups,  while  true  beds  of  iron-ore  are  very  frequent.  By  far 
the  greater  number  of  the  so-called  ore-beds,  which  contain  other 
than  iron-ores,  have  on  more  careful  examination  been  found  to 
be  impregnations,  bedded  lodes,  or  in  some  manner  later  than 
the  enclosing  rock ;  consequently  formed  under  some  covering. 
After  such  a  sifting,  there  only  remain  some  beds  of  pyrites, 
and  the  copper-slates,  as  true  beds,  whose  present  condition  no 
longer  appears  to  be  the  original  one. 

If  this  hypothesis  of  horizon  should  be  correct,  only  iron- 
ores  could  in  fact  be  deposited,  bedlike,  on  the  surface ;  and 
not  the  combinations  of  ores,  which  demand  a  somewhat  lower 
level  for  their  formation,  without  excluding  scattered  mineral 
formations  formed  under  peculiar  circumstances.  Should  such 


COMPARED  WITH  FACTS,  etc.  545 

combinations  be  exceptionally  found  as  true-beds;  as  for  example, 
the  copper-slates;  it  may  be  supposed,  that  the  metallic  sub- 
stances were  here  deposited  at  the  surface,  contemporaneously 
with  the  rock;  but  that  their  present  condition  is  a  consequence 
of  a  long  continuing  subsequent  covering.  Original  beds  of 
magnetite,  or  hematite,  have  certainly  never  been  deposited  on 
the  earth's  surface  by  water;  but  this  condition  is  the  conse- 
quence of  subsequent  alterations. 

I  think  I  must  here  mention  an  objection,  which  might  be 
made  against  the  hypothesis  of  horizon.  The  mineral  matter 
of  the  lodes  may  at  times  have,  as  it  were,  overflowed  the  fis- 
sures, and  been  deposited  alongside  of  them. 

I  know  of  no  distinct  case  of  this  kind.  At  Dobschau  in 
Hungary  there  occur,  it  is  true,  concretions  of  cobalt  and  nickel 
ores  above  the  outcropping  of  cobalt  and  nickel  lodes,  in  the 
lower  portion  of  a  thick  deposit  of  spathic  iron;  while  those  lodes 
also  contain  spathic  iron,  as  gang.  It  might  there  be  supposed, 
that  an  overflow  of  the  matter  in  the  lodes  had  taken  place. 
But  apart  from  the  fact,  that  an  actual  connection  with  the  lodes 
at  Dobschau  has  not  been  found,  it  is  there  very  probable,  that 
the  thick  deposit  of  spathic  iron  was  formerly  overlaid  by  clay- 
slate,  which  occurs  near  at  hand,  bedded  in  such  a  manner,  that 
such  a  supposition  is  credible;  and  which  besides  repeatedly 
contains  beds  of  spathic  iron  in  the  neighborhood.  In  this  case, 
then,  an  overflowing  at  the  open  surface  would  not  have  taken 
place. 

Let  us  once  more  concisely  review,  in  how  far  the  hypo- 
thesis of  horizon,  as  developed,  coincides  with  the  facts  observed, 
and  the  general  probabilities  or  analogies. 

1.  It    corresponds   to  the  general    occurrence   of  the   three 
natural  groups  of  ores. 

2.  It  corresponds  to  the  frequent  occurrence  of  iron- ores  in 
beds,  very   recent  veins,   and  vein-outcroppings ;   as  well   as   to 
the  rarity  of  other  true  ore-beds. 

3.  It    corresponds    to    the    probable    supposition,    that    the 
elements  were  originally  quite  equally   distributed  in  the  earth; 
and   renders   superfluous   the   otherwise   inadmissible    hypothesis 
of  metallic  periods;    since,   according  to   this,    all   kinds   of  ore- 
combinations    could    be    formed    at    all  periods    under    certain 
circumstances;   just  as  all  sorts  of  rocks. 

35 


546  MANNER  OF  FORMATION 

4.  It  corresponds  to  the  fact,  that  like  ore-combinations  are 
often  of  unequal,  and  unlike  ones  of  equal  age. 

5.  It   does   not   exclude   the   possibility,   that  the    periodical 
succession  of  certain  minerals,  mineral  combinations,  or  deposits, 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  earth,  v^as  a  similar  one,  but  at  un- 
equal geological  periods.    The  events  in  the  formation  may  have 
been   similarly   repeated,    as  regards  time   and  place,    in  such  a 
manner,    that   their   results   follow,   as    consequences    of  similar 
geological  and  chemical  processes,  in  similar  or  like  succession. 

6.  Finally,    it  explains  (with    the    assistance  of   elevations, 
depressions,    erosions,   or   overlyings)   all   kinds,  conditions,  and 
associations,  of  ores  in  their  deposits.     In  entire  districts  upper 
deposits  may  be  wanting,    or  lower  ones  be  covered,    and    con- 
sequently inaccessible ;  in  others,  on  the  contrary,  in  consequence 
of  elevations,  and  erosions,  upper  and  lower  deposits  may  occur 
together ;  since,  according  to  this  hypothesis,  all  the  processes  of 
formation    are    being    continually    repeated,    though    riot    every 
where  alike. 

MANNER  OF  FORMATION  OF  THE  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

§  279.  A  principle,  common  to  all  ore-deposits,  consists 
in  the  union  of  metalliferous  minerals.  If  it  be  assumed,  as 
most  probable ;  that  originally,  and  during  the  first  period  in  the 
formation  of  the  earth,  the  metals,  like  all  the  other  elements, 
were  quite  equally  distributed  through  its  fluid  mass,  though  in 
what  condition  remains  as  yet  undetermined;  and  that  the 
heavier  metals  were  somewhat  more  aggregated,  toward  the 
centre  of  gravity,  than  at  the  surface ;  it  follows,  that  subsequently, 
from  certain  causes,  they  were  otherwise  grouped,  and  for  the 
most  part  collected  in  especial  deposits  of  different  forms.  What 
the  causes,  and  the  peculiar  circumstances,  may  have  been  of 
this  new  grouping,  is  the  question  to  be  answered.  A  question, 
which  must  necessarily,  for  the  various  forms  and  kinds  of  ore- 
deposits,  be  to  a  certain  degree  examined,  and  answered 
separately. 

True  beds  have  evidently  been  formed,  in  a  manner  analo- 
gous to  that  of  the  strata  enclosing  them,  through  mechanical 
or  chemical  precipitation  from  water.  Other  ores  than  those  of 
iron  occur,  as  we  have  seen,  but  exceptionally  in  real  beds, 
and  in  these  in  such  a  manner,  that  a  subsequent  penetration 


OF  THE  ORE-DEPOSITS.  547 

is  excluded.  The  copper-slates  form  such  an  exception.  In  the 
latter  the  chief  mass  of  the  bituminous  marly  slate  contains 
copper,  silver,  lead,  cobalt,  nickel,  bismuth,  antimony,  and  arse- 
nic ;  finely  disseminated,  for  the  most  part,  as  sulphurets.  Their 
ingredients  were  evidently  deposited  contemporaneously  with  the 
enclosing  rocks ;  this  is  apparent  from  their  uniform  distribution ; 
whether,  however,  they  were  deposited  in  their  present  condition, 
is  indeed  still  doubtful.  The  rock  was  subsequently  overlaid 
by  other  strata,  and  was  probably  subject,  for  a  long  period, 
to  the  influence  of  a  considerable  pressure,  by  which  it  was 
compressed;  and  the  present  condition  of  the  ores  might  also 
have  been  developed  by  the  same  influences. 

Limonites  are  deposited  before  our  eyes  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face from  ferrugineous  waters,  from  which  beds  of  hematite  and 
magnetite  could  be  formed  under  the  influence  of  heat  and 
pressure;  as  well  as  from  these  latter  beds,  near  the  surface, 
limonite  might  again  be  formed. 

The  deposit  of  carbonate  of  iron  is  far  more  difficult  to 
explain;  for  example,  the  spha3rosiderites  of  various  formations, 
or  strata  containing  coal;  since,  in  the  presence  of  the  atmosphere, 
carbonate  of  iron  is  never  precipitated  from  a  carbonic-acid 
solution;  but,  owing  to  the  rapid  decomposition  of  the  same, 
always  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron.  Only  when  covered  (prevent- 
ing the  influence  of  the  atmosphere)  can  sphserosiderite,  or 
spathic  iron,  be  deposited.  Therefore  their  formation,  in  the  depths 
of  a  vein-fissure,  is  easily  explained;  but  it  will  not  apply  to 
beds  at  the  surface;  these  were  perhaps  formed  under  a  con- 
siderable depth  of  water. 

It  appears  to  me,  therefore,  questionable  ;  whether  these  last- 
named  ores,  where  they  occur  as  beds,  were  every  where  origi- 
nally formed,  as  such ;  or  whether  occasionally  oxidised  deposits 
have  not  first  subsequently  absorbed  carbonic  acid.  The  interior 
cracks  of  their  concretions  often  contain  calc-spar,  heavy  spar, 
galena,  blende,  and  various  kinds  of  pyrites;  consequently  hold- 
ing the  ingredients  of  many  lodes,  which  have  subsequently 
penetrated,  probably  after  the  concretions  had  been  already 
covered  up.  It  is  certainly  remarkable,  that  the  like  concretions 
often  contain  well  preserved  organic  remains ;  and  that  even  the 
galena,  which  has  subsequently  penetrated,  permits  the  fine  net- 
work of  Neuropteris  to  be  recognised  on  its  surface. 

Just  as   compact  limestone  has  been   converted  to  marble, 

35* 


548  FORMATION  OF  LODES. 

so  could  crystalline  spathic  iron  have  been  formed,  in  an  ana- 
logous manner,  from  beds  or  masses  of  compact  sphserosiderite, 
through  a  subsequent  crystallisation  of  the  mass,  of  course  under 
the  long  continued  effects  of  pressure,  heat,  and  moisture.  Per- 
haps on  this  account  beds  of  spathic  iron  are  always  found 
only  in  older  deposits,  never  in  very  recent  ones. 

It  is  an  ascertained  fact,  that  limonite  is  formed  from 
spathic  iron,  or  spha3rosiderite,  through  the  effects  bf  atmospheric 
causes.  Under  other  circumstances,  beneath  a  considerable 
covering,  hematite  and  magnetite  appear  to  have  been  formed 
from  the  limonite. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  far  more  difficult  problem  of  the 
formation  of  lodes.  The  fissures  are,  beyond  a  doubt,  the  con- 
sequences of  mechanical  causes,  even  if  they  have  perhaps  been 
essentially  widened  by  the  force  of  crystallisation  of  the  mineral 
substances.  The  mineral  matter  forming  the  lodes  has  generally 
penetrated  into  the  fissures  from  below,  or  from  the  country- 
rock,  be  it  through  solution  from  the  immediate  wall-rock,  or 
from  greater  depths.  In  the  great  majority  of  lodes,  it  has  not 
all  penetrated  at  the  same  time,  and  certainly  not  in  an  igneous- 
fluid  condition,  but  as  aqueous  or  gaseous  solution.  Chiefly 
water,  perhaps  in  combination  with  numerous  gases,  was  the 
medium,  which  dissolved  the  scattered  particles  of  the  metals 
and  other  substances,  absorbed  them,  and  again  deposited  them, 
in  a  far  more  concentrated  form,  in  the  fissures,  by  a  long  con- 
tinued process  of  precipitation.  That  is  about  all,  that  can  be 
said  in  a  general  manner,  as  an  explanation  of  the  lodes;  in 
detail  there  still  remains,  it  is  true,  much  that  is  doubtful.  The 
unequal  distribution  in  the  fissures,  the  occasional  symmetrically 
combed  texture,  and  the  composition  of  the  lodes,  varying  to 
such  an  extent  from  that  of  the  common  rocks,  all  tend  in 
the  highest  degree  to  show  the  correctness  of  the  above 
explanation.  Particularly  striking  and  distinguishing,  in  com- 
parison with  the  igneous  rocks,  is  especially  the  rare  or  very 
slight  amount  of  alkalies  in  the  great  majority  of  lodes;  while 
their  wall-rock,  where  it  had  contained  alkalies,  has  frequently 
lost  these  for  the  most  part  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  veins. 
They  have  been  dissolved  and  carried  off  in  solutions,  while 
oftier  substances  have  been  precipitated  from  the  solutions  in 
their  stead.  The  solution  of  the  alkalies  may  often,  re-acting, 
have  aided  the  precipitation  of  the  vein-materials;  and  it  is 


CHEMICAL  EXPLANATIONS.  549 

therefore  no  wonder,  if  it  be  found,  that  lodes  are  particularly 
rich  between  decomposed  rocks.  The  decomposition  through  the 
solution  of  the  alkalies,  during  the  deposit  of  the  materials  com- 
posing the  lode,  exerted  a  favorable  influence  on  the  precipita- 
tion; had  the  decomposition,  on  the  contrary,  taken  place  before 
the  formation  of  the  lode,  such  a  decomposed  rock  must  have 
been  unfavorable  to  the  formation  of  the  lode,  partly  from 
mechanical  causes,  partly  from  the  want  of  a  reaction.  Hence 
the  local  opposed  conditions  of  the  lodes  between  decomposed 
wall-rocks. 

Of  what  kind  the  solutions  were,  from  which  the  various 
ores  and  minerals  were  precipitated,  what  various  causes  (reac- 
tions) influenced  the  precipitations,  are  questions  more  of  a 
chemical,  than  of  a  geological  nature;  though  their  explanation 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  geology. 

We  may  thank  G.  Bischof  for  having  explained  many  mat- 
ters in  this  department,  which  were  obscure ;  though  we  may 
consider  many  of  the  geological  consequences,  which  his  com- 
pendious work  on  geology  contains,  as  less  satisfactory.  It  is 
not  my  purpose  to  go  more  in  detail  into  this  chemical  portion 
of  the  formation  of  lodes;  since  I  do  not  consider  myself  fully 
competent  to  do  this.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  the  possibility 
of  solutions,  from  which  the  various  ore-combinations  could  be 
precipitated,  has  been  shown  by  Bischof.  He  has  shown,  how 
(through  numerous  reactions)  metalliferous  precipitates,  and  sub- 
sequent alterations  of  the  same,  might  take  place  in  vein-fissures ; 
and  that  small  quantities  of  the  various  metals  are  contained, 
in  a  soluble  condition,  in  the  most  different  kinds  of  rocks.  It 
is  not  essentially  to  the  point,  whether  the  solubility  was  great, 
or  but  very  slight;  since  even  the  weakest  solutions,  or  the 
slightest  traces  of  a  metal  in  a  solution,  could,  during  unmeasured 
periods,  effect  considerable  deposits.  The  small  amount  of  metals, 
proved  to  exist  in  numerous  mineral  springs,  suffices  to  furnish, 
in  time,  the  material  for  broad  lodes;  even  so  would  the  small 
percentage  of  metals  in  rocks  suffice  to  furnish  the  material  for 
the  solutions. 

In  the  examination  of  each  particular  case,  it  will  be  always 
necessary  to  consider  the  local  relations;  for  the  explanation  will 
certainly  not  always  be  the  same  for  the  separate  vein-districts; 
since  a  greater  part  of  the  dissimilarity  of  lodes  is  essentially  a 
consequence  of  the  local  conditions,  while  another  portion  will 


550  ORE-SEGREGATIONS 

be  dependent  on  the  local  or  periodical  variation  of  the  solu- 
tions circulating  in  the  fissures,  which  last  are  also  locally  dif- 
ferent. It  must  never  be  forgotten,  that  the  totality  of  the  lodes 
shows,  from  their  entire  condition,  that  they  are  not  the  result 
of  a  quickly  completed  process,  bu£  rather  that  of  a  long  con- 
tinued or  periodically  repeated  one,  with  certain  modifications. 

How  much  there  still  remains  to  do,  especially  with  the 
assistance  of  chemistry,  is  evident,  not  only  from  what  has  already 
been  done;  but  also,  for  example,  from  the  certainly  striking 
fact,  that  it  is  not  yet  known,  in  what  condition  silver  occurs 
in  galena,  or  gold  in  pyrites;  but  much  less,  in  what  state  of 
solution  these  noble  metals  may  once  have  been,  before  they 
were  deposited  in  the  lodes. 

With  regard  to  the  condition  of  solution,  however,  it  is  to 
be  considered,  as  already  remarked,  that  the  same  in  a  long 
continued  process,  needs  merely  to  be  extremely  diluted;  and 
that  with  the  progess  of  accuracy  and  certainty  in  analytic 
chemistry,  it  is  continually  more  recognised,  that  in  many 
mineral  waters,  are  contained  very  small  quantities  of  all  sorts 
of  mineral  substances,  which  were  formerly  neither  discovered 
nor  supposed  to  exist.  Sea-water  contains  in  solution  29  of 
the  as  yet  discovered  elements;  among  these,  for  example, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  cobalt,  nickel,  iron,  manganese,  and 
arsenic;  while  in  spring-water  have  been  found  arsenic,  antimony, 
lead,  copper,  cobalt,  nickel,  tin,  zinc,  etc. 

The  segregated  ore-deposits;  which  are  not  merely  forced 
mechanically  into  accidental  cavities,  but  rather  consist  of  crys- 
talline aggregates,  which  at  times  (as  the  segregated  deposits 
of  lead  and  zinc,  the  segregations  of  magnetic  iron,  irregular 
aggregations  of  pyrites,  etc.)  show  certain  relations  to  their 
wall-rock,  or  to  the  contact  of  two  rocks ;  offer  in  part  still  greater 
obstacles  in  their  formation  to  a  satisfactory  explanation,  than 
the  lodes;  since  in  these  the  form  and  the  frequently  great 
breadth  are  to  be  considered  as  essential  points.  Some,  as  the 
aggregations  of  zinc-ores  and  galena  in  magnesian  limestone, 
may  possibly  be  but  pseudomorphs  by  replacement  on  a  large 
scale;  the  limestone  being  dissolved,  and  the  ore  substituted  for 
it.  With  others  it  should  be  observed,  that  they  are  probably 
no  longer  in  the  original  condition,  in  which  they  were  formed, 
but  have  rather  been  essentially  altered  by  catogene  or  anogene 
influences;  and  therefore,  in  order  to  explain  them,  it  is  neces- 


ORE-IMPREGNATIONS.  551 

sary  to  go  back  to  their  probable  original  condition,  and  that 
of  the  rock  enclosing  them;  >as  for  example  in  magnetic  iron- 
ore.  During  the  alteration,  changes  in  form  might  also  have 
occurred,  and  many  so-called  ore-segregations  are  in  fact  nothing 
else  than  very  broad  and  irregular  lodes,  concretionary  beds, 
or  very  thorough  impregnations. 

In  the  case  of  the  ore-impregnations,  their  explanation  is  in 
a  measure  evident  from  their  name.  It  is  assumed,  that  the 
ore-particles  have  penetrated  a  rock,  subsequent  to  its  formation, 
either  only  in  its  finest  cracks  and  pores,  or  in  the  mass  of  the 
rock  itself.  Illusions  are  indeed  possible;  the  ores  distributed 
in  the  rock  may  have  been  formed  contemporaneously  with  it, 
and  have  been  afterwards  altered  with  it.  In  such  varied  forms 
do  the  possibilities  present  themselves,  as  to  require  a  particular 
judgment  in  almost  every  case.  If  we  assume  the  subsequent 
penetration  of  the  ores  as  proved,  there  still  remain  the  questions, 
to  be  answered;  as  to  the  kind  of  solution,  as  to  the  causes  of 
the  precipitation,  and  as  to  the  time  of  the  occurrence. 

In  the  case  of  the  dependent  or  accessory  impregnations, 
alongside  of  ore-deposits  of  another  form,  we  find  a  portion  of 
these  questions  comparatively  easy  to  answer.  Impregnations 
alongside  of  lodes  were  probably,  as  a  rule,  caused  by  the  same 
solutions,  by  the  same  causes,  and  at  the  same  time,  as  the  lode; 
this  is  not  essentially  necessary,  and  cases  the  reverse  of  this 
are  known.  Thus,  Gatschmann  and  Plattner  have  proved,  that 
the  impregnations  of  mispickel  in  the  decomposed  gneiss,  along- 
side of  the  Freiberg  lodes,  are  probably  still  taking  place,  caused 
by  the  decomposition  of  portions  of  the  lodes.  Daubree  has,  in 
his  'Etudes  sur  le  Metamorphisme',  termed  the  ore-deposits, 
peculiar  phenomena  of  metamorphism,  in  that  he  says,  p.  74: 
lles  depots  metalliferes  ne  sont  que  des  cas  particuliers  de 
phenomenes  metamorphiques .'  A  principal  result  of  these  ex- 
aminations is,  that  the  majority  of  the  ore-deposits,  especially  all 
those  which  do  not  essentially  consist  of  hydrated  peroxide  of 
iron,  were  formed,  not  on  the  earth's  surface,  but  at  some  depth 
beneath  the  same;  or  have  become  through  transformation,  what 
they  now  are;  and  that  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  from  the 
common  participation  of  water  in  their  origin  or  transformation, 
they  may  be  termed  hydro-plutonic  formations. 

I  close  this  effort,  composed  of  suggestions  as  to  the  for- 
mation of  ore-deposits,  with  the  conviction,  that  the  only  posi- 


552  DETERM  INATION  OF  THE 

tive  result  has  been,  to  raise  questions,  not  to  answer  them ; 
but  I  am  consoled  by  the  reflection,  that  to  induce  enquiry  will 
not  be  useless;  as  the  want  of  knowledge  of  facts,  combined 
with  the  state  of  chemistry,  has  rendered,  up  to  the  present  time, 
the  satisfactory  solution  of  such  involved  and  manifold  pheno- 
mena difficult  and  unreliable. 

DETERMINATION   OF  THE  VALUE  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS. 

§  280.  A  determination  of  the  value  of  true  beds  will 
never  offer  serious  difficulties,  after  they  have  once  been  pro- 
perly opened.  Their  average  thickness,  and  an  average  per- 
centage, can  be  determined,  which  in  all  probability  will  not 
be  far  below,  or  much  beyond  the  reality;  since  thickness  and 
percentage  of  ore  generally  continue  in  true  beds  for  great 
distances  with  tolerable  uniformity. 

It  is  entirely  different  in  the  case  of  lodes,  segregations,  or 
impregnations.  Neither  the  breadth,  nor  the  percentage  of  metal, 
remains  the  same  for  any  distance;  at  least  it  is  but  excep- 
tionally the  case.  Both  of  these  important  points  are,  in  general, 
so  extremely  variable,  that  an  estimate  of  their  value,  in  any 
degree  reliable,  must  be  left  entirely  out  of  account.  It  is  almost 
a  necessity  of  existence,  to  the  calling  of  the  vein-miner,  that 
he  should  live  in  good  hope,  and  expect  from  day  to  day  a 
rich  find;  which  no  one  can  predict.  It  is  true,  that  vein- 
mining  has  in  recent  times  gained  somewhat  in  reliability, 
through  the  ever  encreasing  attention  which  is  paid  to  the 
mutual  relations  of  the  veins,  the  influences  of  the  wall-rock, 
and  other  especial  phenomena.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  that  this  will 
find  still  more  support  on  some  scientific  basis ;  but  no  geologist, 
or  vein-miner  of  much  experience,  will  at  present  claim,  that 
he  can  predetermine  with  any  certainty  the  conditions  of  lodes. 
Were  that  possible,  such  a  knowledge  would  in  many  places 
afford  the  best  opportunity  of  becoming  a  rich  man;  since  the 
possibility  of  cheaply  buying  shares  or  stocks  in  a  mine  are  not 
wanting,  so  long  as  rich  streaks  are  still  undiscovered.  These 
occur  for  the  most  part  unexpectedly,  if  not  unhoped-for.  A 
share,  in  the  Himmelfahrt  mine  at  Freiberg,  could  have  been 
purchased  thirty  years  since  for  twenty  five  cents,  which  now 
(1868)  are  worth  eleven  thousand  dollars;  with  a  few  such  shares 
the  purchaser  would  soon  have  become  a  rich  man. 


VALUE  OF  ORE-DEPOSITS.  553 

Any  certainty  as  to  the  results,  in  such  ore- districts  as  that 
of  Freiberg,  can  only  be  attained  through  the  multitude  of  trial- 
workings  on  as  many  hopeful  lodes  as  possible.  This  encrease 
in  the  opening  of  workings  is  so  expensive,  that  it  is  rare  to 
iind  a  mining-company  in  a  position  to  bear  such  an  insurance- 
tax  on  the  results.  The  consequence  of  this  is  a  sort  of  lottery, 
i.  e.  with  but  a  small  deposit';  the  possibility,  but  no  certainty,  of 
a  large  prize.  Are  the  lodes  of  such  a  kind,  that  in  their  poorer 
portions,  by  the  greatest  realisation  possible,  they  afford  some 
profit,  even  though  but  small,  this  is  already  a  great  advan- 
tage; it  is  then  possible,  to  await  the  rich  finds,  like  great 
prizes,  without  becoming  bankrupt  through  the  great  number 
of  blanks.  Such  a  condition  exists  in  many  of  the  Freiberg  lodes: 
they  are  as  a  rule  poor,  but  contain  in  places  rich  ores,  thus 
offering  a  premium  for  continued  industry.  This  condition  is 
one  of  the  chief  causes  for  the  extraordinary  completeness  in 
mining  and  metallurgy,  which  has  given  celebrity  to  Freiberg. 
It  has  long  been  necessary  to  realise  on  poor  ores,  and  for  this 
purpose  to  improve  all  the  machinery  as  much  as  possible.  So 
much  thought  and  trouble  is,  as  a  rule,  not  used,  where  rich  ores 
render  it  unnecessary. 

If,  as  we  have  already  seen,  it  is  very  difficult  to  prede- 
termine the  percentage  of  ores  in  lodes,  segregations,  or  impreg- 
nations, there  must  also  be  many  other  facts  considered  in  deter- 
mining their  value;  for  example,  the  greater  or  less  difficulty, 
and  consequently  cost,  of  exploitation,  of  the  transportation,  of 
the  smelting  (rendered  easier,  or  more  difficult,  by  associated 
minerals,  and  other  circumstances),  as  well  as  the  variations  in 
the  value  of  metals  in  the  markets.  These  last  circumstances 
do  not  of  themselves  properly  come  within  the  bounds  of  a 
treatise  on  ore-deposits;  but  since  the  general  value  is  often 
asked  of  an  expert  in  ore-deposits,  they  are  at  least  worthy  of 
mention. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


N.B.  Places,  without  epithet,  are  towns  (or  mountains);  in  sm.  caps. 
kingdom,  state,  or  mt.  chain:  numbers  refer  to  pages;  thick,  to  chief 
of  many;  second,  &  third  (i.  e.  ten,  &  hundred]  place  of  figures,  is  under- 
stood, not  repeated:  e.  g.  304,23,99  =  304,323,399;  402,31,3,4-8,  =402,431, 
433,434-438. 

Abbreviations:  n.  e.  w.  s.  North-,  East-,  West-,  South-era;  b.  berg,  bis,  circ. 
circle,  GO.  county,  cont.  continent,  ct.  canton,  dp.  department,  dist.  district,  for. 
forest,  fr.  France,  french,  geb.  gebirge,  glac.  glacier,  grp.  group,  gr.  grand, 
gt.  great,  h.  high,  isl.  island,  It.  little,  mar.  maritime,  mi.  mine,  mt.  mount, 
-tain,  mth.  mouth,  n.  note,  oc.  ocean,  pr.  province,  r.  river,  s.  see,  sh.  shire, 
sp.  Spain,  Spanish,  sra.  sierra,  (ridge,  saw)  t.  town,  tw.  between,  up.  upper, 
vol.  dale  or  valley,  wk.  work,  so.  zone. 


Aachen:  s.  Mx-la-Chapelle. 
Aalen  (Wiirtemb.)  216. 
Aar,  r.  (Switz.)  213,311;  vol.  5M6. 
Aaserud,  by  Eidsfoss  (Norw.)  441. 
Abertham  (Erzgeb.)  119,20,4. 
Abrudbanya  (Transylv.)  271,2. 
Aconcagua,  prov.  (Chili)  513. 
Adamstadt  (s.  Bohem.)  226;  486;  524. 
Adamsthal  (Mahren)  218. 
Adelfors  (Smaland)  440. 
Adenau  (on  Ahr):  circ.  195; 
AFRICA,  cont.  s.  Algiers. 
Age,  mine  (Philipstad)  456. 
Agger,  val  (Rhin.  dist.)  192 
Agnes,  St.-,  (Cornwall)  407. 
Agordo  (Tyrol,  s.  Alps)  163 ;  304,23-6, 

399;  494, 5;  507, 20, 40. 
Agua  Amarga  (Chili)  513. 
Ahr,  r.  (Rhin.  dist.)  195. 
Ahrn  (Tyrol)  525. 
Mx-la-Chapelle  =  Aachen  (Rhin.  dist.) 

89, 173, 84 ;  340, 90 ;  499 ;  520, 40. 
Alaska,  prov.  (n.  America)  505. 
Alb,  val  (Black  for.)  208. 
Albano,  r.  (Elba)  354. 
Albany  (N.York,  state)  502. 


Alberese,  349,50,2,4,5. 

Albian  (?)  260. 

Alfingen:  s.  Wasser-A. 

Algiers,  prov.  (n.  Africa)  63. 

Allemont  (Dauphine)  311, 28;  487. 

Allendorf  (Nassau)  177. 

Almaden  (Estremadura ,  Sp.)  389,99; 
401;  507;  new,  (California)  401;  507. 

Almagrera,sra.(Sp.)  389,93,6;  489 ;  522. 

Almazarron  (on  mt.  Rajado)  392. 

Almeria,  prov.  (Spain)  393;  401.    [518. 

Alp,  Suabian,  214,5,6,7;  359,60  (Swa-) 

Alpine,  chain,  310 ;  514 ;  limestone,  327, 8; 
strata,  537 ;  Triassic,  323,  (strata)  30. 

ALPS,  the,  (mt.  chain  of  cent.  Europe) 
95; 214,65,94;  309-44,58,C6,87;  487,8; 
505,14,5,8,9,21,36,7,40 ;  northern,  339, 
50;  508, 14;  southern,  331;  eastern, 
85, 93 ;  320, 40, 4-7 ;  439 ;  502 ;  western, 
312, 57;  519, 36;  central,  310,1,3,6; 
high  (hautes,  dp.)  311:  s.  Apuanian, 
Bavarian,  Carinthian,  Ligurian,  Salz- 
burg, Suabiau,  Swiss,  Tyrolese. 

Alsbach  (Thuring.  for.)  169.    [Beer-A. 

Alston  Moor  (Cumberland)  436,98:  s. 

ALTAI,  mts.(£w?.Sibiria,  &  China)  494;  505 


556 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


Alt-Breisach  (Rhin.  vol.}  213. 
Altenau  (Hartz)  153,4,5. 
Altenberg(Erzgeb.)97, 106 ;  426, 82 ;  522 ; 

(list  105-12;  Pinge,  107;  stockwerk, 

117;  zwitter-rock,  482,3. 
Altenberg  (Silesia)  238;  512. 
Altenbriick  (Rhin.  dist.)  183,4. 
Altenbiihren  (Westfal.)  182. 
Altenburg  (Sachsen)  29,522. 
Alterkiilz  (Rhin.  dist.)  ISO. 
Altfalter  (Bavaria)  220. 
Alting  (Baden)  210.  [230. 

Altvater,  peak,  4640  ft.  (Sudeten,  mts.) 
Amargua:  s.  Agua. 
Amberg  (up.  Francon.)  215. 
AMERICA,  cont.  389;  north,  525;  south, 

214;  505, 7 ;  central,  505 ;  n.  &  s.,  485. 
Ammelsdorf  (Erzgeb )  104. 
Andalusia,  pr.  (Spain)  39K-9. 
Ander,  Sant-:  s.  Sant-Ander.        [513. 
ANDES   (or  Cordilleras)  mts.  western, 
Andreasberg  (Hartz)  48;  146,7,9,50-3; 
Anduze  (Fr)  496,7.      [444,94;  512,23,4. 
Anger,  val.  (Rathhausberg)  315. 
Angina  canal  (Modena,  n.  Italy)  349. 
Anna,  mi.  (Przibram)  223. 
Anna,  Santa-,  (Carniola)  343;  507. 
Annaberg  (Erzgeb.)  97  ;118;488;  510,11. 
Annivier,  vol.  (Switz.  ct.  Valais)  341,2; 
Antonio,  San-,  (Chili)  513.  [521. 

Apuanian  Alps  (n.  Italy)  294 ;  348. 
Aranios  (or  Gold-)  r.  (to  Maros,  w.Tran- 

sylv.)  270,6,7. 

Ardennes,  the,  mts.  (France)  357. 
Arendal,  448;  dist.  (Norway) 93, 439, 47. 
Areskutan  (Sweden)  450. 
Argentiere,  &?/Briangon,  dp.  h.Alps)  366 : 
or  Argentieres  (tw.  h.  &  mar.  Alps)  386. 
Arizona  (U.  S.)  505. 
Arklow  (Ireland)  437.  [Burgundy,  366. 
Arkose  (by  Avallon)  365;   arkoses  of 
Arnsberg  (Westfal.)  195. 
Arolsen  (Tyrol)  502,38,9. 
Arqueros,  mi.  (Coquimbopr.  Chili)  513. 
Arrayanes:  s.  Crux  (la)  d'A. 
Arzberg  (Fichtelgeb.)  131,4;  503,18. 
Aschbach  (Thur.  for.),  up.  Francon.  145. 
ASIA,  cont.  s.  China,  India,  Malacca, 

Sibiria;  Altai,  Caucasus,  Urals. 


Asiatic  side  of  Urals,  474. 

Asker  (Norway)  441. 

Aslocks,  mi.  (Arendal  dist.)  447. 

Asprieres  (by  Villefranche)  371,2;  489. 

Asturia,  prov.  (Spain)  401. 

A  taicama,  prov.  (Potosi)  513 ;  desert,  520. 

Atredaberg  (e.  Gothland)  440. 

Auerhammer  (Erzgeb.)  129. 

Auersberg  (Erzgeb.)<125. 

Augen  (Baden)  210. 

Aurora,  mi.  (by  Dillenburg)  193. 

Austel,  St.-,  (Cornwall)  404,6,7,21. 

AUSTRALIA,  cont.  (s.  Ocean)  505. 

AUSTRIA  (Oestreich)  271;  310,44;  507. 

Austrian  monarchy,  229,  n. 

Avallon  (dp.  Yonne.  Fr.)  365. 

Aveyron,dp.(Fr.)63;366;r.(£oTarn)370; 

Avion, w£.(0rense)484.  [u.371;  dfo's£.524,5. 

Bach  (Bavaria)  221. 

BADEN, gr. duchy,  204,1 1,13 ;  340 ;  496,8. 

Baden-Baden  203,8. 

Badenweiler  (Black  for.)  207,488. 

Barenburg  (Erzgeb.)  111. 

Baier,  vol.  (by  Schatthausen)  208. 

BAIERN,  Bayrisch,  Bavari-a,  -an. 

Bakony,  for.  (Hungary)  294. 

Balan  (Bukovina)  262. 

Bale,  or  Basel  (Switz.)  213. 

Ballenstadt  (Hartz)  166. 

Ballin,  val  (Wicklow,  co.  Irl.)  437. 

Balve  (Westfal.)  182. 

Bamble  (by  Kongsberg)  445. 

BANAT,  the,  84,95 ;  267,84— 93,4 ;  493,5,9 ; 

Banatite,  286.       [503,5,17,18;  n.  284. 

Banca,  isl  (Ind.  oc.)  485;  507,22. 

Banya:  s.  Abrud,  Borsa,  Felso,  Nagy, 

Baumholder  (Palat.)  200,2.         [Offen. 

BAVARIA  (Baiern),  214,6 ;  kingdom,  219; 

310, 58;  493;  503,18;  southern,  340; 

Rhenish,  48:  s.  Palatinate.        [520. 
Bavarian  (Bayrisch)  forest  217,8 ;  Alps, 
Baza  (Hungary)  515. 
Beer-Alston,  mi.  (Cornwall)  417. 
Bel:  s.  Sain-Bel. 
BELGIUM  184,6;  212;  390;  496,99. 
Bendzin  (up.  Silesia)  248. 
Bensberg  (Rhin.  dist.)  183,84. 
Beraun  (Bohem.)  225.  [471,2,3,4;  522. 
Beres(of,  or)ov,  t.  &co.  (pr.  Tobolsk)  465, 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


557 


Beres-ow  (or  -vvsk),  plateau  (Urals )2G6. 
Berg-:  s.  Giesshtibel,  Reichenstein. 
Bergisch  Gladbach  (Rhin.  dist.)  499. 
Bermsgriin  (Erzgeb.)  122.     [for.)  208. 
Bernharcl,  Zode(Riesengeb.)242;  zo.  (Bl. 
Berschweiler  (Palat.)  202;   or  Borsch. 

(by  Saarbriick)  170. 
Beuthen  (up.  Siles.)  248,51;  340;  498. 
Bianca,  cape  (Elba)  354.        [134;  519. 
Bibersbach,    kothigen- ,    (Fichtelgeb.) 
Biebelei  (Ural  mts.)  469. 
Bieber  (Hesse)  172. 
Bieberwirr  (or  Biberweyer,  Tyrol)  339. 
Bilimbayevsk  (Ural  mts.)  472. 
Bilkov,  vol.  (Bukovina    259. 
Billiton,  isl.  (Ind.  oc.)  485;  507, 22. 
Bingart  (Palat.)  200. 
Bingen  (on  Rhine)  173. 
Birnbanm,  grp.  (Hartz)  149. 
Bisersk  (w.  Ural  mts.)  465,72. 
Bisperg  (Sweden)  440. 
Bitkow,  vol.  (Carpathians)  259. 
BLACK  FOREST  49 ; 203-8 ;  360 ; 488 ; 505, 
Blagodat(Uralmts.)472.  [520,30;  s,  207. 
Blanc,  mt.  (Swiss  Alps)  487. 
Blankenburg  (Thur.  for.)  137. 
Blankerath  (Rhin.  dist.)  190. 
Blasien,  St-,  (Black  for.)  208. 
Bleiberg  (Carinthia)  329,31-9;  436,98; 

(Rhin.pr.)  196;  (Siles.)  235,6:  s.  Win- 
Bleiburg  (Karnth.)  330,2,6,7.  [disch-B. 
Bleistadt  (Bohm.  Erzgeb.)  98;  130; 486; 
Bleiwasche  (Westfal.)  182.       [510,11. 
Blistand  (Cornwall)  405. 
Bobrek  (up.  Siles.)  249. 
Bobritzsch,  r.  (Erzgeb.)  98. 
Bochum  (Westfal.)  175. 
Bockau:  s.  Rothen-B.  [158. 

Bockswieser,  grp.  (Hartz)  154,6;  lodes, 
Bodenmais  (Bavaria)  218-20;  493. 
Bodenwohr(Bavaria)  221.  [379;  501,38,9. 
Bohmischbrod  (Bohem.)  218,28,9,31,4; 
Bohmsdorf,  ober-,  (Voigtland)  133. 
B6'rsch-(s.  Bersch-). 
Bosenbrunn  (Voigtl.)  133.  [476,93;  518. 
Bogoslovsk,  mi.  (Urals)  293;  465,6,72, 
BOHEMIA  (l?d&mm)41,96;  217-29,34,93; 

422,68,86;  501,5,17,20,2,38,9;  north, 

230,4;  south,  226;  512:  s.  Przibram 


Bohemian,  forest  130;  217,8,20;  slope  of 

Erzgeb.  114;  side,  ib. 
Bois  de  I'Hermitage  (Forez)  370. 
Bolanden:  s.  Kirchheim-B. 
BOLIVIA,  state,  (s.  America)  41. 
Bonn  (Rhin.  dist.)  173,6,80.          [515. 
Borsa-Banya  (n.  Carpath.)  265, 6;  304; 
Boston  (Massachusetts)  502. 
Botallack,  mi.  (Cornwall)  406,18. 
Bourg  d'Oisans  (dp.  Isere)  319. 
Braunsdorf  (&i/Freib.)  46,50,1 ;  100 ;  227, 
Braunsdorf  er,  formation,  99.         [265. 
Brand  (fyFreib.)  15,97,8,9 ;  lodes,  101,4. 
Brandholz  (Fichtelgeb.)  135. 
BRAZIL  (s.America)  505,19,36,7. 
Breage  (Cornwall)  407. 
Breisach  (on  Rhine)  213:  s.  Alt-B. 
Breitenbach,  Rhein-,  (ow  Rhine)  191;  5 12. 
Breitenbrunn  (Erzgeb.)  121;  463,83;  522. 
Brian$on  (dp.  h.  Alps)  366. 
Brilon  (Westfal.)   177,82. 
BRITAIN:  s.  Great.    [485,7;  505,17,22,5. 
BRITANY  (Bretagne)  357,80-6;  422,84, 
British,carboniferous,metalliferous,434. 
Brixlegg  (Tyrol.  Alps)  327, 8, 40;  488. 
Brocken,  mt.  (Hartz)  146. 
Bruchsal  (Baden)  212. 
Bruck  (Bavaria)  219. 
Bruck  (on  Ahr)  195. 
Buchelbach  (Hesse)  172. 
Buchholz  (Annab.  dist.)  118. 
Buchwald  (Siles.)  235. 
Budweis  (Bohem.)  22P. 
Bugulma,  t.  &  r.  (Urals)  469.  [96;  s. '261,3. 
Bukovina, pr.(Austr.)  91,3;  257,65  ;  487, 
Burgstadter  grp.  (Hartz)  154,5,6. 
Burgundy,  arkoses,  366. 
Bygland  (Tellemark,  dist.)  439. 
Cabe(za,  =)§a  de  Vaca  (Chili)  513,4. 
Calamita,  cape,  (Elba)  354, 5;  monte,355. 
Calanda,  mt.  (Swiss  ct.  Grisons)  311,8; 
Calaiias  (Andalusia)  398.  [524,36. 

Calaveras,  co.  (California)  494. 
CALIFORNIA,  state,  U.S.  41 ;  214 ;  (n.281 ; 

n.  485)  494;  505,  7, 19, 36. 
('allanda  (Graubiindten) :  s.  Calanda. 
Calvary,  mt.  timazit.  (Carpathians)  281. 
Calvi,  monte  (Tuscany)  352. 
Gamborne  (Cornwall)  407. 


558 


INDEX  OF  PLACES 


Campan,  vol.  (dp.  h.  Pyrenees)  386. 

Campanelli  di  Garfagnana  (Italy)  348. 

Cams(or  46,  Kams)dorf  (Thur.  for.)  46; 

CANADA  (n.  America)  505.       [168;  523. 

Canaveilles,  or  -villes  (dp.  e.  Pyrenees) 

Canto-bianco,  mine:  s.  Cecilia."    {386. 

Cap,  Cape,  Capo:  s.  Bianca,  Calamita, 
Cornwall,  de  Cerbera,  North. 

Carara  (by  Massa,  Italy)  348,50. 

Caravella  (Peru)  522. 

Carclace,  mi.  (St.  Austel)  406. 

Cardigan,  sh.  (s.  Wales)  427,87;  524,5. 

Carimon,esZ.(Ind.oc.)485;  507.  [498;  505 

Carinthia  (Kdrnthen)  311,6,29,37;  436, 

Carintliian  Alps  329;  496;  520. 

Carlsbad  (Bohem.)  221. 

Carlstad  (Sweden)  440 

Carniola,  (Krain,  Austr.)  342. 

Carolina,  mi.  (Culera,  e.  Pyr.)  388. 

CAROLINA,  U.S.  49 ;  537 ;  n.40 ;  494 ;  s.49 ; 
505,22;  n.  &  s.  40;  505,19;  -nas,312. 

Carpathian,  countries,  95 ;  257-67 ;  sand- 
stone, 93;  266;  mountains  (round 
Ungarn)  244,57,94;  = 

Carpathians,  294;  345 ;  486 ;  n.  (tw.  Ungar. 
&  Galiz.)  257-60,7,94;  304 ;  509, 14. 

Carthagena  (Spain)  485,9;  512,22,3. 
sierra  de,  389,92. 

Caspari,  mi.  (Westfal.)  195. 

Cassagne,  plateau  (Aveyron,  dist.)  372. 

Cassel,  s.  Hesse. 

Castelli,  monte  (Tuscany)  350,1. 

Castello  (n.Italy)  349;  val  di,  348;  488. 

Castelminier  (fr.  Pyrenees)  386. 

Castile,  pr.  (Spain)  485. 

Cata(luna)lonia,  pr.  (Spain)  387. 

Catini,  monte  (Tuscany)  122;  350;  522. 

CAUCASUS,  mts.  (w.  Asia)  509. 

Cava  del  Piombo  (Tuscany)  352,3. 

Cecilia,  Sta.-,  mi.  (Hiendelenciaj  391. 

Cella,  val.  (Ligur.  Alps)  311. 

Central:  s.  America,  France. 

Cerbera,  cap  de,  (Catalonia)  388. 

Chalanches,  mts.  (dp.  Isere)  311,28. 

Chanarcillo  (Chili)  513,4. 

Charlemont  (Rhin.  dist.  France)  173. 

Charlottenburg,  mi.  (Westfal.)  175. 

Chemnitz  (Sachsen)  105. 

Cheron  lij  Chateland  (Alps)  311. 


Chessy(%Lyon)293;  377-9  ;  493;  538,9. 
CHILI  (S.America)   218,4;  505,13,20,4. 
CHINA,  empire,  (e.  Asia)  505. 
Chivas  (Piedmont,  Alps)  311. 
Chrast,  mill  (by  Kosteletz)  228. 
djfistgriin  (Voigtl.)  132.       [dist.  439. 
Christiania,  (Norway)  294;  440-3;  518; 
Christoph,  St.-,  mi.  (Schneeb.)  127. 
Clausthal,  dist.  (Hartz)  28;  146,7,9,52. 

153-8;  384;  488;  512,22,3,4. 
Claye,  r.  (to Oust >  383 ;  val.  (Britany)  380. 
Clermont  (-Ferrand,  dp.  Puy  de  Dome) 
Coblenz  (on  Rhine)  192.  [37f>. 

Coginan,  mi.  (s.  Wales)  428. 
Cologne,  Koln,  (Rhin  prov.}  183. 
COLORADO,  state,  U.  S.  505. 
Combe,  Beac,  &  St.  Nicolas  (Cornw.)  410. 
Combigliese  (Tuscany)  362. 
Commern  (fo/Aachen)89  ;  175,96;  500,6. 
Comorn,  basin,  (Hungary)  294. 
Congostrina  (Guadalajara)  391. 
Continent,  of  Europe,  422,36. 
Coquimbo,  prov.  (Chili  J  513. 
Corbach  (in  Waldeck)  197.  [489. 

Corbieres  (dp.  Aube)  371; mi.  dist.  372 ; 
Cordillera  (chain),  small,  (Spain)  393. 
Cordilleras:  s.  Andes.  [lodes,  424. 
Cornish,  miners,  402;  lodes,  425,30;  -tin 
Cornwall,  co.  (England)  47;  109;  380; 

402-27,84,5,97;  522,4,34,43,  north,422; 
Cottbus  (Lausitz)  255.       [cape,  404,6. 
Crabiules  (Pyrenees)  386. 
Creissels  (dp.  Aveyron)  373.         [437. 
Croghan  Kinshella,  mt.  (Wicklow,  co.) 
Crown-rock,  cape  (Cornwall)  404. 
Crux  (la)  d' Array anes,Zo^e(  Linares)  39 7. 
Cse(=Tse)tatye  (i.  e.  Castle)  -rock,  274; 

peak  (w.  Transylv.)  272-7. 
Cse(Tse)traser,  mts.  (Transylv.)  280. 
Csiklova  (Banat)  286,90,1,2. 
Cuevas,  plain,  (prov.  Almeria)  393. 
Culera  (Catalonia)  3*7;  487. 
Cumberland,  co.  45,7;  340;  402,31,3,4-8, 

489, 97. 8;  505, 20, 4. 
Cumillas  (pr.  Sant-Ander)  390. 
Cwm  Symlog,  mi.  (s.  Wales)  428. 
Cwm  Ystwith,  mi.  (s.  Wales)  428 
Dachslanden  (on  Rhine)  213, 
Dahlheim  (Rhin.  dist.)  190. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


559 


Dahlonega  (Georgia    U.  8.)  494. 
Dalecarlia,  dist.  (Sweden)  93,  439. 
Dannemora,  lake  (Upland,  dist.)  440,59 
Danube  (Donau),  r.  284, 6;  311.    [517 
Daren,  mi  (s.  Wales)  428. 
David,  kg ,  lode  (Schneeb.)  127. 
Davidson,  co.  (n.  Carolina)  494. 
Davidstowe  (n.Cornwall)  422.  [20,4,31 
Derby,s/*.45,7;  340;  402,30-4,89,97,8;505 
Detonata,  mi.  (Tsetatye  rock)  276. 
Devil's  Bridge,  mi.  (s.  Wales)  428. 
Devon,  sh.  403,8,17,22. 
Dietlingen  (Baden)  208.        [dist.  192. 
Dillenburg  (Nassau)  176,92-4;  512,24: 
Dippoldis \valde  (Erzgeb.)  104. 
Dobschau  (Ungarn)  301-3;  503,2 1.4,45. 
Dollach  (Styria)  313. 
Dognacska  (Bariat)  286. 
Dolcoath,  mi.  (Cornwall)  420. 
Domberg,  nit.  (Thur.  for.)  140. 
Dombrova  (Poland)  245. 
Domokos  (Bukovina)  163  ?  261 ;  304 ;  496. 
Dona-d'espine,  r.  (n. Italy,  to  Po)  311. 
Donau,  r.  (Europ ,  HI.  for.  to  Bl.  sea):  s. 
Donsbach  (Rhin.  dist.)  193.   [Danube. 
Dortmund  (Rhin.  dist.)  173. 
Douziliencques  (dp.  Aveyron)  373. 
Drammen  (Norway)  441. 
Drau,  r.  &  val.  (Salzb.  Alps)  311 
Drei  Prinzen  lode  (Freib.)  367 ;  vein,  1 1. 
Diiren  (Rhin.  prov.)  173,4. 
Dlirnberg  (Erzgeb.)  119. 
Diisseldorf  (on  Rhine)  192. 
Duisburg  (Rhin.  dist.)  173. 
Duran,  glac.  (ct.  Valais)  342. 
Durlach  (Rhin.  val.  Baden)  212. 
Edder,  r.  (Hessen-Cassel)  197. 
Edelleuter,  ruschel  (Hartz)  150. 
Eger  (Bohem.)  134.          [483,8;  522,3. 
Ehrenfriedersdorf  (Erzgeb.)  97,8 ;  115; 
Ehrenthal  (Rhin.  dist.)  190. 
Ehrlich,  lode  (Voigtl.)  134.         [522,4. 
Eibenstock  (Erzgeb.)  97;  112,23,9;  483; 
Eidsfoss,  or  -fors,  (Norway)  441. 
Eimerode  (Rhin.  dist.)  181. 
Eisenbach  (Hungary)  296. 
Eisenberg  (Rhin.  dist.)  178;   (by  Cor- 

bach)  197;  (by  Goldhausen)  198,9. 
Eisenerz  (Styria)  345,502 


Eisenkoppe,  mt.  (by  Altenberg,  Siles.) 
Eisleben  (Hartz)  167.  [238;  512. 

Ekatharinenburg  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Elba,  isl.  (w.  of  Italy)  354-7. 
Elbe,  r.  (Bohm.  to  Germ,  oc.)  231;  51 1. 
Elberfeld  (Westfal.)  182. 
Elbingerode  (Hartz)  146,8. 
Elfdalen  (Sweden)  439. 
Elgersburg  (Thur.  for.)  139,40. 
Elisabeth  adit  (Rathhausb.)  314. 
Elisavetsk  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Elster,  r.  133;  val.  (Voigtl.)  132. 
Emme,  rs.  gt.  &  It.  (Switz.)  213;  311. 
Ems,  on  Lahn  (Nassau)  270. 
ENGLAND,  340;  424,98:  s.  Great  Britain. 
Ens,  r.  (Austr.  to  Donau,  r.)  311. 
Erbendorf  (Bavaria)  218,20;  368;  511. 
Erbisdorf  (by  Freib.)  98 ;  102. 
Erzbach,  val.  (Styria)  345. 
Erzberg  (ore-mt.)  by  Kandern  (Bl.  for.) 
209  ;&2/Kreuth,331;  (Styria)345-7;502. 
ERZGEBIRGK,  52,96-129,31 ;  204, 18,68; 
375;  422, 6, 63, 81-  1, 5, 8, 90, 1,2;  505,8, 
10,20,2,7,41;  upper,  132,3;  368,9. 
Erzkasten  (Black  for.)  208. 
Erzweiler  (Palat )  200. 
Erzwieser  lode,  (Salzb.  Alps)  315,6. 
Escanerades  (fr.  Pyrenees)  386. 
Eschig,  lode  (Erzgeb.)  114. 
Eschweiler  (Palat.)  200. 

ssen  (on  Ruhr)  175.          [nees)  386. 
Essera.  r  (to  Cinea,  Sp.)  &  val.  (Pyre- 

Isterry,  val.  (Pyrenees)  386. 

Istremadura,  prov.  (Spain)  399. 

stymteon,  lode,  (s.  Wales)  429. 

lule  (co.  Prag,  Bohem.)  515. 

upen  (by  Mx-la-Chapelle)  340. 

UROPE,  cont.    95 ;  2 18;  301,10,23,99 ; 

422,36,63,85,9;  509,10;   central,  358; 

eastern,  484;  western,  468. 

uropean,  continent,  484 ;  plateaux,  509 ; 

tin-districts,  485:  s.  Russia. 
Pallband,  dist.  (Norway)  446:  unter- 

&  oberberger(Kongsberg)  443;  -bands, 

(Kongsb.)  500.  [439,52-4,94,5;  520,40. 
Fa(or  Fah)lun  (Swed.)  163 ;  304,25,99 ; 

astenfeer^,  mt.  (Erzgeb.)  123,6. 

aule-Butter,  village  (Rhin.  dist.)  179. 

eigenstein,  mt.  (by  Nassereit)  339, 


560 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


Feldberg  (Black  for.)  203. 
Felicitas,  lode  (Hartz)  151,2. 
Felsberg  (ct.  Orisons)  311,18. 
Felsobanya(e.  Hungary) 280,95,6;  304-6; 

488;  515, 22, 4, 3 1,3, 40. 
Ferola  (Sodermanland)  440. 

FlCHTELGEBIRGE    130-6,78  ;  519. 

Film,  lake  (Sweden)  459.    [484;  500,0. 

FINLAND  (Scandinav.)  48  ;438,9,40,62,3, 

Finnish,  mts.  (Russia)  244. 

Firne,  mt.  (Rhin.  diet.)  191. 

Fischbach  (Thur.  for.)  169. 

Flackstad  (dist.  Arendal)  447. 

Flint,  sh.  (n.  Wales)  433. 

Fluvanna,  co.  (Virginia)  494. 

Fons,  lode  (by  Creissels,  Fr.)  373. 

Forez,  co.  (c.  France)  365, 9;  chain,  370. 

Forstberg,  mt.  (Palat.)  201. 

Fos  (Pyrenees)  386. 

FRANCE  95;  310,31,57-84,8;  467,96;  507, 
25,31 ;  &  Saxony,  alike,  36C-9 ;  central, 
357,65 ;  489 ;  505, 12, 30 ;  &  southern, 
364;  &  Germany,  367.  [214. 

Franconia,  506;  -an  forest,  130;  Jura, 

Frankenberg  (Hesse)  170,1,97. 

Frauenberg  (Palat.)  202. 

Frauenstein  (Erzgeb.)  97;  104. 

Freiberg  (Sachsen)  11,15,28,33,41,5,50, 
61,5, 74,89,90,7,8;425,86,90, 522,3,4,3 1, 
2,3,52 ;  d*s£.100,3;223,37,65;  367,8;  425, 
3 1,83,6,7,9;  510,11,23,4,31,2,3;  lodes, 
73;  369;  425,90;  551.  [367. 

French,  Jura  359,63;  central  plateau, 

Freuden&m/,  mt.  (Bavaria)  221. 

Friedberg  (Rhin.  dist.)  173. 

Friedrich,  mine  (Miss)  336. 

Friedrichsroda  (Thur.  for.)  140;  521. 

Frischgliickauf,  lode.  (Mies)  224. 

Ftirstenberg  (Erzgeb.)  122. 

Fuggerthal,  dist.  (Carinthia)  332,3. 

Fundul  Moldovi  (Carpathians)  261. 

Fusch,  vol.  (w.  to  Gastein)  310,1,3,6. 

Gablau  (Riesengeb.)  241. 

Gail,  vol.  (Carniola)  343. 

Gales  (dp.  Aveyron)  373,4. 

Galicia  (-gia,  Spain)  401. 

Galicia  (-zia,  Austria)  95;  257.     [265. 

Gamsigrad,  Timacum,  (Servia)  295 ;  -ite, 

Gangjarde  (Sweden)  439, 


Gardette,  La,  4'200  ft.  (dp.  Isere)  311,9; 
Garfagnana:  s.  Campanelli  di  G.    [514. 
Garmisch  (n.  Alps,  Karnth.)  339. 
Garpenberg  (Sweden)  439. 
Gastein  (Salzb.  Alps)  310, 1,2; 514. 
Ga*ls,  anc.  212;  Gault,  (?)  260. 
Geising  (Erzgeb.)  107. 
Geister  lode  (Erzgeb.)  120. 
Gellivara  (Sweden)  439. 
Georges,  St  -,  hills  by  Chivas  (Alps)  311 . 
GEORGIA,  state,  U.S.  40;  494;  505, 19. 
Gerbstadt  (Hartz)  167.         [-ans,  80,8. 
Germain,St.-,d*s£.(cent.France)370;489; 
German,  north,  (n.Deutsch)  plains  255,6. 
GERMANY,29,38,96;  2 17,47,58;  347,64,76; 
457,67,83,4 ;  s.w.  2 16;  w. 247  ;483; 505. 
Germe,  St.-,  (dp.  Gers,  fr.  Pyr.)  387. 
Gersdorf  (by  Freib.)  100. 
Geschieber  lode  (Erzgeb.)  119. 
Geyer    (Erzgeb.)    98;  108,15-17;  483; 
Gibaud:  s.  Pont-G.  [522,4. 

Giehren  (Silesia)  239.  [522,3,44. 

Giesshiibel,  Berg-,  (Erzgeb.)  112;  491, 
Giromagny  (Vosges)  489. 
Gistain,  vol.  (sp.  Pyrenees)  386. 
Gjel-  (s.  Gyel-)laback.  [s.  Bergisch-G. 
Gladbach  (by  Coin)  183;  (by  Bensberg), 
Gladhamar  (Smaland)  440. 
Glas(-hiitte,  2l8,or)hiitten  (Bohm.)  226. 
Glatz:  s.  Waldenburg-G. 
Glemnalure,  mi.  (Wicklow,  Irl.)  437. 
Gliicksbrunn  (Thur.  for.)  169. 
Goddelsheim  (Rhin.  dist.)  199. 
Godolphin,  mine  (Cornwall)  416. 
Gorwil  (Alb  val.  BL  for.)  208. 
Gogiuan  (s.  Wales)  429,30. 
Goldbach,  r.  (to  Moselle)  199. 
Goldhausen  (Rhin.  dist.)  198.       [523. 
Goldkronach  (Fichtelgeb.)  13 1,5;  3 15; 
Goldlauter  (Thur.  for.)  140. 
Gold-Sithney  (Cornwall)  47. 
Gondelsheim  (Baden)  208.        [520,40. 
Goslar  (Hartz)85;  146,7,53,8 ;  399;  494,5 ; 
Gothland,  east,  dist.  (Sweden)  440. 
Gottesgabe  (Erzgeb.)  119;  (Thur.  for.) 
Grafenthal  (Thur.  for.)  137.          [339. 
Grass-valley,  c?*'stf  .(California)n.281;  523. 
Graabiindten  (fr.  Orisons,  it.  Grigioni) 
Graul  (Erzgeb)  122.     [ct.  Swiss  311,8. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


561 


Graupen  (Erzgeb.)  97;  105,11 ;  482;  522,4. 
Grave-en-Oisans,  la-,  (dp.  h.  or  w.  Alps) 

311;  519, 36.  [401,89. 

GREAT  BRITAIN,  95;  505,9;  and  IRELAND, 
Great  Ormes-head  (n.  Wales)  434. 
Greifenstein,  rock  (Erzgeb.)  115. 
Grillsbunny,  mi.  (Cornwall)  406. 
Gritzberg,  mt.  (up.  Siles.)  254. 
Grotzingen  (Baden)  212. 
Gross-,  s.  Kogel,  Pohla,  Voigtsberg. 
Grossenhain  (Sachsen)  511. 
Griin-Schild,  mine  (Schneeb.)  127. 
Grime-Tanner,  lode  (Voigtl.)  133. 
Griiner,  lode  (Schemnitz  dist.)  297. 
Griinthal  (Erzgeb.)  113. 
Gruf,  lake  (Sweden)  459. 
Gruna,  ober-,  (by  Freib.)  100. 
Grund  (Hartz)  153,4. 
Grythyttan  (Wermland)  457. 
Guadalaja(or  xa=kha)ra  (Spain)  391. 
Guadarrama,  mts.  (Spain)  391. 
Giintersberg  (Hartz)  146. 
Guldmeshyttan  (Westmanland)  440. 
Gumbir,  mts.  6000  ft.  (Hungary)  299;  300. 
Gumeshevskoi  (Ural  mts.)  465. 
Guntershausen,  nieder-,  (on  Rhine)  190. 
Gwennaps  (Cornwall)  407. 
Gwinear  (Breage)  407. 
Gyalar  (Transylv.)  503. 
Gyellaback  (Norway)  441.  [242. 

Hackelfcer#,  mt.  2840/fc.  (a*  Zuckmantel) 
Hahnenklee  (Hartz)  157. 
Hakansboda  (Westermanland)  461. 
Hallstatter  limestone  330,6,40. 
Halsbrucke  formation,  93 ;  365 ;  vein,  367. 
Halsbruckner  lode  (by  Freib.)  102,3. 
Hammerfest  (Norway)  451. 
Hammerstein  (Palat.)  202. 
Hartenstein  (Erzgeb.)  97;  127;  507. 
HARTZ,  mts.  28,85  ;  145-08,72;  488,91,4; 

605,12,7,8,28 ;  e.  147,9 ;  w.155,7 ;  or  up. 
Harzburg  (Hartz)  153 ;  524.  [149;  s.e.  168. 
Harzgerode  (Hartz)  146, 9;  512. 
Haselgebirge  strata  (Alps)  360. 
Hasselfeld  (Hartz)  146. 
Hausach  (Black  for.)  208. 
Haute:  s.  Vienne. 
Hautes:  s.  Pyrenees. 
Hedder6er#,  mt.  (Palat.)  202. 


Hemzen&«r#,mt. (Tyrol) 311, 7,8,27 ;  525. 
Heizen(=  Heinzen-)berg  525. 
Reliefers  (Westmanland)  440. 
Helmlingen  (on  Rhine)  213. 
Helmrich  (by  Freib.)  100. 
Helsingfors,  dist.  (Finland)  440. 
Herges  (Thur.  for.)  142. 
Herje(=  ye)dalen  (Sweden)  439. 
Herkenrath  (Rhin.  dist.)  184. 
Hermitage,  de  1',  s.  Bois.      [300;  506. 
Herrengrund  by  neu-Sohl  (Ungar.)  299; 
HESSE  164,9;538,9;-Cassel  46. 
Hessisch-,  s.  Weyer, 
Hettstadt  (Hartz)  167. 
Hiendelencia  (Spain)  389,91;  489;  512,31. 
Hils,  Westfal.  conglomerate,  (?)  260. 
Hirschau  (Bavaria)  221. 
Hirschenstand  (Erzgeb.)  119. 
Hirschler  pond  (Hartz)  155. 
Hita  (Guadalajara)  392. 
Hodritsch,  lodes  (Schemnitz)  296,9. 
Hockendorf  (Erzgeb.)  100,4. 
Hollen,  vol.  (Bair.  n.  Alps)  339 ;  498. 
Horde  (Westfal.)  175. 
Horte,  mine  (Norway)  441. 
Hof  (n.  Bavar.)  132,3. 
Hofen  (Bl.  for.)  208. 
Hofsgrund  (Bl.  for.)  208.          [501,20. 
Hohenelbe   (n.  Bohem.)   229, 30;  379; 
Hohenstein  (Hartz)  221. 
Hohnstein  (Erzgeb.)  98. 
Holzappel,onLahn,188;#rp.l87-91;488; 
Hornberg  (Bl.  for.)  208.          [512,24,5. 
Horsowitz  (Horowicz,  Bohem.)  218, 25 ; 
Houdlemont,  ville-  (France)  362.  [524. 
Huelgoat  (Britany)  383, 4;  487. 
Huelva,  prov.  (Andalusia)  389,97,9;  495. 
Httggel,  mt.  (by  Osnabriick)  503.  [233. 
Htittenbach  (n.  Bohem.)  232;  r.  (to  Iser) 
Huldgellburn  lode  (Cumberland)  435. 
Hundsruck,  mts.  (Rhin.  dist.)  173,9. 
Hungarian,basin257;5l5;goldveins316. 
HUNGARY  (Ungarri)  95;  257,67,76,86,8, 

294;  308,  9 ;  488,  93;  503,  5,  6,  7,  21 ; 

east,  531;  n.e.  533. 
Hunyad  (Transylv.)  503.  [154,6. 

Hutschenthal,wwe  (Hartz)  156;  -ergrp. 
lago:  s.  Sant-Iago.  [Portugal. 

Iberian  Peninsula,    509:    s.    Spain   & 
36 


562 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


Idaho,  U.  S,  505. 
Idria,wrf.  (Carniola)  265;  342;  400,1;  507. 
Ik  (to  Kama),  r.  (Ural  mts.)  469. 
Ilfeld  (Hartz)  147, 8;  491. 
ILLINOIS,  state,  U.  S.  496, 9;  520. 
Ilmen-^re6. mts. &  lake,  (Kuss.  fo/Novgo- 
Ilmenau  (Thur.  for.)  140,fi9.  [rod)  519. 
Imbelax  (Pittkaranda,  dist.)  440. 
Imperina,  brook,  324, 5  ;mZ.  (Tyrol)  323,4. 
INDIA,  East,  islands,  485:  s.  Banca. 
Inien,  mt.  chain  (Marmaros,  co.)  265. 
Inn,  r.  (Tyrol,  to  Donau)  311;  vol.  327. 
Innerste,  vol.  (Clausthal)  155,7. 
IOWA,  state,  U.  S.  496,9;  520. 
IRELAND  401, 23,36— 8;534:s.Gt.Britain. 
Isabella,  mine  (Dillenburg)  193. 
Isakstammer  grp.  lodes  (Hartz)  154. 
Isar,  r.  (Tyrol,  to  Donau,  r.)  311. 
Iser,  r.  (to  Elbe)  231,3. 
Isere,  r.  &  dp.  (France)  319,28. 
Iserlohn  (Westfal.)  182;  540. 
Istein  (on  Rhine)  213. 
ITALY,  95;  347,53;  488;  51 7; north,507,31. 
Ives,  Saint,  (Cornwall)  406,7. 
Ja(=  Yae)gernhof  (Siles.)  242. 
Ja(=Kha)roso(sraAlmagrera)#ew,393. 
Jestetten  (Baden)  208. 
Joachimsthal,  dist.  (Erzgeb.)  97;  114; 

488;  510, 11, 22, 4;  town,  119. 
Johanngeorgenstadt  (Erzgeb.)  97;  123; 

483, 8;  510, 22, 3, 4. 

Josselin  (Britany)  383.  [489;  520. 

Julien,  St.-,  dist.  (cent.France)  369,70; 
JURA,  518 ;  formation,  49  ;  brown  &  white, 

215;  group,  358-63;  chain,  214;  mts. 

206, 8;  509:  s.  Franconian,  Suabian, 

Swiss  &  French,      [(cent.  Fr.)  370. 
Just,  St.-,  (Cornwall)  407, 10,8,9,89 ;  dist. 
Kaafjord  (Finmark)  48;  439,51;  524, 
Kafvelstorp  (nya  Kopparbg.)  452* 
Kalinovskoi,  placer  (Ural  mts.)  474. 
Kameno-Pavlovsk  (Ilmen  mts.)  519. 
Kamsdorf  46 :  s.  Camsdorf. 
Kandern  (Black  for.)  204,8,9. 
Kanekuhl-er  mi.  (by  Goslar)  159. 
Kapnik  (Ungar.)  280, 95, 6 ;  304, 7 ;  487 ; 
Kappel  (Carinthia)  329.  [515,33. 

Kargala  (Ural  mts.)  469. 
Karl-Leopold  lode  (Erzgeb.)  130. 


Katharina,  by  Raschau  (Erzgeb.)  122; 

lode,  (Trojoca,  mts.)  266. 
Katharinenberg  (Erzgeb.)  98;  113. 
Kath(=  Ekath)arinenberg  (Ural  mts.) 
Katharinenburg  (Ural  mts.)  472.  [465. 
Katranza,  mi.  (Tsetatye,  mt.)  275. 
Katterfeld  (Thur.  for.)  169. 
Kattowitz  (up.  Siles.)  250. 
Katzenbach  (Palat.)  <200. 
Katzenellenbogen  (Nassau)  177. 
ftatzenthal  (Vosges)  491 ;  522,  3,44. 
Kavassi  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Kazan  (Ural  mts.)  469. 
Kegel,  mt.  800  ft.  (Ungarn)  305. 
Kehl  (on  Rhine)  213. 
Kellerberg  (Palat.)  200. 
Keppel,  vol.  (by  Goslar)  159. 
Ketschach,  vol.  (Salzb.  Alps)  313. 
Keuper  formation  (Siles.)  245-7;  strata, 

(Alps)  330 ;  sandstone  (Franconia)506. 
Kje(Kye-)runavara  (Sweden)  439. 
Kiffhauser,  mt.  (Thur.  basin)  168. 
Kimpolung  (Bukovina)  93 ;  258. 
Kinzig,  vol.  49 ;  204-6, 7 ;  524. 
Kirchheim-Bolanden  (Palat.)  200. 
Kirlibaba  (s.Bukovina)  263, 9;  487. 
Kirnik,  mt.  (Siebenbilrgen)  272. 
Kischlinsk  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Kischtimsk  (Ural  mts.)  472. 
Kitzbtihel  (Tyrol)  496;  526, 40. 
Kizil,  r.  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Kladrau  (Bohem.)  224. 
Klausen  (Tyrol)  320-3. 
Klautzenbach  (Bavaria)  219. 
Kleingau  by  Kandern  (Baden)  209. 
Kleinkogel,  mt.  (Brixlegg,   Tyr.).-327; 
Klein-Linden  (Lahn-yaZ.)  181.       [525. 
Klerovskoi,  placer  (Ural  mts.)  474. 
Klinge,  the,  by  Lauterbach,  143. 
Klmger-stockwerk  (Schlackenwald)  221. 
Klobenstein  (Erzgeb.)  121. 
Klostergrab  (Erzgeb.)  114. 
Klutchevski  (Ural  mts.)  469.         [200.  . 
Konigsberg,  mt.  by  Wolfsberg  (Palat.) 
Koros,  r.  (to  Theiss,  w.  Transylv.)  270. 
Kossener  beds  (Alps)  330. 
K6tLigen-(wm/)B.:  s.  Bibersbach. 
Kogel,  mt.  Gross-,  &  Klein-,  327. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


563 


Kongsberg  (Norw)  46,93 ;  233 ;  439,42-5 

494;  500, 5, 23, 4. 

Kopparberg,  nya,  (Sweden)  440,52. 
Kosteletz,  schwarz-,  (Bohem.)  228,9. 
Koth:  s.  Rothen  (red)  K.-berg. 
Krakau,  Cracov  (Poland)  252. 
Kramenzel  (Westfal.)  177. 
Kremnitz  (Ungarn)  295, 9;  487;  514,5. 
Krestovosdvishensk  (w.  Ural  mts.)  472. 
Kreutli  (Carinthia)  329,31,2. 
Kreuzberg,  mt.  &  lode  (Ungarn)  305, 7. 
Kreuznach  (Palat.)  200. 
Krokenstein,  mt.  (Hartz)  148. 
Kronstadt  (Transylv.)  267,8. 
Krux,  mines  black,  red,  &  yellow,  138 : 

s.  Arrayanes,  la  crux  d'.  [505. 

Kuc(t)zaina  (Servia)  286,7,90,1,2;  499; 
Kuizokova  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Kupferberg  (Siles.)  235,7;  mt.  234-8; 

486,8;  512,8,20,4;    dist.    237;      by 

Grossenhain  (Sachsen)  511. 
Kushvinsk  (e.  Ural  mts.)  472. 
Kuttenberg  (Bohem.)  218,27;  480;  524. 
Kyalim,  r.  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Ladoga,  lake  (Finland)  462. 
Lahn,  r.  (to  Rhine)  187;  vol.  181. 
Lai(or  Loi)bel,  val.  (Carniola)  343. 
Lake:  s.  Ladoga,  Superior,  Uveldi. 
Lamm  (Bavaria)  220. 
Landnoden  (Thur.  for.)  169. 
Landsberg  (Palat.)  200,1,2. 
Langbanshytta,    mi.  (Wermland)  450. 
Langbar  (Wermland)  457. 
Langenau  (by  Freiberg)  97 ;  103. 
Langenstriegis  (Erzgeb.)  98. 
La-Pause:  s.  Pause,  la. 
Laquore  (Pyrenees)  386. 
Laubhiitte  (Hartz)  1 54 ;  -er#rp,  lode.  ib. 
Lauenstein  (Erzgeb.)  98.  (255. 

Lausitz,  Lusatia,  lower,jpr.(n.  Germany) 
Lautenbach  (Thur.  for.)  143. 
Lautenthal  (Hartz)  153,4;  -er#rp.!54-7. 
Lauterberg,  dist.  (Hartz^  164. 
Lazar,  lode  (s.  Bohem.)  226,7. 
Ledock  (Cornwall)  417. 
Lehesten  (Thur.  for.)  137. 
Lehrbach  (Hess.  Darmstadt,  Hartz)  148, 
Lembach  (Vosges)  489.  [153,4,76 ;  524. 
Lemberg,  mt.  (Palat.)  200,1,2. 


Lend  (Salzb.  Alps)  311. 
Lengholz  (Carinthia)  311. 
Lenne,  slate  (Rhin.  dist.)  174,7,82. 
Leogang,  val.  (Salzb.  Alps)  342. 
Leopoldst.  lake  (Styria)  346. 
Leptau,  dist.  (Ungarn)  299. 
Levezou,  mt.  (w.  Milhau,  cent.  Fr.)  373. 
Lgota  (by  Krakau)  252. 
Liebstadt  (Erzgeb.)  98. 
Liege  (Belgium)  173;  520. 
Ligurian  Alps  311. 

Limasette,  lode  (by  Creissels,  Fr.)  374. 
Linares  (Andalusia)  389,96;  489;  512, 
Lindberg  (Bavaria)  219.          [522,3,5. 
Llan(Hlan-)bedr  (Wales)  428. 
Llancyfelyn,  mi.  (Wales)  428. 
Llangol(goh)len  (n.  Wales)  433. 
Llangynnog,  dist.  (Wales)  428. 
Llanidloes,  plain,  (Wales)  428,89. 
Lla(Lya-)no,     longitudinal,     (Andes, 
Llanza  (Catalonia)  388.       [Chili)  513. 
Lofas  (Sweden^)  439. 
Lohr,  mt.  (Rliin.  dist.)  177. 
Loire,  r.  (France)  381,2,3:  s.  Saone. 
Loo's  (Sweden)  489. 
Lorenz,  mi.  (Erzgeb.)  125.  [370, 

Lot,  val.  dp.  (Fr. )  362 ;  r.  (to  Garonne) 
Lozere,  dp.  (France)  364. 
Lublinitz  (up.  Siles.)  245. 
Luchon,  val.  (Pyrenees)  386. 
Luganure,  mi.  (Wicklow)  437. 
Lulea-Lappmark,  dist.  (Sweden)  439. 
Lunkany,  baths,  (n.Banat)  284. 
Luosanavara  (Sweden)  439. 
Lusatia:  s.  Lausitz. 
Lutter,  r.  (to  Rhine)  213. 
Luxemburg  (Rhin.  dist.)  173,4. 
Lyer  (Norway)  441. 
Lyon  (France)  293;  377;  493. 
Macigno,  slate,  349,50,4. 
Macugnaca  (e.Mte-Rosa,  Alps)  311. 
Madrid,  cap.  (Spain)  391. 
Madron,  mi.  (Trewiddenball)  407. 
Magurka,  ml.  2500 /fc.  (Ungarii)  300, 1; 
MAHREN,  ==  Moravia.  [515. 

Maidanpek  (Servia)  290, 1,2;  499. 
Maillors  lode  (Villefranche)  371. 
Mais-Ried  (Bavaria)  220. 
Malacca  (Ind.  oc.)  485. 

36* 


564 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


Malaga  (s.  Spain)  512. 
Malapane  (n.Siles.)  245. 
Mandiola  (Chanarcillo)  514. 
Mannheim  (Baden)  213. 
Mansfeld  (Hartz)  165,8;  co.  166. 
Manto  de  la  Presidente(Cabeqa,  de  Vaca) 
Marazion  (Cornwall)  47,  407.  [510,1,4. 
Marienberg  (Erzgeb.)   97;  114;  483, 8; 
Marienfels  (Rhin.  dist.)  190.  [511,22,43. 
Marienskoi,  placer  (Ural  mts.)  473. 
Marina,  la:  s.  Rio. 
Marina  di  Rio  355. 
Marmaros,  co.  (Ungarn)  265;  304,8. 
Maros,  r.  (w.  Transylv.)  270. 
Marter,  mt.  (Marienb.  dist.)  114,5. 
Martinshaart,  mi.  iRhin.  dist.)  179. 
Massetano  (Tuscany)  488;  530. 
Maupas  (Britany)  382. 
Maurozi,  mi.  (Erzgeb.)  119. 
Meinkja,  mi.  (Kongsberg)  445. 
Meisen,  mt.  (Hartz)  149. 
Meissen  (Sachsen)  97;  510,9;  adit,  71: 
Meji(=  Mekhi)co:  s.  Mexico. 
Merioneth,  sh.  (n.  Wales)  430  ;  519. 
Meschede  (Westfal.)  182;  95. 
MExi(or  Ji)co  (h.  America)  48:505,24. 
Meyric:  s.  Ystrad. 
Miask  (e.  Ural  mts.)  465,71,2. 
Michael(St.-)'s  mt.  (Penzance)  405,7. 
Michaelis,  St.-,  mi.  (Schneeb.)  127. 
Michelberg  (by  Freiberg)  486. 
Michicacan,  state  (Mexico)  48. 
Miechowitz  (up.  Siles.)  254. 
Mies,  dist.  (Bohem.)  218,24.  [373;  489. 
Mil(lau,  or)hau  on  Tarn  (dp,  Aveyron) 
Miltitz  (by  Meissen)  278;  519. 
Mindyak,  r.  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Minier  (cent.  France)  373 :  s.  Castel-M. 
Miss  (Carinthia)  330, 6;  498. 
Mississippi,  r.  upper,  dist.  (U.  S.)  499. 
MISSOURI,  state,  U.  S.  496, 9;  520. 
Wittelberg,  mt.  (by  Elgersburg)  139. 
Mitterberg  (Salzb.  Alps)  496. 
Mitterpinzgau  (Styrian  Alps)  342. 
Mittweida  (Erzgeb.)  98. 
Mizerieux,  lode,  (Forez)  369. 
Modena  (n.  Italy1)  347,9. 
Modum  (Norway)  445. 
Mohringen  (Baden)  208. 


Moll,  r.  &  vol.  (Salzb.  Alps)  311. 

Morsfeld  (Palat.)  200. 

M6ss(Mess)kirch  (Baden)  209. 

Molasse  formation  (Baden)  209,10. 

MOLDAVIA  (Moldau)  257,67. 

Moffiova,  neu,  (Banat)  286,90,1,2. 

Moldovi:  s.  Fundul. 

Molton,  north,  (Devon)  422.          [503. 

M.ommelberg,  mt.  &  mi.  (Thur.  for.)  142; 

Mont:  s.  Blanc. 

Montana,  U.  S.  505. 

Montbrun  (dp.  Lot,  France)  362. 

Monte :  s.  Calvi,  Castelli,  Catini,  Nero, 

Montes,m£.  (Orense)  484.  [Rajado,  Vaso. 

Monte-rosa  (Alps)  311. 

Montgomery,  sh.  (n.  Wales)  427,8. 

MORAVIA  (Mdhren)  217, 60;  517. 

Moravic(t)za  (Banat)  286,90,1,2. 

Morbihan,  dp.  (Britany)  381,3. 

Morena,  sierra,  (Andalusia)  396. 

Morlaix,  lead-lodes,  (Britany)  383. 

Morolui,  268:  s.  Pqjana. 

Morvan(vant),  mt.  (dp.  Cotes  d'or)  367. 

Moschel,  ober-,  (Palat.)  200 ;  524 ;  -lands- 
berg,  48 ;  or  Moschlandsberg  (Palat.) 

Moselle,  r.  (Rhin.  dist.)  190,9.      [507, 

Mosen,  by  Rauris  (Salzb.  Alps)  311. 

Mostovsk  (Ural  mts.)  471. 

Motovilika  (Ural  mts.)  468. 

Mount:  s.  Pilat. 

Muckenthurmchen  (Erzgeb.)  111. 

Miihlbach  (Erzgeb.)  98;  (Styria)  311. 

Wltihlberg,  mt.  (by  EimerouV)  181. 

Miihlstrom  (Norway)  451. 

Miinchberg  (Fichtelgeb.)  131.       [524. 

Minister,  vol.  (Black  for.)  49;  207;  488  ; 

Muusterappel  (Palat.)  200,1. 

Miirtschen-(stock,)Alp  (Switz.)  524. 

Miis(or  Miissjen  (Rhin.  dist.)  178;  503. 

Mulde,  r.  (by  Freib.)  103. 

Munzig  (Erzgeb.)  98. 

Mur,  r.  (Austr.  to  Drau,  I.)  311. 

Muschelkalk  formation,  247. 

Nack  (Palat.)  200. 

Nadvorna,  pr.  (Carpathians)  258. 

Naeskilen  (dist.  Arendal)  447. 

Nagorni,  placer  (Ural  mts.)  474. 

Nagyag  (Transylv.)  280-3,96;  494;  5 1 5,24; 
val.  281. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES 


565 


Nagybanya  (Ungarn)  270,1, 80,95,6 ;  304, 
Naila  (Voigtl.)  134.  [305;  515, 33. 

Najac  (cent.  France)  371;  489. 
Naklo  (up.  Siles.)  249. 
Nant-y-Creiau,  lode,  (s.  Wales)  429. 
Nanzenbach  (Rhin.  dist.)  193,4. 
Narverud  (Norway)  441.  [523. 

Nassau,  dist.  (on  Rhine)  n.  176 ;  177,87 ; 
Nasse(or  sen)reit  (by  Imst,  Tyrol)  339. 
Negoi,  8000  ft.  (Transylv.)  268. 
Nera:  s.  Terra. 
Nerike,  dist.  (Sweden)  440. 
Nero,  mte,  (Modena)  349. 
Neudorf  (Hartz)  149. 
Neuermuth,  mi.  (Nanzenbach)  193. 
Neufanger,  ruschel  (Hartz)  150,1. 
Neuhammer  (Erzgeb.)  119. 
Neu-:  s.  Moldova,  SohL 
Neurader,  mts.  (n.  Ungarn)  294. 
Neusohl:  s.  Sohl,  neu. 
Neustadt  (Thur.  for.)  138. 
Neustadtel  (Erzgeb.)  126,8. 
Neuweiler  (Black  for.)  208.    [392;  512. 
NEVADA,  state,  U.S.  505;  sierra,  (Spain) 
Nevyansk  (e.Ural  mts.)  472. 
New:  s.  Almaden,  Zealand. 
Newlin  (Cornwall)  407,17. 
Nice,  Nizza,  (w.  end  of  Alps)  310. 
Nieder-:  s.  Guntershausen. 
Niederhausen  (Palat.)  202. 
Nijny  (new) :  s.  Tagilsk,  Turinsk. 
Nockelfcm?,  mt.  (Salzb.  Alps)  342;  521. 
Nora  (Westmanland,  dist.)  440;  517. 
Norberg  (Westeras-Lan)  439. 
Nordmark  (Wermland)  457,8. 
Nordmarken,  mi.  (Pliilipstad)  456. 
North:  s.  Carolina,  German,   Molton, 

Tawton. 

North-Cape,  dist.  (Norw.)  439.  [417. 
North-Downs,  cross-course  (Cornwall) 
NORWAY,  46,85;  29 1;  438,9,52,94,6;  500, 

507,1 7,8,21;  south,  439,43;  fallbands, 
Nossen  (Sachsen)  98;  104.  [262;  500. 
NovA.-ScoTi±neuSchottland(n.  America) 
Nussloch  (Baden)  211.  [519. 

Nya  (=  new):  s.  Kopparberg. 
Nydarhytta  (Westmanl.)  440. 
Nylshyttan  (Sweden)  439. 


Ober-:  s.  Bohmsdorf,  Gruna,  Moschel^ 
Rochlitz,  Schlema,  Villach,  Wiesen- 

Ober-berger,  s.  Fallband.  [thai. 

Oberhof,  lodes  (Rhin.  dist.}  190. 

Ochsenkopf,  mt.  (in  Kupferberg)  234. 

Oederan  (Erzgeb.)  97,8;  104;  511. 

Oelbarn  (Styria)  310.    [493,4;  515,8,24. 

Offenbanya  (Transylv.)  272,7,80,2,3,93 ; 

Offenburg  (Black  for.)  203. 

Oisans,  Bourg  d',  (dp.  Isere)  319. 

Ola  (296 ;  304, 5,  Olah)  laposbanya  (n.  w. 
Transylv.)  308;  515, 33, 7, 40. 

Olkusz  (Poland)  248, 52;  498. 

Orndal  (Tellemark,  dist.)  439. 

Opatowitz  (up.  Siles.)  247. 

Oravic(t)za  (Banat)  286,90,1,2;  518. 

Ore-mountain,  209:  s.  Erzberg. 

Orenburg  (Ural  mts.)  469. 

Oruro,  12,400  ft.  (Bolivia)  41 ;  522. 

Oryarfvi  (Finland)  440,63. 

Osnabriick  (Hannover)  503. 

Ospitaletta  (Modena)  349. 

Ossa,  in  Chanarcillo  (Chili)  514. 

Ossola,  prov.  (Spain)  40. 

Osterdalen  (s.  Norway)  443. 

Ottange,  vol.  (France)  360. 

Oust,  r.  (to  Vilaine)  380,3;  &  vol.  (Bri- 

Ovoca,  r.  (Ireland)  437.       [tany)  484. 

Oyestad  (dist.  Arendal)  447. 

Paffrath  (Westfal.)  183. 

Painsec  (Reschi  vol.  Alps)  342. 

Pais-,  or  Pajs-berg  (Werml.)  456-9;  506. 

PALATINATE  (Pfalz,  Ellen.  Bavar.)  200-2; 
507,21:  up.  216,  n. 

Pallieres  (France)  497;  520,40. 

Pappenheim,  co.  (Bavaria)  215,7. 

Parad  (Ungarn)  506. 

Pareu-Dracului(5i/Kronstadt,Transylv.) 

Paris,  cap.  France;  basin,  363.    [268. 

Pasiec(t)zna  (Bukovina)  259. 

Pause,  la,  vein  (St.  Julien  dist.)  525. 

Pavlovsk :  s.  Kameno-,  Pervo-,  Petro-,  P. 

Peever,  mi.  (Cornwall)  409,10. 

Peitz,  by  Cottbus,  (Lausitz)  255. 

Penestin,  coast  (Britany)  383. 

Penhale  (Cornwall)  417. 

Penouta,  by  Verin,  (Spain)  484. 

Pen-towan,  by  St.Austel,  (Corn wall)  421. 

Pen-y-bont-pren  (s.  Wales)  428. 


566 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


Pen-y-Cefn,  mi.  (Wales)  428. 
Penzance  (Cornwall)  407.  [502,3. 

PERM,  pr.  &  t.  (w.Urals,  Europe)  467,9 ; 
Permian  dist.  501,20 ;  lower,234;  forma- 

taw,464,5,7 ;  50 1 ,35,8 ;  sandstone, 520 ; 
Persberget  (Philipstad)  456.  [rocks,  537- 
PERU,  state  (s.  America)  505,23. 
Pervo-Pavlovsk,  by  Miask  (Urals)  473. 
Peshanka,  by  Bogolovsk,  (Ural  mts . )  472 
Pestarena  (e.  Monte-rosa)  311. 
Petersthal  (Baden)  208. 
Peterswalde  (Rhin.  dist.}  190,1. 
Petris  (Banat)  286. 
Petro-Pavlovsk  (Ural  mts.)  472. 
Petschkau  (Bohem.)  227. 
Pfaffen&mjr,  mt.  (Hartz)  149;  524. 
Pfahl,  rock  (Baiern)  219. 
Pforzheim  (Baden)  208.  [Alps)  320;  487. 
Pfun4rers&e?v/,  mt.  by  Klausen  (Tyrol. 
Philippeville  (Belgium)  186. 
Philippsburg  (on  Rhine)  213. 
Philipstad  (Wermland,  Swed.)  '440,56. 
Phoenicians  in  Cornwall,  421. 
Piedad  (Mexico)  524. 
Pietra  Santa  (Modena)  347. 
Pietros(z,    or  Petroza),    mt.  6882   ft. 

(Marmaros,  co.  Ungarn)  265. 
Pilat,  mt.  (cent.  France)  369. 
Pilsen  (Bohem.)  218. 
Pindad,  mi.  (Michicacan,  Mexico)  48. 
Pingarten  (Bavaria)  221. 
Pinzgau  (Salzburg)  539. 
Piombo:  s.  Cava  del  P. 
Piriac  (mth.  Loire)  381, 3;  484. 
Pirk  (Voigtl.)  133. 
Pitten  (e.  Alps,  Austria)  344. 
Pittkaranda,  dist.  (Finland)  439,40,62, 

484 ;  500, 6, 22, 5.  [Styria)  "46. 

Flatten  (Erzgeb.)  97;  119;  483;  (Erzbg. 
Plauen  (Voigtl.)  132,3. 
Ploermel  (Britany)  382;  484. 
Plombieres  (dp.  Vosges,  France)  531. 
Plynlimmon,  mt.  (Wales)  428. 
Po  (Padus)  r.  (n.  Italy)  311. 
Pobel  (Erzgeb.)  97;  105, 11. 
Pohl,  mt.  (by  Annab.)  118. 
Pohla,  gross-,  (Erzgeb.)  122.         [268. 
Pojana-Morolui  (by  Sinka,  Transylv.) 
POLAND,  244,5,7,8,52;  498;  Russian,243. 


Polgoath  (Cornwall)  mi.  409;  dist.  417. 
Ponte  grande,  (Ossola,  Spain)  40. 
Pont-Gibaud,  dist.  (by  Clermont)  375,6  • 
Porabka  (Poland)  245.  [525! 

Porpatak  (Ungarn)  487. 
Portli  Towan  (Cornwall)  417. 
PORTUGAL,  389,91)484. 
PoschoritafBukov.)91;261;304;  496; 539. 
Potosi  'Bolivia)  522,48;  Welshr,  (Wales) 
Potschappel  (Erzgeb.)  9(5.  [42s. 

Potzberg,  mt.  (Palat.)  200,1. 
Poullaouen  (Britany)  383,4;  487 ;  525. 
Poyatos  (Andalusia)  398. 
Prag,  cap.  (Bohem,)  218. 
Pranal  (in  Sioule  vol.]  376. 
Presberg,  mi.  (Philipstad)  456. 
Presnitz  (Erzgeb.)  98. 
Pressburg,  Pozsony,  cap.  (Ungarn)  514. 
Prinzenbach  (Black  for.)  208. 
Prossen  (Styria)  34C. 
PRUSSIA  (Preusseri),  Rhenish,  500,6. 
Prussian,  Rhen.prov.196.  [491;  522-4,44. 
Przibram  (Bohem.)  41,8;  218,22,4 ;  486, 
Pulpi,  plain,  (Almeria,  pr.  Sp.)  393. 
Pusch  meadow  by  Peitz,  255.   [383 ;  484. 
Puy-les-Vignes  (dp.  h.  Vienne,  France) 
PYRENEES  (tw.  Fr.  &  Sp.)  357,8,63,85,8; 
Quenstedt,  215.  [505,17;  dp.  h.  P.  M86. 
Querbach  (Siles.)  238,9;  484;  500. 
Questembert  (Britany)  380;  484. 
Rachel,  mt.  (Bohm.  for.  Baiern)  219. 
Rackelmann  (Schwarzenb.  dist.}  120,1. 
Radlgraben  (Carinthia)  311. 
Radnitz  (Bohem.)  218,25,6. 
Radovenz  (n.  Bohem.)  232. 
Radzionkau  (up.  Siles.)  248,9. 
Rader,  mi.  (Carinthia)  311. 
Raibl  (Carinthia)  329, 30, 7, 8;  498. 
Raipas  (Norway)  439,51;  524. 
Raj  ado,  monte  (Carthagena)  392. 
Rakosi,  mi.  (Tsetatye-rock)  275. 
Ramfor#,  mt.  (Hartz)  146.  [495. 

Rammels&m/r,  mt.  (Hartz)  158-64;  304; 
Rancie,  mt.  (fr.  Pyr.  dp.  Ariege)  386. 
Raschau  (Erzgeb.)  122.     [313, 15;  514. 
Rathhaus&er^,  mt.  (Salzb.  Alps)  39 ;  311, 
Rathsweiler  (Palat.)  200. 
Ratiboritz  (Bohem.)  486. 
Ratisbon  (Bavaria):  s.  Regeusburg. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES 


567 


Raurieser  Tauern,  39. 
Kauris,  gold  mt.  (Salzb.  Alps)  39;  311-16. 
Rauschenthal,  mill  (by  Sicghofen)  190. 
Red:(s.  Rothen)Koth. 
Redmoor  (Cornwall)  417. 
Redruth(Cornwall)407,16,8,25.[ern)215. 
Regensburg  (Ratisbon),  wi.Regen  (Bai- 
Rehhiibel  (Erzgeb.)  125. 
Reichenbach  (Palat.)  202. 
Reichenstein  (Siles.)  243:  (Styria)  346; 

Berg-,  (Bohem.)  515.          [104;  242. 
Reinsberger-gliick,  lode  (&?/Freib.)  100, 
Reipas:  s.  Raipas. 
Relistran  (Cornwall)  416. 
Reschi  veil.  (Switz.  ct.  Valais^  342. 
Reschitza  (Banat)  286. 
Reuss,  r.  (to  Rhine)  213. 
Rezbanya  (Ungarn)  286,7,90-3;  493. 
Rheidol,  r.  (Wales)  428. 
Rhenish,  mts.  488;  blende-lodes,  192; 

Devonian,  194  ;jpnw.Preussen,  196:  s. 

Prussia,  Bavaria. 
Rhine,  r.  (Rhein),  dist.  173-99 ;  204 ;  383 ; 

518;  left,  179,85;  right,  192;  1.  &  r. 

bank,  185;  vol.  203,4,12-14:  s.  Brei- 
Rhone,  r.  (France)  369.          [tenbach. 
Ribnik  (Ungarn)  296. 
Ribnitz,  mi.  (n.  Bohem.)  232. 
Ried:  s.  Mais-,  Unter-.  [521,3. 

Riegelsdorf  (Hessen-Cassel)    46;  169; 
RIESEN  GEBIRGE      [Giant  -  Mountains] 

4900  ft.  (n.Bohem.)  217,30,8;  484,5,8 ; 

501,38.  [bano,  Tinto. 

Rio  (Elba)  354,5 ;  la  Marina,  356 :  s.  Al- 
Ripa,  mts.  (Modena)  347;  507: 
Rocca:  s.  San-Sylvestre,  Tederighi. 
Roche  (Cornwall)  417. 
Rochetta  (Modena)  349.    [ober-R.  232. 
Rochlitz     (n.  Bohem.)     230-3, 93 ;  524 ; 
Rohrig  (Hesse)  172;  (Siles.)  235. 
Roraas  (Trondhjem,  dist.)  439,50,96. 
Rosenbeck  (Westfal.)  182. 
Rosteberg  by  Grand  (Hartz)  154. 
Rohnau  (in  Kupferberg)  235. 
Rohn6er#,  mt.  (Zell,  Tyrol)  311. 
Roman,    domination,    275;    name    of 

Gamsigrad,  295. 
Romaneche  (dp.  Sa6ne-et-Loire)  376. 


Romans,  dominion  of,  Spain,  389;  mi- 
Romero  (Chili)  513.  [ning,  399. 

Romillo,  by  Venn,  (Spain)  484. 

Rosa:  s  Monte-R. 

Rosenhofer  grp.  (Clausthal)  154. 

Rossbach  (Rhin.  dist.)  193. 

Rosswald  (Palat.)  200. 

Roth  (Rhin.  dist.)  193. 

Rothberg,  lode  (Erzgeb.)  129. 

Rothen-Bockau,  r.  (Marienb.  dist.)  114. 

Rothen-Kothberg,  by  Zwiesel,  219. 

Roure  (dp.  mar.  Alps)  376. 

Rozzena  (Modena)  349. 

Rudolstadt  (s.  Bohem.)  218,26 ;  grp.  37. 

Riickenbach,  mi.  (KinzigmZ.)49.  [499. 

Ruhr, r.( Westfal.)  93;  dist.  175,6,390; 

Rumpelsbmjr,  mt.  (by  Elgersburg)  139. 

Runcie  (Pyrenees)  386. 

Ruosina  (Italy)  348. 

RUSSIA,  234;  519, 20;  European,  95. 

Russian,  Permian,   538;   empire,  244: 

Ruszkiza  (Banat)  503.          [s.  Poland. 

Saalfeld  (Thur.  for.)  168;  521. 

Saarbrtick  (Palat.)  175;  basin,  200;  402. 

SACHSEN:  s.  Saxony. 

Sachsenfeld  (Erzgeb.)  122. 

Sachsenhausen  (Rhin.  dist.)  190. 

Sai(or  Say)da  (Erzgeb.)  98;  113,4. 

Sain-Bel  (France)  380. 

Saint- :  s.  Agnes,  Anna,  Austel,  Blasien, 
Christoph,  Georges,  Germain,  Ives, 
Julien,Just,Michael,Michaelis,Ulrich. 

Sala  (Sweden)  440,54,6;  518,24. 

Salza,  val.  (by  Lend,  Alps)  311. 

Salzburg,  317;  505;  Alps  39,48;  487,96; 
515,9,22,4,36. 

Samos,  r.  (w.  Transylv.)  270. 

Samson,  lode  (Hartz)  151,2,3. 

Sandrycock,  streamw'k.  (Cornwall)  421. 

Sangerhausen  (Thur.)  166,7,8.  [352,3. 

San-Syl(or  Sil)vestre,  Rocca  (Tuscany) 

Sant-Ander,  390  ;pr.  (Sp.)  340,89 ;  496,7; 

Sant-Elmo  (prov.  Huelva)  398.  [520,40. 

Sant-Iago,  pr.  (Chili)  513. 

Saone  &  Loire,  dp.  (France)  376. 

SattelwaZd,  for.  (Riesengeb.)  241. 

Sauberg,  mt.  (Erzgeb.)  115. 

Sauersack  (Erzgeb.)  119. 

Savodinsk  (Altai  mts.)  494. 


568 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


Saxon,  268, 93;  363:  s.  Erzgebirge. 

Saxon,  metal,  deposits,  72. 

SAXONY  (Sachsen)  28,9,96 ;  260,78 ;  364,5, 

367,8;  southern,   490,1,2;  503,7,39. 
Sayda:  s.  Saida. 
SCANDINAVIA  (Norw.   Swed.   Finl.)  21, 

89,95;  438-63,84;  509. 
Scandinavian  fallbands,    341;    mica- 
schists,  243 ;  plateau,  358. 
Schaffhausen  (on  Rhine)  214.  [val.  IBS. 
Schap(pach,  or)bach,  dist.  (Bl.  for.)  206 ; 
Schareck,  high  (by  Kauris  mt.)  315. 
Scharfenberg  (Erzgeb.)  98 ;  510. 
Scharlei  (up.  Siles.)  250,1. 
Schatten&m?,  mt.  (Kitzbiihel)  526. 
Schatthausen  (Baden)  208. 
Schefc(t)zin,  lode  (Przibram)  224. 
Schellerhau  (Erzgeb.)  111. 
Schemnitz  (Ungarn)  270,1,80,94-9 ;  304; 

487;  514,5, 22,  4,33;  lodes,  305;  val 
Schindler,  mi.  &  so.  ( Bl.  for.)  207,8.  [294. 
Schlack(524,  -agg)enwald  (by  Carlsbad) 

2 18, 21;  422, 83;  522. 
Schladming  (Styria)  341;  521, 4. 
Schlaggen(s.  Schlacken)wald. 
Schlangenberg  (Altai  mts.)  505. 
Schleiz  (Voigtl.)  133. 
Schlellen,  r.  (Marienb.  dist.)  114. 
Schlema,  ober-,  (Erzgeb.)  129. 
SCHLESIEN:  s.  Silesia. 
Schmiedeberg  (Siles.)  239. 
Schmiedefeld,  by  Grafenthal,  111,37,8. 
Schmollnitz  (Ungarn)  n.  162, 3;  303, 4; 

494,5;  520,1,40.  [510,21-5. 

Schneeberg  (Erzgeb. )  9  7 ;  1 12,26-9 ;  488 ; 
Schonborn  (Sachsen)  368. 
Schonfeld  (Bohem.)  221,2. 
Schramberg  (Black  for.)  203. 
Schreckenstein  (Erzgeb.)  483. 
Schiitzenhaus  (Erzgeb.)  122. 
Schwaben,  mi.  (Rhin.  dist.)  179. 
Schwaig  (Carinthia)  311.  [s.  Kosteletz. 
Schwarz,  Zo<fe,(owLandsb.)202:  (black)- : 
Schwarze,  r.  (to  Saal,  Thur.  for.)  137. 
Schwarzenbach  (by  Bleiburg)  330,6. 
Schwarzenberg  (Erzgeb.),  dist.  117,20, 

124, 9;  220, 43, 93;  491,2,3;  517,8. 
Schwarzenfeld  (Bavaria)  220. 
Schwarzleo,  val.  (Leogang)  342. 


Schwatz  (Tyrol)  327,8,40;  488;  505,25. 
Schweina  (Thur.  for.)  46;  169;  521,3. 
SCHWEITZ,  Suisse,  Switzerland,  359,  n. 
SCOTIA:  =  SCOTLAND,  402:  s.  NovA-S. 
Scotrang  (Sodermanland)  440. 
SCOTTISH  plateau,  358. 
Sedan  (Rhin.  dist.  France)  173. 
Seegrunde  (Erzgeb.)  111. 
Seemauer,  mt.  (Styria)  346. 
Seesen  (Thur.)  166.  [522,43. 

Seif  (or  Sei-)fen(Erzgeb.)41, 97,8;  420,83; 
Seko,  val.  (Marmaros,  co.  Ung.)  266. 
Selbitz  (Voigtland)  134.      [495, 9;  505. 
SERVIA  (Serbien)  95 ;  284, 6, 7, 95 ;  493, 
Severin  zinc-mi.  (Bobrek)  249. 
SIBIRIA  (n.Asia)  213. 
Sibirian  steppes,  464;  strata,  537. 
SIEBENBURGEN,  267:  s.  Transylvania. 
Siebenlehn  (Freib.  dist.)  97;  100. 
Siegburg  (Rhin.  dist.)  192;  512. 
Siegen,  179;  5 12;  co.  (Rhin.  dist.)  178. 
Sieghofen  (Rhin.  dist.)  190. 
Sieglitz  (Salzb.  Alps)  311,13. 
Sierra  (ridge,  saw):  s.  Almagrera,  de 

Carthagena,  Morena,  Nevada. 
Silbach,  lodes  (Rhin.  dist.)  190. 
Silberberg  (by  Bodenmais)  219,20. 
Silberberger,  ruschel  (Hartz)  151.  [339. 
Silberlei(ten,  or)than,  mt.  (by  Biberwirr) 
Silbernaaler  grp.  (Clausthal,  Hartz)  155. 
SILESIA  (Schlesien)  234;  391 ;  402,61,86 ; 

500,5,17;  upper,  93;  212,43-54;  380; 

496, 8;  517,  8, 20, 4, 40;  n.  245. 
Simmern,  co.  (Hundsriick)  179.     [505. 
Sinka,  by  Kronstadt  (Transylv.)  267,8; 
Sioule,  r.  &  val.  (dp.  Puy  de  Dome)  376. 
Sjb'-malm  (lake-ores)  in  Sma-  &  "Werm- 
Sjo(Syo-)sa  (Sodermanl.) 440.  [land,  462. 
Skole  (Carpathians)  258,60. 
Skutterud  (Norway)  439,45-7;  500,7,21 
Smaland,  dist.  (Sweden)  440,62. 
Snarum  (Norway)  445;  500, 7. 
Snowdon,  mt.  (Wales)  539. 
Sodermanland,  dist.  (Sweden)  440. 
Sognefjord  (Norway)  450. 
Sohl,  co.  Neu-,  cap.  (Ungarn)  514. 
Sohlcr,  dist.  (Ungarn)  299. 
Soimonovsk  (Ural  mts.)  465,71. 
Solmanofsk  (Ural  mts.)  475. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


569 


Sonnenberg  (Thur.  for.)  137.  [205. 
Sophie,  mi.  Wittich  dist.  (Kinzig  vol.] 
Soulan  (dp.  Gers,  fr.  Pyr.)  387. 
Souleur-ois  (Solothurn)  Jura  (Schweitz) 
South,  s.  America,  Carolina.  [359,  n. 
SPAIN,  95;  294;  340, 89-401, 87, 9, 95, 7; 

507,31;  south,  505,12,22;  west,  484. 
Spaniards,  389.  [496. 

Spanish,  segregations,  399;  province, 
Spessart,  nit.  ridge  (Hesse)  171. 
Spiegelthaler  grp.  (Clausthal)  154,6. 
Spitaler  lode  (Schemnitz)  297,8. 
Spitzenberg  (Palat.)  200. 
Spottsylvania,  co.  (Virginia)  494. 
Stadtberg  (Westfal.)  199. 
Stadtberge  (Hesse)  170. 
Staffelstein  (up.  Francon.)  214. 
Stafford,  co.  (Virginia)  494.        [200,1. 
Stahlberg,  mi.  (Thur.  for.)  503;  (Palat.) 
Stahlberg  (steel)  mt.  (by  Miisen)  178; 
Stammasser,  mines  (Erzgeb.)  122.  [503. 
Starkenbach  (n.Bohem.)  230-3 ;  501,20. 
STATES  496;  of  the  UNION,  n.  America, 
Steben  (Voigtland)  134.  [505. 

Steenstrups  (by  Kongsberg)  445. 
Steier:  s.  Styria. 
Steierdorf  (Banat)  286. 
Stein  (Baden)  208. 

Steinach,  Steinhaida  (Thur.  for.)  137. 
Steinbach  (Black  for.)  208. 
Stenn  (by  Zwickau)  132. 
Steplitzhof  (Ungarn)  296. 
Stockach  (Baden)  208. 
Stockhausen  (on  Lahn)  177. 
Stollberg  (Hartz)  146. 
Stor,  mi.  (Falun)  452,3. 
Storgrufva,  vein  (Sala,  Swed.)  455. 
Striegis,  r.  (Freib.  dist.}  103. 
Stubegg  by  Arzberg,  Bair.  (e.Alps)  488. 
Styria  (Steiermark)  310, 41, 5;  521. 
Sua(530,  Swa-  531)bia,  217;  361. 
Suabian,  Alps,  84;  Jura,  214. 
SUDETEN,  mts.  (Bohem.)  230. 
Suhl  (Thur.  for.)  140,69. 
Sulitelma  (Sweden)  439. 
Sulzbach,  baths  (Black  for.)  208; 

unter-,  (Salzb.  dirt.)  311. 
Sulzburg  (Black  for.)  207 ;  488. 
Superior,  lake  (n. America)  48;  502,6,24. 


Swabian,  Alp,  518;  plateau  (Bl.  for)  203. 
SWEDEN,  84,5 ;  294 ;  438, 9, 52, 62 ;  605, 6, 

507,17,8,22;  south,  438, 
Swedish  magnetite,  518. 
Swiss  Alps,  528;  Jura  84;  358, 9. 
Switzerland,  310,1,83;  536:  s.  Schweitz. 
Szaszka  (Banat)  286,90,1,2. 
Szathmar,  dist.  (Ungarn)  304. 
Szclana  (Ungarn)  507. 
Taberg  (Smaland,  dist.)  440. 
Tabeyet  (Wermland)  456. 
Tagilsk,  nijny-,  (Ural  mts.)  465,72. 
Tal-y-Bont  (Wales)  428. 
Tamburra,  mt.  (Alps,  Italy)  348. 
Tamins  (cant.  Orisons)  319. 
Tana,  vol.  (Ligur.  Alps)  311. 
Tanalyk,  r.  (to  Ural,  r.)  471. 
Tanalysk  (Ural  mts.)  471. 
Tanne  (Hartz)  149. 
Tarn,  r.  (to  Garonne,  France)  370. 
Tarnowitz  (up.  Siles.)  248 ;  340 ;  498 ;  540- 
Tarvis  (Carinthia)  337.  [Raurieser,  39. 
Tauern,  mt.  chain,  (Steiermark)  313,8: 
Taunus,  mts.  (Rhin.  dist.)  173. 
Tawton,  north,  (Devon.)  422. 
Tederighi,  rocca,  (Tuscany)  350,1. 
Tellemark,  dirt.  (Norw.)  439. 
Tellnitz  (Erzgeb.)  114. 
Telmo,  San-:  s.  Sant-Elmo. 
Temperino  (Tuscany)  352. 
Tenniscal  (California)  485,  n. 
Terra-nera  (Elba)  354. 
Teschen,  dist.  (Oestreich)  93;  257-60. 
Teufelsgrund  (Kinzig  vol.)  49;  208;  w.207 . 
Teufelsstein,  mt.  (Erzgeb.)  122. 
Tharsis  (Andalusia)  398. 
Theis,  basin,  (Ungarn)  294. 
Theresia  lode  (Schemnitz)  297,8. 
Thierlstein  (Bavaria)  219. 
Thionville  (France)  360 ;  518. 
Thorbjorns,  mi.  (by  Arendal)  448. 
THURINGIA  (Thuringen)  21,91;  130,64, 

170 ;  367 ;  468 ;  501, 5, 6, 17, 20, 5,  38, 9. 
Thuringian  forest  136-45,8,67,8,72 ;  274 ; 

367;  491;  505,17,28 ;  s.e.  136 ;  n.w.  138 ; 

s.w.503 ;  basin,  168 ;  muschelkalk,  366. 
Tiddys  cross-course  (Cornwall)  417. 
Tihu,  val.  (n.  Transylv.)  521. 
Tilkerode  (e.  Hartz)  147;  524. 


570 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


Timacum  minus,  295,  =  Gamsigrad. 
Tinto,  r.  (prov.  Huelva)  163;  294;  304, 

398, 9;  493, 5;  520, 40. 
Tobol,r.  (Uralmts.)  basin,  471 ;  dist.  519. 
Todtenau  ( Black  for.)  203,8. 
Tok  (co.  Arad,  Ungarn)  515. 
Tornea,  dist.  (Sweden)  439. 
Towan,  Cornwall:  s.  Pen-  &  Porth-T. 
TRANSYLVANIA    (Sicbenburgen)   63,95; 

267-83, 8,93,4;  493,6;  503, 5, 7, 18, 33; 

north,  304;  521;  s.  w.  480. 
Trautenau  (n.  Bohem.)  232. 
Trerddol,  mi.  (Wales)  428. 
Tres-Puntas,  mi.  (Chili)  513,4. 
Trewiddenball  (Cornwall)  407. 
Trondhjem,  dist.  (Norw.)  439. 
Trojoka  (or  -jaga),  mts.  2000  ft.  (Mar- 
Truro  (Cornwall)  407.    [maros,co.)266. 
Tse-:  s.  Cse-tatye. 
Tuna  (Dalecarlia)  93. 
Tunaberg  (Sweden)  84,93;  29  4;  440,60, 

461;  507, 18;  -ska,  mi.  461. 
Turc(t)z  (Ungarn)  487. 
Turinsk  (Ural  mts.)  472;  nijny-,466, 72. 
Turtmann  (Tourtemagne),  r.  (to  Rhone) 

vol.  (Swiss,  ct.  Valais)  342. 
TUSCANY  (Toscana)  347,50-3;  530. 
Twardovice  (Poland)  248. 
Twiste,  by  Arolsen  (Tyrol)  502,20,38. 
Tyn-y-fron,  level  (Estymteon  lode)  429. 
TYROL,  311,17,27,8;  496;  502,5,25,36. 
Tyrolese  Alps  536. 
Uentrop  (Westfal.)  194. 
Ulrich,  Saint-,  (Black  for.)  208. 
UNGARN,  =  Hungary. 
UNION,  UNITED  STATES  (n.  America)  505. 
Unter-berger,  s.  Fallband. 
Unter-ried,  or  -rieden  (Bavaria)  219, 
Unter-:  s.  Sulzbach,  Wirrbach. 
Unverhofft-Gliick  (Erzgeb.)  122,3. 
Upland,  dist.  (Sweden)  440.     [509,15. 
Ural,  r.  471;  mts.  234,66;  463-78;  505, 
URALS,  214,44,93;  464,84,93;  505,15,8,24, 
Urbeis  (Vosges)  489.  [535,7;  s.465;  w.501. 
UTAH,  state,  U.  S.  505. 
Utoe,  isl.  (Sodermanland)  440;  518. 
Uveldi,  lake  (Urals)  471. 
Val:  s.  Anniviers,  di  Castello. 
Vallalta,  by  Agordo  (Tyrol)  507. 


Vaso,  mte,  (Tuscany)  350,1. 

Vaury  (dp.  Creuse)  383;  484. 

Vedelsja  (Norway)  441. 

Vena  (Werml.  dist.  Sweden)  440. 

Verin  (Spain)  484. 

Vermaga  (Transylv.)  283. 

VKRMONT,  state,   U.  S.  494;  504. 

Vernede  (dist.  Pont-Gibaudj  375. 

Versitia,  vol.  (Italy)  848. 

Vesuvius,  mt.  (s.  Italy)  357. 

Veta  blanca,  mi.  (Culera,  e.  Pyr.)  388. 

Veta  d'Estanno  (Potosi)  543. 

Vicdesos  (Pyrenees)  386. 

Vielle  (dp.  Gers,  fr.  Pyr.)  387. 

Vienna,287;  (=Carpath.)  sandstone  259; 

-nese  lias,  330;  tegel,  260;  geologs, 

271 ;  308, 35,  43 ;  Reichsanstalt ,  277; 
Vienne,  h.  (dp.  France)  484.  [305 ;  514. 
Vignes:  s.  Puy  des  V,  [mth.  383. 

Vilaine,  r.  (dp.  Morbihan,  to  Atl.  oc.)  382; 
Vildar,  vol.  (Tyrol)  321.          [veil.)  ib. 
Villach  (Carinthia)  311;   ober-,  (Moll 
Ville:  s.  Houdlemont. 
Villeder  (dp.  Morbihaii)  381,2;  484. 
Villefranche  (dp.  Tarn)  371;  489. 
VIRGINIA,  state,  U.  S.  494;  504. 
Viso,  r.  265;  vol.  265,6;  (Marmaros)265. 
Vivisa  (by  Nagybanya)  306. 
Vorospatak,  ml.  (Transylv.)  63;  266,71, 

276,7,80,96;  505,15,24,35,7 ;  r.  (toAra- 
Voigtland (Sachsen)  130,2,78.  [nios)  276. 
Voigtsberg,  gross-  (Erzgeb.)  100. 
Voigtsdorf  (by  Warmbrunn)  238 ;  484. 
Vordernberg  (Styria)  345. 
VOSGES,  the,  mts.  (France)  357,63;  489, 
Walchern  (Styria)  310.  [491 ;  505,17,44. 
Waldeck  (Rhin.  dist.)  173.  [coalbed,  230. 
Waldenburg  (Riesengeb.)  241;  -Glatz, 
Waldgrehweiler  (Palat.)  201. 
WALES,  427,70,87;  505,39 ;  n.  430;  s. 

s.  Cardigan;  w.  427.  [275. 

WALLACHIA,  Vlachei,  268 :  -an  women, 
Walpot,  mi.  (Agger  vol..  Rhin.)  192. 
Warmbrunn  (Siles.)  238. 
Wasser-Alfingen  (Wiirtemb.)  216. 
Weiding  (Bavaria)  220. 
Weinach,  lodes  (Rhin.  dist.)  190. 
Weinsheim  (Palat.)  200. 
Weipert  (Erzgeb.)  488. 


INDEX  OF  PLACES. 


571 


Weissbriach  (Carinthia)  311. 
Weissenstadt  (Fichtelgeb.)  131 
Weitisberga  (Thur.  for.)  137. 
Welkenradt  (by  K\*-la-Chapelle)  186. 
Welniich  (on  Rhine)  187. 
Welseuberg  (Bavaria)  221. 
Welsh:  s.  Potosi. 
Weulock  (England)  433. 
Wenzel,  mi.  (Black  for.)  205. 
Werch-Yssetzk  (e.  Ural  mts.)  472. 
Werlau  (on  Rhine)  187,90. 
Wermland,  dist.  (Sweden)  410,56,7,62. 
Wernsdorf,  strata  (Carpath.)  260. 
West,  the,  (of  Europe)  89. 
Wester-Forest  (Rhin.  dist.)  174. 
Westermanland  (Swed.)  461. 
Westmanlaud  (Sweden)  439,40. 
Westphalia  (Westfalen)  175,82;  340; 

402,61,96,9;  505,7,17. 
Westrich  (Westfal.)  182. 
Wetterau  (Hesse)  171;  511. 
Wettern  (by  Schladming)  341. 
Wetterstein  dist.  (Bair.  n.Alps)  498. 
Wetzlar  (Rhin.  dist.)  176. 
Wexford  (Ireland)  423, 4;  534, 9. 
Weyer,  Hessisch-,  (Rhin.  dist,)  190. 
Wheal-Golden,  mi.  (Cornwall)  417. 
Wicklow,  co.  (Ireland)  402,36,8,89. 
Widersinnige ,   lode  (s.  Bohem.)  226,7. 
Wiesenthal,  vol.  (Black  for.)  208. 

ober-,  (Erzgeb.)  517.      [498;  520, 40. 
Wiesloch  (Baden)  204,11;  340,91;  436,96, 
Wilde,  mt.  (Marienb.  dist.)  114. 
Wildemann  (Hartz)  156. 
Wildenau  (Erzgeb.)  122;  (Hartz)  146. 


Wildewiese,  mts.  (Rhin.  dist.)  179. 
Windisch-Bleiberg  (Carinthia)  339;  498. 
Wintrop  (Westfal.)  194. 
Wir:  s.  Wiirtemberg. 
Wirrbach,  unter-,  by  Blankenburg,137. 
WISCONSIN,  state,  U.  S.  496, 9;  520. 
Wissenbach  (Rammelsberg)  158,9,62. 
Wittenberg  er  grp.  (Clausthal)  154. 
Wittich,  dist.  (Bl.  for.)  205;48S;524. 
Wohnhiittenstein  (Erzgeb.)  122.    [488. 
Wolf-ach,  or  bach,  dist.  (Black  for.)  205; 
Wolfsberg,w£. (Hartz)  147,9;  (Palat.)200. 
Wolfshagen-er  grp.  (Clausthal)  154. 
Wolfstein  (Palat.)  200. 
Wolkenstein  (Erzgeb.)  97. 
Wunsiedel  (Fichtelgeb.)  134;  5()3. 
WUR(=WIR)TEMBEKG,  214,6;  358;  518. 
Yssetzsk:  s.  Werch-Y. 
Ystrad-Meyric  (Wales)  428, 
Yugovsky,  or  Jugowskij  (Ural  mts.)  468. 
Zalathna  (Transylv.)  494. 
Zangelka  (to  Ural)  r.  471. 
Zapalar  (Chili)  513,4. 
ZEALAND,  new,  isles  (s.  Pacific)  505. 
Zechstein  ,n  Thur.  for.)  136,45,64,5,6,8; 
Zell,  co.  (Hundsruck)  179.  [229. 

Zell  (Tyrol)  311,17.  [154,6. 

Zellerfeld  (Hartz)  149,54,6;    -er  grp. 
Zenberg,  mi.  (Dobschau)  302. 
Zinnwald  (Erzgeb.)  29,9 7;  105-9, 10;  383; 
Zorge  (Hartz.)  148;  524.     [482;  522, 43. 
Zschopau,  r.  (Marienb.  dist.)  114. 
Zuckmantel  (Silesia)  242. 
Zwickau  (Sachsen)  132;  539. 
Zwiesel  (Bavaria)  219,20. 


INDEX 

OF 

SOME  TECHNICAL  or  UNUSUAL  WORDS, 
EXPRESSIONS    &    DEFINITIONS. 


A. 

acidic,  igneous-rocks,  517. 
adelsvorschub,  328. 
air  -saddles,  19. 
alpine  limestones,  309. 
anogene,  38;  288,93;  542, 
anticlinal,  20.  [550. 

ascension-theory,  71. 
asche,  166. 

B. 

fcacfcs,  165,7,8,71. 
badger  -holes,  Ems,  270. 
banatite,  286,7  ;  -te,8,9. 
banks,  188,9. 
basic,  igneous-rocks,  517. 
feed,  240;  -s,  93;  110,60,2; 

400  ;  wMe,  c£  #rai/,  166. 

-masses,  81  ;  shales,  343. 
beresite,  472. 
bivalves,  dachstein,  331. 
black-band,  175. 
bohn-erz  (pea-ore],  210. 
bonanzas,  36. 
bunch(5l)es,  ore-,  50,89. 
buntsandstein  ,      169,74; 


C. 

413.  [Jww,  6. 

capping-rock,  168;  s£ra- 
catogene,  81,91  ;  147;  288, 
changes,  170.  [293;  542,50. 
c/*er£,  112.  [75,84. 

chimneys,  36;  297;  328,^2, 

278. 


;  102 ;  279. 
colonne,   fr.  ==  chimney, 
colorados,  38,9.         [525. 
columnar  structure,  67. 
contact- deposits,  132. 
contemporaneous  forma- 
tion, 71.  [524. 
country,  26,45,59;  -rocfc, 
cracks,  110,15.  [26. 
cross-courses,  417 ;  -veins, 

D. 

dachstein  limestone,  323, 

330,1. 

descension-theory,  11. 
dikes,  49;  118;  of  wacke, 
dip,  19, 2G.  [115,9. 

direction,  19, 29, 60. 
dm,  274. 

dreier- fissures,  333, 6. 
drusy,   1 00. 

E. 

electrodes,  58. 
ellipso-ids;  -idol,  261. 
efoows,  47;  403, 5,  6,  7. 
emanations,  motrices,  et 
erlan,  122.  [fixatrices,l±. 
eulisite,  460. 

P. 

fallbands,  46,89,93;  233; 

438,43;  523. 

/VwZte,  19,29,65  ;  '223;  301. 
feeders,  420. 
fieldstone,  321. 


sauvages,  329. 

,  36.  [form  of,  54. 
fissures,  34;  formation,  64; 
flat-veins,  431,6. 

,  19,84;   (=  stocfc- 

rfc)  398;  406. 
,  26;  11 7, 6;  407. 

,  184,9. 
footwall,  19.  [334. 

friction-surfaces,  33,66; 
fucoids,  258,60. 

a. 

gabbro,  98. 

gaillonellcB,  256.          [33. 
#aw#,  2,36,86;  282;  -,sr^, 
garnet-rock,  288,9.  [319. 
gash-veins ,     27, 36;  273  ; 
geodes,  43;  208;  308. 
glas-erz,  315,6. 
alauch,  281. 
gneiss,  red,  gray,  52. 
gossan,  38,9,41;  101, 12; 

223;  398;  413, 91. 
gray-bed,  166. 
graywacke,  146. 
groups,  59, 65 ;  103. 

H. 

halle-flinta,  457. 
hanging-wall,  19,61. 
hauben-guartz,  110. 
heave,W.  [208,83;  351;  412. 
109,17,30,9,48; 


574 


INDEX  OF  TECHNICAL  WORDS. 


hydro  -plutonic ,    forma- 
tions, 551. 
hypogene,  288,  n. 

I. 

impregnations,  87, 93. 
infiltration,  7 1 , 3 ;  1 1 3 . 
infusia,  256. 
injection-theory,  71,5. 
iron-hat,  38,9. 

J. 

junctions,  29. 
Jwra,  brown,  93. 

K. 

,  121;  rotfie,  129. 

,  47/402-4,8. 
,  274. 
klippenkalkstein,  257,9. 

&m'es£,    160. 

L. 

lateral-secretion,  71,2. 
Zeader,  26,89;  127,57;  321. 
Zea/"j  leaves,  135. 
lime-chimneys,  166. 
lixiviation,  125.  [99;  266. 
Zode,  26,36,76,80;  -es,93, 
-fissures,  65,90. 

M. 
magnetite,  kernel  &  shell, 

448. 

malm,  Swed.  ore,  454,62. 
mantos,  513,4. 
melirt,  ores,  160,1,3. 
metalliferous  deposit,  2. 
molasse,  309. 
molinera,  394. 

N. 

negrillos,  39. 
neste,  36,99;  132.[260;  309. 
nummul-ites,  210;   -ifa'c, 

O. 

ore,  ores,  1—3. 
-bands,  446. 
-bed,  171;  feeds,  17,22. 


-carrier,  51,  3;  472. 
-chimneys ,  318, 33, 5, 97  ; 
-deposits,  517.  [525. 

-district,  67;  -cte,  92. 
-  or  Zo$e-  formations,  481. 
outcrop,  19,26,38** 

P. 

^acos,  38,9. 
paragenesis,  422. 
pea-ore  (bohn-erz),  508. 
pipe-veins,  431,6.     [210. 
pisolith,  208;    -i£ft»c  ore, 
placers,  23;  1 18;  407,71,3; 

505, 7. 
pockets,  11 1,24,32,86;  206. 

B. 

rake-veins,  431,5,97.  [81. 
recumbent  segregations, 
reinerz,  210. 

ribbons,  124;297;-ow-ore, 
ring-ores,  12;  297.    [156. 
rock-bands,  446. 
roo/",  19. 

rothliegendes,  22^. 
ruscheln,  150-3. 

S. 

saddle,  98:  s.  air-,9. 
sand-ore,  167,9. 
schalstein,      176,7,92,3; 
schlechten,  150  [-ems,  194. 
schwarzen-geb.  100. 
schwebende,  126. 
segregations,  81,93. 
selvages,  13,26. 
shorts,  27. 
silver-slates,  343. 
skolars,  325;  453, 4. 
s/m'ws,  431,2. 
slicken-sides,  33 ;  326, 34; 
-slides,  140,64. 
,  30;  sZ^es,  407. 

ein,  121. 
springbands,  443. 


steingang,  209 
steinscheiden,  160. 
stockwerk ,  1 78 ;  349 ,    (= 
/Zoor)398;406;-fce,488. 
streamivorks,  407,20,2,7, 
sin'fce,  19,26.  [85. 

sublimation,' 'l  1, 4. 
surface-deposits,  23 
symmetry,  11. 
synclinal,  20. 

T. 

taube-ruschel,  155. 
threads,  111. 
timaz-ite   (Timac-ww,    *', 
295)265,71,80, 1,8  ;-#ic, 
tin-placers,  427.        [277. 
toadstone,  47;  43 1. 
*rop,  432,5;  -dto,  406. 
trawns,  417. 
triimerstock,  29. 

V. 

vem-s,  26,7,31,69;  (rake-, 
pipe-,  &flat-}  431, 5,97. 

-clay-slate,  157 ;  -fissures, 
69;  -masses,  81. 

vertical  segregations,  82. 

W. 

wacke-s,  96;  114. 

,  19;  -roefc,  26;  127, 

189;  (hanging  -<& foot-) 

61,88,91;  135. 
washings,  23. 
weissliegendes,  229, 
M?e£  way,  124. 
whin-sill,  4:i5. 
white-bed,  166. 

Z. 

zechstein,  136,7, 42,C>6,70, 

199;  503, 7, 25. 
zinkivand,  341. 
zinopel,  298. 

,  106, 7;  426. 


E  11  R  A  T  A 


The  following  occur  repeatedly  : 

.For  encrease 

read  increase. 

"    gnng 

"    gangue. 

"  gaugstones 

"    veinstones. 

"  amiantos 

'  '    amianthus. 

"  niveau 

"    horizon. 

"  cinnobar 

'  '    cinnabar. 

Page.        Line. 

4,            25. 

For  Abn 

5,            35. 

"    Lb 

7,            30. 

"    Sercarmontite 

8,            22. 

"    CO 

9,            32. 

"    Co  O 

10,            16. 

'  '    dimonite 

27,              7. 

"    shorts 

38,              9. 

"    separated 

39,            26. 

'  '    apparently 

40,              6. 

•  '    hardly 

46,            27. 

*  '    hardly 

51,            10. 

"    contribute 

73,            37. 

"    seeing 

76,              2. 

Insert  the 

79,            38. 

For  some 

102,            21. 

"    singuite 

24. 

"    chloranthite 

120,            31. 

Insert  schist 

132,            30. 

For  of 

139,            14. 

"    have 

148,            29. 

»    is 

151,              5. 

"  Cath  rina 

153,            32. 

"    striking-out 

164,              6. 

"    schicken 

180,            16. 

"   seem 

189,              4. 

"    an  up  and  down 

196,              6. 

"    that 

201,            16. 

Insert  shale 

244,              3. 

For  Jura 

245,            18. 

"    Jura 

252,            22. 

"    Krakau 

256,            18. 

«'    Infusia 

22. 

"    af 

read  Mn. 

"   Sb. 

"  Senarmontite. 

"  C02 

"  CaO. 

"  limonite. 

"  shoots. 

"  distinguished. 

"  apparent. 

' '  scarcely. 

"  scarcely. 

"  contributes. 

"  since. 
after  that. 
read  same. 

"  pinguite. 

"  chloanthite. 
after  mica. 
read  or. 

"  contain. 

"  are. 

"  Catharina. 

"    outcrop. 

"  slicken. 


"  a  vertical. 

"  the. 

after  argillaceous. 
read  Jurassic. 

"  Jurassic. 

"  Cracow. 

"  Infusoria. 

<{  of. 


11 


EEEATA. 


Page. 

Line. 

265, 

8. 

For  whence 

read  which. 

266, 

15. 

After  but 

insert  rarely. 

270, 

1. 

"    grammes 

"  of  silver,  and" 

"    kilogrammes               ^ 

"  of  lead. 

39. 

For  breaking  out 

read  eruption. 

280, 

6. 

"    entirely 

"  very. 

281, 

10. 

"    Mountains 

"   Mountain. 

288, 

1. 

"    similar' 

"   different. 

295, 

24. 

"    melophyre 

"  melaphyre. 

301, 

5. 

"    lode 

"  granite. 

302, 

4. 

"    dialoge 

"  dialage. 

5. 

Insert  are 

after  pyrites. 

310, 

21. 

"    than 

"  Bavaria. 

315, 

40. 

For  under 

read  at. 

318, 

bottom  of  pag( 

a  "    Belemites 

"  Belemnites. 

319, 

35. 

Insert  is 

after  stone. 

324, 

Pyrites  Stock  in  wood-cut,  should  read  Pyrites  Segregation. 

330, 

Table,  for  A.  globrus  read  A. 

glabrus,  and  for  Meyophoria 

read  Myophoria. 

343, 

24. 

Insert  the 

before  strata. 

345, 

9. 

For  are  belonging 

read  belong. 

364, 

14. 

"    garni  te 

"   granite. 

27. 

"    —  formation 

"  —  formations. 

370, 

12. 

'  '    spar 

"  spur. 

382, 

22. 

Insert  is 

after  breadth. 

397, 

27. 

11     schists 

"  metamorphic. 

398, 

23. 

For  from 

read  by. 

401, 

1. 

"    as 

"  so. 

403, 

27. 

"    is 

"  are. 

405, 

1. 

"    of 

"  somewhat. 

434, 

12. 

"    this 

"  his. 

16. 

"    in 

"   on. 

458, 

39. 

"    sequioxide 

'«  sesquioxide. 

470, 

12. 

"    rock 

"  rocks. 

471, 

4. 

Insert  on 

after  principally. 

472, 

11. 

For  Wereh-Yssetsk 

read  Werch-. 

483, 

29. 

"    Schreckenstein 

"  Schneckenstein. 

484, 

32. 

"    Eomilio 

1  '  Komillo. 

498, 

"    Oskusz 

"  Olkusz. 

499, 

"    Maidenpek 

"  Maidanpek. 

503, 

22. 

'  '    Muschen 

"   Miisen. 

518, 

8. 

"    Sula 

"   Sala. 

523, 

27. 

"    Geldkronach 

"  Goldkronach. 

533, 

30. 

"    joins  on 

'•   occurs. 

536, 

27. 

"    Westphalia 

"  the  Western  Alps.. 

537, 

35. 

"    highly  venturesome 

"  very  rash. 

538, 

19. 

"    Tweste 

"  Twiste. 

539, 

41. 

"    Pietschgau 

"  Pinzgau. 

CATALOGUE 


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41  It  is  universally  agreed  that  no  art  or  science  is  more  difficult  than  that  of  war  ;  yet  by  an 
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•*  I  hare  read  the  book  with  great  interest,  and  trast  that  it  wfll  have  a  large  circulation.  I* 
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can  read  this  work  without  positive  advantage  and  real  progress  as  a  soldier.  General  CuBum  ia 
wen  known  as  one  of  the  most  proficient  ilmli  nil  of  military  science  and  art  in  oar  service,  and 
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Translated  from  the  French  of  General  G.  H.  DUFOUR.  By 
WILLIAM  P.  CRAIGHILL,  Captain  of  Engineers  U.  S.  Army,  and 
Assistant  Professor  of  Engineering,  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  West 
Point  From  the  last  French  edition.  Illustrated.  In  i  vol., 
1 2 mo,  cloth.  $3. 


Dufoor  is  a  distinguished  civil  and  military  engineer  and  a  practical  soldier,  and  la 
Europe  one  of  the  recognized  authorities  on  military  matters.  He  holds  the  office  of  Chief  cl 
the  General  Staff  of  the  Army  of  Switzerland."— j?r«nifl?  Post. 

•*  This  work  »pc»  OM  principles  of  strategy,  the  application  of  which  we  have  sorely  ».-ood  U 
•eedof  in  all  our  campaign*,  come*  from  an  acknowledged  authority.  It  was  General  Dufoul 
who  successfully  arrayed  the  Federal  Army  of  Switzerland  a^aiiwt  ffTPiwon.  and  '»DbUu«d' 
tfce  rebellion*  Canto»i."—JBarf0n  Journal. 


Military  Books.  5 

ARMY  OFFICERS'  POCKET  COMPANION.  Principally  de- 
signed for  Staff  Officers  in  the  Field.  Partly  translated  from  the 
French  of  M.  DE  ROUVRE,  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  the  French  Staff 
Corps,  with  Additions  from  standard  American,  French,  and  English 
authorities.  By  WM.  P.  CRAIGHILL,  First-Lieutenant  U.  S.  Corps 
of  Engineers,  Assistant  Professor  of  Engineering  at  the  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy,  West  Point.  I  vol.,  i8mo,  full  roan.  $2. 

•  I  have  carefully  examined  Captain  Craighill's  Pocket  Companion.  I  find  it  one  of  the  very 
best  works  of  the  kind  I  have  ever  seen.  Any  army  or  volunteer  officer  who  will  make  himself 
acquainted  with  the  contents  of  this  little  book  will  seldom  be  ignorant  of  his  duties  in  camp  or 
field.  "  H.  W.  HALLECK,  Major-General  U.  S.  A." 

"  I  have  carefully  examined  the  'Manual  for  Staff  Officers  in  the  Field.'  It  is  a  most  invalua- 
ble work,  admirable  in  arrangement,  perspicuously  written,  abounding  in  most  %seful  matters, 
and  such  a  book  as  should  be  the  constant  pocket-companion  of  every  army  officer,  Regular  and 
Volunteer.  "  G.  W.  CULLUM,  Brigadier-General  U.  S.  A., 

"Chief  of  General  Halleck's  Staff,  Chief  Engineer  Department  Mississippi." 


M 


AXIMS  AND  INSTRUCTIONS  ON  THE  ART  OF  WAR. 
A  Practical  Military  Guide  for  the  use  of  Soldiers  of  all  Arms 
and  of  all  Countries.  Translated  from  the  French  by  Captain- LENDY, 
Director  of  the  Practical  Military  College,  late  of  the  French  Staff, 
etc.,  etc.  i  vol.,  i8mo,  cloth.  75  cents. 


H 


ISTORY  OF  WEST  POINT,  and  its  Military  Importance  during 
the  American  Revolution ;  and  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy.  By  Captain  EDWARD  C.  BOYNTON, 
A.  M.,  Adjutant  of  the  Military  Academy.  With  numerous  Maps 
and  Engravings.  I  vol.,  octavo.  Blue  cloth,  $6.00;  half  mor., 
$7.50  ;  full  mor.,  $10. 

"  Aside  from  its  value  as  an  historical  record,  the  volume  under  notice  is  an  entertaining 
guide-book  to  the  Military  Academy  and  its  surroundings.  We  have  full  details  of  Cadet  life 
from  th«  day  of  entrance  to  that  of  graduation,  together  with  descriptions  of  the  buildings, 
grounds,  and  monuments.  To  the  multitude  of  those  who  have  enjoyed  at  West  Point  the  com- 
bined attractions,  this  book  will  give,  in  its  descriptive  and  illustrated  portion,  especial  pleas- 
ure."—New  York  Evening  Post. 

"  The  second  part  of  the  book  gives  the  history  of  the  Military  Academy  from  its  foundation 
in  1S02,  a  description  of  the  academic  buildings,  and  the  appearance  to-day  of  this  always  beau- 
tiful spot,  with  the  manner  of  appointment  of  the  cadets,  course  of  study,  pay,  time  of  sen-ice, 
and  much  other  information  yearly  becoming  of  greater  value,  for  West  Point  has  not  yet 
reached  its  palmiest  days."— Daily  Advertiser. 

WEST  POINT  LIFE.     A  poem  read  before  the  Dialectic  Society 
of  the    United    States   Military    Academy.       Illustrated    with 
twenty-two  full-page  Pen  and  Ink  Sketches.       By  a  CADET.     To 
which  is  added,  the  song,  "  Benny  Havens,  Oh  1"      Oblong  Svo., 
cloth,  bevelled  boards,  $2.50. 

GUIDE  TO  WEST  POINT  AND  THE  U.  S.  MILITARY  ACAD- 
EMY.    With  Maps  and  Engravings.     iSmo.,  cloth,  $i. 


6  D.  Van  NostrancVs  Publications. 

BENTON'S  ORDNANCE  AND  GUNNERY.  A  Course  of  In- 
struction  in  Ordnance  and  Gunnery  ;  compiled  for  the  use  of 
the  Cadets  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy,  by  Col.  J.  G. 
BENTON,  Major  Ordnance  Department,  late  Instructor  of  Ordnance 
and  Gunnery,  Military  Academy,  West  Point.  Third  Edition,  re- 
vised and  enlarged.  I  vol.,  8vo,  cloth,  cuts,  $5. 

"A  GREAT  MILITARY  WORK.— We  have  before  us  a  bound  volume  of  nea»ly  six  hundred 
pu«es,  which  is  a  complete  and  exhaustive  '  Course  of  Instruction  in  Ordnance  and  Gunnery,' 
us  its  title  states,  and  goes  into  every  department  of  the  science,  including  gunpowder,  pro- 
jectiles, cannon,  carriages,  machines,  and  implements,  small-arms,  pyrotechny,  science  of  gun- 
nery, leading,  pointing,  and  discharging  firearms,  different  kinds  of  fires,  effects  of  projectiles 
and  employment  of  artillery.  These  severally  form  chapter  heads,  and  give  thorough  informa- 
tion on  the  subjects  on  which,  they  treat.  The  most  valuable  and  interesting  information 
on  all  the  abo^ve  topics,  including  the  history,  manufacture,  and  use  of  small-arms,  is  here  con- 
centrated in  compact  and  convenient  form,  making  a  work  of  rare  merit  and  standard  excel- 
lence. The  work  is  abundantly  and  clearly  illustrated." — Boston  Traveller. 

ELECTRO-BALLISTIC   MACHINES,  AND  THE  SCHULTZ  CHRONO- 
SCOPE.     By  Lt.-Col.  S.  V.  BENET.      i  vol.,  4to,  illustrated,  cloth, 

$3- 

A  TREATISE  ON  ORDNANCE  AND  ARMOR.  Embracing  De- 
scriptions, Discussions,  and  Professional  Opinions  concerning  the 
Material,  Fabrication,  Requirements,  Capabilities,  and  Endurance 
of  European  and  American  Guns  for  Naval,  Sea-Coast,  and  Iron- 
Clad  Warfare,  and  their  Rifling,  Projectiles,  and  Breech-Loading  ; 
also,  Results  of  Experiments  against  Armor,  from  Official  Records. 
With  an  Appendix,  referring  to  Gun-Cotton,  Hooped  Guns,  etc., 
etc.  By  ALEXANDER  L.  HOLLEY,  B.  P.  With  493  Illustrations. 
i  vol.  8vo,  948  pages.  Half  roan,  $10.  Half  Russia,  $12. 

"  The  special  feature  of  this  comprehensive  volume  is  its  ample  record  of  facts  relating  to  the 
subjects  of  which  it  treats,  that  have  not  before  been  distinctly  presented  to  the  attention  of  the 
public.  It  contains  a  more  complete  account  than,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  can  be  found  else- 
where, of  the  construction  and  effects  of  modern  standard  ordnance,  including  the  improve- 
ments of  Armstrong,  Whitworth,  Blakeley,  Parrott,  Brooks,  Rodman,  and  Dahlgren;  the  wrought- 
iron  and  steel  guns ;  and  the  latest  system  of  rifling  projectiles  and  breech-loading. 

THE    ARTILLERIST'S     MANUAL.       Compiled     from     various 
Sources,  and  adapted  to  the  Service  of  the  United  States.     Pro- 
fusely illustrated  with  woodcuts  and  engravings  on  stone.     Second 
edition,   revised  and  corrected,   with  valuable  additions.     By  Gen. 
JOHN  GIBBON,  U.  S.  Army,      i  vol.,  8vo,  half  roan,  $6. 
Tliis  book  is  now  considered  the  standard  authority  for  that  particular  branch 
of  the  Service  in  the  United  States  Army.     The  War  Department,  at  Wash- 
ington, has  exhibited  its  thorough  appreciation  of  the  merits  of  this  volume,  the 
want  of  which  has  been  hitherto  much  felt  in  the  service,  by  subscribing  for 

700  copies. 

"It  is  with  great  pleasure  that  .we  welcome  the  appearance  of  a  new  work  on  this  subject, 
entitled  '  The  Artillerist's  Manual,1  by  Capt.  John  Gibbon,  a  highly  scientific  and  meritorious 
officer  of  artillery  in  our  regular  service.  The  work,  an  octavo  volume  of  500  pages,  in  large, 
clear  type,  appears  to  be  well  adapted  to  supply  just  what  has  been  heretofore  needed  to  fill  the 
gap  between  the  simple  manual  and  the  more  abstruse  demonstrations  of  the  science  of  gunnery. 
The  whole  work  is  profusely  illustrated  with  woodcuts  and  engravings  on  stone,  tending  to  give 
a  more  complete  and  exact  idea  of  the  various  matters  described  in  the  text.  The  book  may 
well  be  considered  as  a  valuable  and  important  addition  to  the  military  science  of  the  country."— 
New  York  Herald. 


H 


Military  Hooks.  7 

AND-BOOK  OF  ARTILLERY.     For  the  Service  of  the  United 

States  Army  and  Militia.  Ninth  edition,  revised  and  greatly  en- 
larged. By  Col.  JOSEPH  ROBERTS,  U.  S.  A.  i  vol.,  iSmo,  cloth, 
$1.25. 


The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  report  made  by  the  committee  appointed 
at  a  meeting  of  the  staff  of  the  Artillery  School  at  Fort  Monroe,  Va.,  to  whom 
the  commanding  officer  of  the  School  had  referred  this  work : 

*  *  *  "In  the  opinion  of  your  Committee,  the  arrangement  of  the  subjects  and  the  selection 
of  the  several  questions  and  answers  have  been  judicious.  The  work  is  one  which  may  be 
advantageously  used  for  reference  by  the  officers,  and  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  instruction 
of  non-commissioned  officers  and  pf  ivates  of  artillery. 

"Your  Committee  do,  therefore,  recommend  that  it  be  substituted  as  a  text-book." 
(Signed,)          I.  VOGDES,  Capt.  1st  Artillery. 
(Signed,)  E.  O.  C.  ORD,  Capt.  M  Artillery. 

(Signed,)          J.  A.  HASKIN,  Svt.  Maj.  and  Capt.  1st  Artillery. 


INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    FIELD    ARTILLERY.      Prepared  by  a 
•A-     Board  of  Artillery  Officers.     To  which  is  added  the  "Evolutions 
of  Batteries, "  transjated  from  the  French,  by  Brig.  -Gen.  R.  ANDER- 
SON, U.  S.  A.      I  vol,  1 2 mo,  122  plates.     Cloth,  $3. 

"  WAB  DEPARTMENT,  ( 

"  WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  March  1, 1863.  ) 

.  "  This  system  of  Instruction  for  Field  Artillery,  prepared  under  direction  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment, having  been  approved  by  the  President,  is  adopted  for  the  instruction  of  troops  when 
acting  as  field  artillery. 

"  Accordingly,  instruction  in  the  same  will  be  given  after  the  method  pointed  out  therein ; 
and  all  additions  to  or  departures  from  the  exercise  and  manoeuvres  laid  down  in  the  system,  are 
positively  forbidden. 

"  EDWIN  M.  STANTON, 

"  Secretary  of  War." 

pATTEN'S  ARTILLERY  DRILL,     i  vol.,  i2mo,  paper,  50  cents. 

HEAVY  ARTILLERY  TACTICS.— 1863.     Instruction  for  Heavy 
Artillery  ;   prepared  by  a  Board  of  Officers,  for  the  use  of  the 
Army  of  the  United  States.     With  service  of  a  gun  mounted  on  an 
iron  carriage.     In  i  vol.,  I2mo,  with  numerous  illustrations.     Cloth, 
$2.50. 

"WAR  DEPARTMENT,  } 

"WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  Oct.  20,  1862.    f 

"  This  system  of  Heavy  Artillery  Tactics,  prepared  under  direction  of  the  War  Department, 
having  been  approved  by  the  President,  is  adopted  for  the  instruction  of  troops  when  acting  as 

heavy  artillery. 

"  EDWIN  M.  STANTON, 

"  Secretary  of  War." 

EVOLUTIONS  OF  FIELD  BATTERIES  OF  ARTILLERY. 
Translated  from  the  French,  and  arranged  for  the  Army  and  Mi- 
litia of  the  United  States.  By  Gen.  ROBERT  ANDERSON,  U.  S.  A. 
Published  by  order  of  the  War  Department,  i  vol.,  cloth,  32 
plates.  $i. 


8  I).  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 

f^ILLMORE'S  FORT  SUMTER.  Official  Report  of  Operations 
VJT  against  the  Defences  of  Charleston  Harbor,  1863.  Comprising 
the  descent  upon  Morris  Island,  the^emolition  of  Fort  Sumter,  and 
the  siege  and  reduction  of  Forts  Wagner  and  Gregg.  By  Maj.-Gen. 
Q.  A.  GILLMORE,  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  Major  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers. With  76  lithographic  plates,  views,  maps,  etc.  i  vol.,  8vo. 
Cloth,  $10 ;  Half-Russia,  $12. 

"  General  Gillmore  has  enjoyed  and  improved  some  very  unusual  opportunities  for  adding  to 
the  literature  of  military  science,  and  for  making  a  permanent  record  of  his  own  professional 
achievements.  It  has  fallen  to  his  lot  to  conduct  some  of  the  most  striking  operations  of  the 
war,  and  to  make  trial  of  interesting  experiments  in  engineering  and  artillery  which  were  both 
calculated  to  throw  light  upon  some  of  the  great  points  of  current  discussion  in  military  art,  and 
also  to  fix  the  attention  of  spectators  in  no  ordinary  degree. 

"  His  report  of  the  siege  of  Fort  Pulaski  thus  almost  took  the  form  of  a  popular  scientific 
treatise ;  and  we  now  have  his  report  of  his  operations  against  Forts  Wagner  and  Sumter,  given 
to  the  public  in  a  volume  which  promises  to  be  even  more  attractive  at  bottom,  both  to  the 
scientific  and  the  general  reader,  than  its  predecessor. 

"  The  volume  is  illustrated  by  seventy-six  plates  and  views,  which  are  admirably  executed, 
and  by  a  few  excellent  maps ;  and  indeed  the  whole  style  of  publication  is  such  as  to  reflect 
the  highest  credit  upon  the  publishers."— Boston  Daily  Advertiser. 


UPPLEMENTARY  REPORT  to  the  Engineer  and  Artillery  Opera- 
tions  against  the  Defences  of  Charleston  Harbor  in  1863.  By 
Major-General  Q.  A.  GILLMORE,  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  Major  U.  S. 
Corps  of  Engineers.  With  Seven  Lithographed  Maps  and  Views.* 
i  vol.,  8vo.  Cloth.  $5. 


SIEGE  AND  REDUCTION  OF  FORT  PULASKI,  GEORGIA. 
Papers  on  Practical  Engineering.  No.  8.  Official  Report  to  the 
U.  S.  Engineer  Department  of  the  Siege  and  Reduction  of  Fort  Pu- 
laski, Ga.,  February,  March,  and  April,  1862.  By  Brig. -Gen.  Q. 
A.  GILLMORE,  U.  S.  A.  Illustrated  by  maps  and  views,  i  vol., 
8vo,  cloth.  $2.50. 


PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  LIMES,  HYDRAULIC  CE- 
MENTS, AND  MORTARS.  Papers  on  Practical  Engineering, 
U.  S.  Engineer  Department,  No.  9,  containing  Reports  of  numerous 
experiments  conducted  in  New  York  City,  during  the  years  1858  to 
1 86 1  inclusive.  By  Major-General  Q.  A.  GILLMORE,  U.  S.  Volun- 
teers, and  Major  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers.  With  numerous  illus- 
trations. One  volume,  octavo.  Cloth.  $4. 


C  YSTEMS  OF  MILITARY  BRIDGES,  in  Use  by  the  United  States 
^  Army ;  those  adopted  by  the  Great  European  Powers  ;  and  such 
as  are  employed  in  British  India.  With  Directions  for  the  Preserva- 
tion, Destruction,  and  Re-establishment  of  Bridges.  By  Maj.-Gen. 
GEORGE  W.  CULLUM,  Lieut. -Col.  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States 
Army,  i  vol.,  octavo.  With  numerous  illustrations.  Cloth.  $3.50. 


Military  Books.  9 

MILITARY  BRIDGES :  For  the  Passage  of  Infantry,  Artillery, 
and  Baggage-Trains  ;  with  suggestions  of  many  new  expedients 
and  constructions  for  crossing  streams  and  chasms  ;  designed  to 
utilize  the  resources  ordinarily  at  command  and  reduce  the  amount 
and  cost  of  army  transportation.  Including  also  designs  for  Trestle 
and  Truss-Bridges  for  Military  Railroads,  adapted  especially  to  the 
wants  of  the  Service  of  the  United  States.  By  HERMAN  HAUPT, 
Brig. -Gen.  in  charge  of  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  U.  S. 
Military  Railways,  Author  of  ''General  Theory  of  Bridge  Construc- 
tion, &c."  Illustrated  by  sixty-nine  lithographic  engravings.  Oc- 
tavo, cloth.  $6.50. 

"This  elaborate  and  carefally  prepared,  though  thoroughly  practical  and  simple  work,  is 
peculiarly  adapted  to  the  military  service  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Haupt  has  added  very  much 
to  the  ordinary  facilities  for  crossing  streams  and  chasms,  by  the  instructions  afforded  in  this 
work." — Boston  Courier. 


BEN^T'S  MILITARY  LAW.  A  Treatise  on  Military  Law  and  the 
Practice  of  Courts-Martial.  By  Col.  S.  V.  BENET,  Ordnance  De- 
partment, U.  S.  A.,  late  Assistant  Professor  of  Ethics,  Law,  &c., 
Military  Academy,  West  Point,  i  vol.,  8vo,  sixth  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.  Law  sheep.  $4. 50. 

"  Captain  Benet  presents  the  army  with  a  complete  compilation  of  the  precedents  and  decisions 
cf  rare  value  which  have  accumulated  since  the  creation  of  the  office  of  Judge- Advocate, 
thoroughly  digested  and  judiciously  arranged,  with  an  index  .of  the  most  minute  accuracy. 
Military  Law  and  Courts-Martial  are  treated  from  the  composition  of  the  latter  to  the  Finding 
and  Sentence,  with  the  Revision  and  Execution  of  the  same,  all  set  forth  in  a  clear,  exhaustive 
style  that  is  a  cardinal  excellence  in  every  work  of  legal  reference.  That  portion  of  the  work 
devoted  to  Evidence  is  especially  good.  In  fact,  the  whole  performance  entitles  the  author  to 
the  thanks  of  the  entire  army,  not  a  leading  officer  of  which  should  fail  to  supply  himself  at  once 
with  so  serviceable  a  guide  to  the  intricacies  of  legal  military  government."—^.  Y.  Times. 

JUDGE-ADVOCATE  GENERAL'S  OFFICE,  ( 
October  13, 1862.  f 

*  *  *  So  far  as  I  have  been  enabled  to  examine  this  volume,  it  seems  to  me  carefliU/  and 
accurately  prepared,  and  I  am  satisfied  that  you  have  rendered  an  acceptable  service  to  the  ?rmy 
and  the  country  by  its  publication  at  this  moment.  In  consequence  of  the  gigantic  pr /portions 
so  suddenly  assumed  by  the  military  operations  of  the  Government,  there  have  been  n';cresarily 
called  into  the  field,  from  civil  life,  a  vast  number  of  officers,  unacquainted,  from  their  previous 
studies  and  pursuits,  both  with  the  principles  of  military  law  and  with  the  course  rf  judicial 
proceedings  under  it.  To  all  such,  this  treatise  will  prove  an  easily  accessible  etOichouse  of 
knowledge,  which  it  is  equally  the  duty  of  the  soldier  in  command  to  acquire,  as  H  is  to  draw 
his  sword  against  the  common  enemy.  The  military  spirit  of  our  people  now  being  'horoajrhly 
aroused,  added  to  a  growing  conviction  that  in  future  we  may  have  to  depend  quite  «u  umch  upon 
the  bayonet  as  upon  the  ballot-box  for  the  preservation  of  our  institutions,  cannot  fe.il  to  secure 
to  this  work  an  extended  and  earnest  appreciation.  In  bringing  the  results  of  iej^islation  and 
of  decisions  upon  the  questions  down  to  so  recent  a  period,  the  author  has  added  greatly  to  the 
interest  and  usefulness  of  the  volume.  Very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  servant,  J.  HOLT. 


HALLECK'S  INTERNATIONAL  LAW  ;  or,  Rules  Regulating  the 
Intercourse  of  States  in  Peace  and  War.     By  Maj.-Gen.  H.  W. 
HALLECK,    Commanding   the   Army.       I   vol.,    8vo.       Law   sheep 
$6. 


10  D.  Van  Nostmnd's  Publications. 


R 


EPORT  OF   THE   ENGINEER  AND  ARTILLERY  OPERA- 
TIONS OF  THE  ARMY  OF  THE  POTOMAC,  from  its  Or- 
fnization  to  the  Close  of  the  Peninsular  Campaign.      By  Maj.-Gen. 
G.  BARNARD,  and  other  Engineer  Offkers,  and  Maj.-Gen.  W.  F. 
BARRY,  Chief  of  Artillery.     Illustrated  by  numerous   Maps,    Plans, 
&c.     Octavo.     Cloth.     $4. 

"  The  title  of  this  work  sufficiently  indicates  its  importance  and  value  as  a  contribution  to  tho 
history  of  the  great  rebellion.  Gen.  Barnard's  report  is  a  narrative  of  the  engineer  operations 
of  the  Army  of  thet  Potomac  from  the  time  of  its  organization  to  the  date  it  was  withdrawn 
from  the  James  River.  Thus  a  record  is  given  of  an  important  part  in  the  great  work  which 
the  nation  found  before  it  when  it  was  first  confronted  with  the  necessity  of  war,  and  perhaps 
on  no  other  point  in  the  annals  of  the  rebellion  will  future  generations  look  with  a  deeper  or 
snore  admiring  interest."— Buffalo  Courier. 

HTHE  "C.  S.  A.,"  AND  THE  BATTLE   OF   BULL   RUN.     (A 
J-       Letter  to  an  English  friend),  by  Major  J.  G.  BARNARD,   Colonel 
of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,   Major-General  and  Chief  Engineer,  Army 
of  the  Potomac.     With  five  maps,      i  vol.,  Svo.     Cloth.     $2. 


T 


HE  PENINSULAR  CAMPAIGN  AND  ITS  ANTECEDENTS, 
as  developed  by  the  Report  of  Major-General  GEO.  B.  MCCLELLAN, 
and  other  published  Documents.  By  J.  G.  BARNARD,  Colonel  of 
Engineers  arid  Brevet  Major-General  Volunteers,  and  Chief  En- 
gineer in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from  its  organization  to  the  close 
of  the  Peninsular  Campaign,  i  vol.,  I2mo.  Paper.  30  cents. 

NOTES   ON   SEA-COAST    DEFENCE:    Consisting  of  Sea-Coast 
Fortification  ;  the  Fifteen-Inch  Gun  ;  and  Casemate  Embrasure. 
By    Major-General   J.    G.    BARNARD,    Col.    of  Corps  of  Engineers, 
U.  S.  A.      i  vol.,  Svo.     Cloth.     Plates.     $2. 


M 


ANUAL  FOR  ENGINEER  TROOPS  :  Consisting  of— Part  I. 
Ponton  Drill ;  II.  Practical  Operations  of  a  Siege  ;  III.  School 
of  the  Sap ;  IV.  Military  Mining  ;  V.  Construction  of  Batteries. 
By  General  J.  C.  DUANE,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  i  vol., 
I2mo.  Half  morocco.  With  plates.  $2.50. 

"  I  have  carefully  examined  Capt.  J.  C.  Duane's  'Manual  for  Engineer  Troops,1  and  do  not 
hesitate  to  pronounce  it  the  very  best  work  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats. 

"  H.  W.  HALLECK,  Major-General  U.  S.  A." 

"A  work  of  this  kind  has  been  much  needed  in  our  military  literature.  For  the  Army's 
eake,  I  hope  the  book  will  have  a  wide  circulation  among  its  officers. 

"  G.  B.  McCLELLAN,  Major-General  U.  S.  A." 

A  TREATISE   ON   MILITARY  SURVEYING.      Theoretical  and 
Practical,  including  a  description  of  Surveying  Instruments.     By 
G.    H.   MENDELL,   Major  of  Engineers,      i  vol.,  I2mo.     With  nu- 
merous illustrations.     Cloth.     $2. 

"The  author  is  a  Captain  of  Engineers,  and  has  fur  his  chief  authorities  Salneuve,  Lalobre, 
and  Simms.  He  has  presented  the  subject  in  a  simple  form,  and  has  liberally  illustrated  it  with 
diagrams,  that  it  may  be  readily  comprehended  by  eveiy  one  who  is  liable  to  be  called  uvon  to 
furnish  a  military  sketch  of  a  portion  of  country."— JV.  Y.  Evening  Post. 


Military  Books.  1 1 

ABBOT  (H.  L.)  Siege  Artillery  in  the  Campaign  against  Richmond, 
with  Notes  <fti  the  1 5-inch  Gun,  including  an  Algebraic  Analysis 
of  the  Trajectory  of  a  Shot  in  its  ricochet  upon  smooth  Water.  Il- 
lustrated with  detailed  drawings  of  the  U.  S.  and  Confederate  rifled 
projectiles.  By  HENRY  L.  ABBOT,  Major  of  Engineers,  and  Brevet 
Major-General  U.  S.  Volunteers,  commanding  Siege  Artillery,  Armies 
before  Richmond.  Paper  No.  14,  Professional  Papers,  Corps  of 
Engineers.  I  vol.,  Svo.  Cloth.  $3.50. 

A  UTHORIZED  U.  S.  INFANTRY  TACTICS.  For  the  Instruc- 
*~*  tion,  Exercise,  and  Manoeuvres  of  the  Soldier,  a  Company,  Line 
of  Skirmishers,  Battalion,  Brigade,  or  Corps  d'Armee.  By  Brig.- 
Gen.  SILAS  CASEY,  U.  S.  A.  3  vols.,  24mo.  Vol.  I. — School  of 
the  Soldier ;  School  of  the  Company ;  Instruction  for  Skirmishers. 
Vol.  II. — School  of  the  Battalion.  Vol.  III.  Evolutions  of  a  Bri- 
gade ;  Evolutions  of  a  Corps  d'Armee.  Cloth,  lithographed  plates. 
$2.50. 

MORRIS'S  INFANTRY  TACTICS.  Comprising  the  School  of 
the  Soldier,  School  of  the  Company,  Instruction  for  Skirmishers, 
School  of  the  Battalion,  Evolutions  of  the  Brigade,  and  Directions 
for  Manoeuvring  the  Division  and  the  Corps  d'Armee.  By  Brig.- 
Gen.  WILLIAM  H.  MORRIS,  U.  S.  Vols.,  and  late  U.  S.  Second  In- 
fantry. 2  vols.,  24mo.  Cloth.  $2. 

US.  TACTICS  FOR  COLORED  TROOPS.  U.  S.  Infantry  Tac- 
•  tics,  for  the  Instructfon,  Exercise,  and  Manoeuvres  of  the  Soldier, 
a  Company,  Line  of  Skirmishers,  and  Battalion,  for  the  use  of  the 
COLORED  TROOPS  of  the  United  States  Infantry.  Prepared  under  the 
direction  of  the  War  Department,  i  vol.,  24 mo.  Plates.  Cloth. 
$1.50. 

"  WAR  DEPARTMENT,  WASHINGTON,  March  9, 1S68. 

"This  system  of  United  States  Infantry  Tactics,  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  War 
Department,  for  the  use  of  the  colored  troops  of  the  United  States  Infantry,  having  been 
approved  by  the  President,  is  adopted  for  the  instruction  of  such  troops. 

"  EDWIN  M.  STANTON,  Secretary  of  War." 

FIELD  TACTICS  FOR  INFANTRY.  Comprising  the  Battalion 
movements,  and  Brigade  evolutions,  useful  in  the  Field,  on  the 
March,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  Enemy.  The  tabular  form  is 
used  to  distinguish  the  commands  of  the  General,  and  the  com- 
mands of  the  Colonel.  By  Brig. -Gen.  WM.  H.  MORRIS,  U.  S.  Vols., 
late  Second  U.  S.  Infantry.  i8mo.  Illustrated.  75  cents. 

IGHT  INFANTRY  COMPANY  AND  SKIRMISH  DRILL. 
The  Company  Drill  of  the  Infantry  of  the  Line,  together  with  the 
Skirmish  Drill  of  the  Company  and  Battalion,  after  the  method  of 
General  LE  LOUTEREL.  Bayonet  Fencing ;  with  a  Supplement  on 
the  Handling  and  Service  of  Light  Infantry.  By  J.  MONROE,  Col. 
22d  Regiment,  N.  G.,  N.  Y.  S.  M.,  formerly  Captain  U.  S.  Infantry, 
i  vol.,  3 2 mo.  75  cents. 

SCHOOL  OF  THE  GUIDES.     Designed  for  the  use  of  the  Militia 
of  the  United  States.     Flexible  cloth.     60  cents. 


L 


12  D.  Van  No  strand's  Publications. 

STANDING     ORDERS     OF     THE    SEVENTH     REGIMENT, 
NATIONAL  GUARD.     For  the  Regulation  fnd  Government  of 
the  Regiment  in  the  Field  or  in  Quarters.     By  A.  DURYEA,  Colonel. 
New  Edition.     Flexible  cloth.      50 -cents. 

HETH'S   SYSTEM  OF   TARGET    PRACTICE  :    For  the  use  of 
Troops  when  armed  with  the  Musket,  Rifle-Musket,  Rifle,  or  Car- 
bine.      Prepared,   principally  from  the  French,  b^-  Captain   HENRY 
HETH,  loth  Infantry,  U.  S.  A.      i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

SWORD-PLAY.  The  Militiaman'*  Manual  and  Sword-Play  without 
a  Master. — Rapier  and  Broad-Sword  Exercises,  copiously  Explained 
and  Illustrated  ;  Small-Arm  Light  Infantry  Drill  of  the  United  States 
Army  ;  Infantry  Manual  of  Percussion  Muskets  ;  Company  Drill  of 
the  United  States  Cavalry.  By  Major  M.  W.  BERRIMAN,  engaged 
for  the  last  thirty  years  in  the  practical  instruction  of  Military  Stu- 
dents. Fourth  edition.  I  vol.,  I2mo.  Red  cloth.  $i. 

PATTEN'S  INFANTRY  TACTICS.  Containing  Nomenclature  of 
the  Musket ;  School  of  the  Soldier ;  Manual  of  Arms  for  the 
Rifle  Musket ;  Instructions  for  Recruits,  without  regard  to  Arms  ; 
School  of  the  Company  ;  Skirmishers,  or  Light  Infantry  and  Rifle 
Company  Movements  ;  the  Bayonet  Exercise  ;  the  Small-Sword  Ex- 
ercise ;  Manual  of  the  Sword  or  Sabre.  I2mo.  92  Engravings. 
Paper.  50  cents. 

T)ATTEN'S  INFANTRY  TACTICS.    Contains  Nomenclature  of  the 

Jt-       Musket ;  School  of  the  Company  ;  Skirmishers,  or  Light  Infantry 

and  Rifle  Company  Movements  ;  School  of  the  Battalion  ;  Bayonet 

Exercise ;  Small-Sword  Exercise ;   Manual  of  the  Sword  or  Sabre. 

I2mo.      100  Engravings.     Paper.     Revised  edition.     75  cents. 

NEW  BAYONET  EXERCISE.      A  New  Manual  of  the  Bayonet, 
for  the  Army  and   Militia  of  the  United   States.     By  General  J. 
C.    KELTON,    U.   S.   A.       With    Forty   beautifully-engraved    Plates. 
Fifth  edition,  revised.     Red  cloth.     $2. 

This  Manual  was  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  Corps  of  Cadets,  and  has  been 
introduced  at  the  Military  Academy  with  satisfactory  results.  It,  is  simply  the 
theory  of  the  attack  and  defence  of  the  sword  applied  to  the  bayonet,  on  the 
authority  of  men  skilled  in  the  use  of  arms. 

The  Manual  contains  practical  lessons  in  Fencing,  and  prescribes  the  defence 
against  Cavalry,  and  the  manner  of  conducting  a  contest  with  a  swordsman. 

"  This  work  merits  a  favorable  reception  at  the  hands  of  all  military  men.  It  contains  all  the 
instruction  necessary  to  enable  an  officer  to  drill  his  men  in  the  use  of  this  weapon.  The 
introduction  of  the  Sabre  Bayonet  in  our  army  renders  a  knowledge  of  the  exercise  more  im- 
perative."—New  York  Times. 

RHYMED  TACTICS,  BY  "GOV."     i  vol.,  i8mo.     Paper.    With 
portraits.     25  cents. 

HINTS  TO   COMPANY  OFFICERS   ON   THEIR   MILITARY 
DUTIES.     By  Gen.   C.   C.    ANDREWS,    Third   Regt.    Minnesota 
Vols.      i  vol.,  iSmo.     Cloth.     60  cents. 

"This  is  a  hand-book  of  good  practical  advice,  which  officers  of  all  ranks  may  study  witb 
advantage.11 — Philadelphia  Press. 


Military  Books.  13 

A  USTRIAN  INFANTRY  TACTICS.      Evolutions  of  the  Line  as 
practised  by  the  Austrian  Infantry,  and  adopted  in  1853.     Trans- 
lated by  Captain  C.  M.  WILCOX,   Seventh  Regiment  U.  S.  Infantry. 
i  vol.,  1  2  mo.     Three  large  plates.     Cloth.     $i. 

lELE'S  HAND-BOOK.      Hand-Book  for  Active  Service,  contain- 
ing Practical  Instructions  in  Campaign  Duties.     For  the  use  of 
Volunteers.       By  Brig.  -Gen.   EGBERT   L.   VIELE,   U.  S.  A.       I2mo. 

Cloth.        i. 


V 


THE  BATTLE-FIELDS  OF  VIRGINIA.  Chancellorsville,  em- 
bracing the  Operations  of  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia.  From 
the  First  Battle  of  Fredericksburg  to  the  Death  of  Lt.-Gen.  S.  J. 
Jackson.  By  JED.  HOTCHKISS  and  WILLIAM  ALLAN,  i  vol.,  8vo. 
Cloth.  Illustrated  with  Maps  and  Portrait  of  Stonewall  Jackson. 
$5. 

"  Though  written  from  a  Confederate  stand-point  this  is  a  valuable  accession  to  the  military 
history  of  the  country.  It  embraces  the  operations  of  the  rebel  army  of  Northern  Virginia  from 
the  first  battle  of  Predericksburg  to  the  death  of  Stonewall  Jackson."  —  Washington  Star. 

/CAMPAIGN  OF  MOBILE,   including  the  Co-operation  of  General 
V*     Wilson's  Cavalry  in  Alabama.     By  Brevet  Maj-Gen.   C.   C.   AN- 
DREWS.    With  Maps  and  Illustrations.      8vo.     Cloth.     $3.  50. 

"  This  is  an  elaborate  account  of  a  memorable  campaign  conducted  by  General  Canby  with 
great  skill,  and  resulting  in  a  great  success.  That  success,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  occurred  at 
the  time  the  rebellion  collapsed  in  Virginia,  has  not  occupied  in  the  public  mind  the  place  due  to 
its  intrinsic  importance  and  the  generalship  which  made  it  possible.  To  military  readers, 
however,  the  campaign  must  be  of  more  than  ordinary  interest."  —  Boston  Transcript. 

RIFLES  AND  RIFLE  PRACTICE.  An  Elementary  Treatise  on 
the  Theory  of  Rifle  Firing  ;  explaining  the  Causes  of  Inaccuracy 
of  Fire  and  the  manner  of  correcting  it,  with  descriptions  of  the 
Infantry  Rifles  of  Europe  and  the  United  States,  their  Balls  and  Car- 
tridges. By  Captain  C.  M.  WILCOX,  U.  S.  A.  New  edition,  with 
engravings  and  cuts.  Green  cloth.  $2. 

"  Although  eminently  a  scientific  work,  special  care  seems  to  have  been  taken  to  avoid  the 
nse  of  technical  terms,  and  to  make  the  whole  subject  comprehensible  to  the  practical  inquirer. 
It  was  designed  chiefly  for  the  use  of  Volunteers  and  the  Militia  ;  but  the  War  Department  has 
evinced  its  approval  of  its  merits  by  ordering  from  the  publisher  one  thousand  copies  for  the 
use  of  the  United  States  Army."—  Louisville  Journal. 

RIFLED  ORDNANCE  :  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Application  of 
the  Principle  of  the  Rifle  to  Guns  and  Mortars  of  every  calibre. 
To  wnich  is  added  a  new  theory  of  the  initial  action  and  force  of 
Fired  Gunpowder.     By  LYNALL  THOMAS,  F.  R.  S.  L.      Fifth  edition, 
revised.     One  volume,  octavo,  illustrated.     Cloth.     $2. 

"An  important  contribution  to  a  branch  of  military  science,  which  is  just  now  a  subject 
of  warm  discussion  in  America  as  well  as  England.  Mr.  Thomas's  conclusions  are  based  on  a 
large  number  of  careful  experiments,  and  are  entitled  to  careful  consideration.  In  regard 
to  the  famous  Armstrong  guns,  while  considering  their  inventor  as  entitled  to  the  honor 
of  suggesting  the  only  successful  method  of  constructing  wrought-iron  guns,  he  disagrees  with 
him  in  nearly  all  that  relates  to  the  projection  of  the  shot,  and  holds  that  the  Armstrong  must 
etill  be  an  experimental  gun—  particularly  objectionable  as  breech-loaders.  Its  asserted  over. 
coming  of  the  scientific  and  mechanical  difficulties  of  other  guns,  is  based  wholly  on  its  revival 
of  breech-loading—  a  method  generally  considered  obsolete  and  objectionable." 


14  D.  Van  Nbstrand's  Publications. 

HTHREE  YEARS  IN  THE  SIXTH  CORPS.     A  concise  narrative 
J-       of  events  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  from   1861  to  the  Close  of 
the  Rebellion,  April,  1865.*     By  GE£.   T.   STEVENS,   Surgeon  of  the 
yyth   Regt.   New  York  Volunteers.'     Illustrated  with  seventeen  en- 
gravings.    New  revised  edition.      8vo.     Cloth.     $3. 

HPHE  VOLUNTEER  QUARTERMASTER.  Containing  a  Collec- 
J-  don  and  Codification  of  the  Laws,  Regulations,  Rules,  and  Prac- 
tices governing  the  Quartermaster's  Department  of  the  United  States 
Army,  and  in  force  March  4,  1865.  By  Captain  ROELIFF  BRINKER- 
HOFF,  Assistant  Quartermaster  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  Post  Quarter- 
master at  Washington,  i  vol.,  I2mo.  Cloth.  $2.50. 

This  work  embraces  all  the  laws  of  Congress,  and  all  the  orders  and  circulars 
of  the  War  Office  and  its  bureaus,  bearing  upon  the  subject.  It  also  embodies 
the  decisions  of  the  Second  Comptroller  of  the  Treasury,  so  far  as  they  affect  the 
Quartermaster's  Department.  These  decisions  have  the  force  of  law  in  the 
adjustment  of  accounts,  and  are  therefore  invaluable  to  all  disbursing  officers. 


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ANUAL  FOR  QUARTERMASTERS  AND  COMMISSARIES. 
Containing  Instructions  in  the  Preparation  of  Vouchers,  Ab- 
stracts, Returns,  &c.,  embracing  all  the  recent  changes  in  the  Army 
Regulations,  together  with  instructions  respecting  Taxation  of  Sal- 
aries, &c.  By  Captain  R.  F.  HUNTER,  late  of  the  U.  S.  Army. 
I2mo.  Cloth.  $1.25.  Flexible  morocco.  $1.50. 

HTHE  WAR  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  A  Report  to  the  Swiss 
•1  Military  Department.  Preceded  by  a  Discourse  to  the  Federal 
Military  Society  assembled  at  Berne,  Aug.  18,  1862.  By  FERDINAND 
LECOMTE,  Lieut. -Col.  Swiss  Confederation.  Author  of  "  Relation 
Historique  et  Critique  de  la  Campagne  dTtalie  en  1859,"  "  L'ltalie 
en  1860,"  and  "Le  General  Jomini,  sa  Vie,  et  ses  Ecrits,"  &c.,  &c. 
Translated  from  the  French  by  a  Staff  Officer.  i  vol.,  i2mo. 
Cloth.  $i. 

T^ODLEBEN'S    (GENERAL)    HISTORY    OF   THE   DEFENCE 
1      OF  SEBASTOPOL.     By  WILLIAM  HOWARD  RUSSELL,  LL.D.,  of 
the  London  Times,      i  vol.,  i2mo.     Cloth.     $2. 

/^UNNERY  IN  1858.     A  Treatise  on  Rifles,  Cannon,  and  Sporting 
VJT     Arms.     By  WM.  GREENER,  R.  C.  E.    i  vol.,  8vo.  Cloth.   $4.     Full 
calf.     $6.00. 

MANUAL  OF  SIGNALS,  for  the  use  of  Signal  Officers  in  the 
Field,  and  for  Military  and  Naval  Students,  Military  Schools, 
&c.  A  new  edition,  enlarged  and  illustrated.  ByBrig.-Gen.  ALBERT 
Y.  MYER,  Chief  Signal  Officer  of  the  Army,  Colonel  of  the  Signal 
Corps  during  the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  With  31  Plates.  I2mo. 
Roan.  $5. 


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Military  Books.  15 

ANUAL  OF  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  MILITARY  SURGEONS, 
in  the  Examination  of  Recruits  and  Discharge  of  Soldiers. 
With  an  Appendix  containing  the  Official  Regulations  of  the  Pro- 
vost-Marshal-General's  Bureau,  and  those  for  the  formation  of  the 
Invalid  Corps,  &c.,  &c.  Prepared  at  the  request  of  the  United 
States  Sanitary  Commission.  By  JOHN  ORDRONAUX,  M.  D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Medical  Jurisprudence  in  Columbia  College,  New  York. 
1 2 mo.  Half  morocco.  $1.50. 


H 


INTS   ON   THE    PRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH    IN    AR- 
MIES.   For  the  use  of  Volunteer  Officers  and  Soldiers.    By  JOHN 
ORDRONAUX,  M.  D.     New  edition,  i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 


SIEGE  OF  BOMARSUND  (1854).     Journals  of  Operations  of  the 
Artillery  and  Engineers.      Published  by  permission  of  the  Minister 
of  War.       Illustrated    by  Maps   and    Plans.      Translated   from  the 
French  by  an  Army  Officer.      I2mo.     Cloth.     $i. 

PATTEN'S  ARMY  MANUAL.  Containing  Instructions  for  Officers 
in  the  Preparation  of  Rolls,  Returns,  and  Accounts  required  of 
Regimental  and  Company  Commanders,  and  pertaining  to  the  Sub- 
sistence and  Quartermaster's  Departments,  &c.,  &c.  i  vol.,  8vo. 
Cloth.  $2. 


A 


TREATISE  ON  THE  CAMP  AND  MARCH.  With  which  is 
connected  the  Construction  of  Field-Works  and  Military  Bridges  ; 
with  an  Appendix  of  Artillery  Ranges,  &c.  For  the  use  of  Volun- 
teers and  Militia  in  the  United  States.  By  Captain  HENRY  D.  GRAF- 
TON,  U.  S.  A.  i  vol.,  i2mo.  Cloth.  75  cents. 


AUTOMATON    REGIMENT;     OR,     INFANTRY    SOL- 
DIERS'    PRACTICAL    INSTRUCTOR.       For  all    Regimental 
Movements  in  the  Field.     By  G.  DOUGLAS  BREWERTON,  U.  S.  Army. 
Neatly  put  up  in  boxes,  price  $i.     When  sent  by  mail,  $1.40. 

The  "Automaton  Regiment"  is  a  simple  combination  of  blocks  and  counters,  so  arranged  and 
design.'itcd  by  a  carefully  considered  contrast  of  colors,  that  it  supplies  the  student  with  a  perfect 
miniature  regiment,  in  which  the  position  in  the  battalion,  of  each  company,  and  of  every  officer  a.,d 
man  in  each  division,  company,  platoon,  an J  soctioa,  is  clearly  indicated.  It  supplies  the  studioi-s 
soldier  with  the  means  whoreby  he  can  consult  his  "  tactics,"  and  at  the  same  tiina  joiu  practica  to 
theory  by  manoauvring  a  mimic  regiment. 

THE  AUTOMATON  COMPANY  ;  OR,  INFANTRY  SOLDIERS' 
PRACTICAL  INSTRUCTOR.     For  all  Company  Movements  in 
the  Field.     By  G.  DOUGLAS  BREWERTON,  U.  S.  A.     Price,  in  boxes, 
$1.25.     When  sent  by  mail,  $1.95. 

HTHE  AUTOMATON  BATTERY ;  OR,  ARTILLERISTS'  PRAC- 
1       TICAL  INSTRUCTOR.     For  all  Mounted  Artillery  Manoeuvres 
in  the  Field.     By  G.    DOUGLAS  BREWERTON,   U.   S.   A.     Price,   in 
boxes,  $i.     When  sent  by  mail,  $1.40. 


L 
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i 

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16  I).  Van  Nostrandjs  Publications. 

SERGEANT'S  ROLL  BOOK,  FOR  THE  COMPANY,  DETAIL, 
AND  SQUAD.     Pocket-book  form.     $1.25. 

McCLELLAN  (GENERAL).     Report  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
of  its  Operations  while  under  his  command.     With  Maps  and 
Plans.     8vo.     Cloth.     $i. 

ES  ECRIVAINS  MILITAIRES  DE  LA  FRANCE.      Par  THEO. 
KARCHER.     Illustrated.     8vo.     Cloth.     $3.50. 

ILITARY   MEASURES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES   CON- 
GRESS,   1861-65.     By  Hon.   HENRY   WILSON.      Svo.      Paper. 
50  cents. 

IEBER  ON  GUERRILLA  PARTIES.  Guerrilla  Parties  consid- 
ered with  reference  to  the  Laws  and  Usages  of  War.  Written  at 
the  request  of  Major-General  HENRY  VV.  HALLECK,  General-in-Chief 
of  the  Army  of  the  United  States.  By  FRANCIS  LIEBER.  121110. 
Paper.  25  cents. 

UNION  FOUNDATIONS.     A  Study  of  American  Nationality,  as  a 
Fact  of  Science.     By  Captain  E.  B.  HUNT,  Corps  of  Engineers, 
U.  S.  A.      i  vol.,  Svo.     30  cents. 

TEXAS,    AND    ITS    LATE    MILITARY    OCCUPATION    AND 
EVACUATION.     By  Captain  EDWIN  D.  PHILLIPS,  ist  Infantry, 
U.  S.  A.     Svo.     Paper.     25  cents. 

NSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  ARMIES  OF 
THE  U.  S.   IN    THE    FIELD.     Prepared  by  FRANCIS  LIEBER 
LL.D.,  and  revised  by  a  Board  of  Officers,  and  approved  by  the  War 
Department,  in  General  Order  No.  100.      12 mo.      Price  25  cents, 
paper  covers. 

RMY   REGISTER    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES   FOR    1869. 
1 2  mo.     Paper.     $2. 

PORTRAIT   GALLERY   OF   THE  WAR,  CIVIL,   MILITARY, 
AND    NAVAL.      A   Biographical    Record.      Edited    by    FRANK 
MOORE.     Illustrated  with  sixty  fine  portraits  on  steel,      i  vol.,  Svo. 
Cloth,  $6 ;  cloth,  full  gilt,  $7. 50. 

NOTES   ON   HORSES   FOR   CAVALRY  SERVICE,   embodying 
the  Quality,   Purchase,    Care,    and  Diseases  most  frequently  en- 
countered, with  lessons  for  bitting  the  Horse,  and  bending  the  neck. 
By  Bvt.  Major  A.  K.  ARNOLD,  Capt.  5th  Cavalry,  Assistant  Instructor 
of  Cavalry  Tactics,  U.  S.  Mil.  Academy.  iSmo.  Illustrated.  Clo.  75cts. 

REPORT  TO  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
ON  THE  MUNITIONS  OF  WAR  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Univer- 
sal Exhibition,    1867.     By  CHARLES  B.  NORTON,  U.  S.  V.,  and  W.  J. 
VALENTINE,  Esq.,  U.  S.  Commissioners.     With  80  Illustrations,     i  vol., 
Svo.     Cloth.     Published  at  $$.OQ ;  now  reduced  to  $3.50. 


I 


A 


Military  Books.  17 

T    IPPITT.       A   Treatise   on  the  Tactical  Use  of  the  Three  Arms:. 

J— *  Infantry,  Artillery,  and  Cavalry.  By  FRANCIS  J.  LIPPITT,  Ex- 
Colonel  Second  Infantry,  California  Volunteers,  &c.,  &c.  I2mo. 
Cloth.  $1.25. 

"  The  formation,  the  manner  of  use,  and  the  general  handling  are  very  practically  presented, 
and  we  are  glad  to  pee  that,  while  many  of  the  illustrative  examples  are  taken  from  the 
Napoleonic  wars,  our  own  war  has  not  been  neglected.  We  recommend  this  book  for  use  as  a 
fimple,  accurate,  and  brief-  manual  in  military  institutions,  and  for  instruction  in  militia 
organizations.1"—  United  States  Service  Magazine. 

LIPPITT.  A  Treatise  on  Intrenchments.  By  FRANCIS  J.  LIPPITT, 
•*  Ex-Colonel  Second  Infantry,  California  Volunteers,  &c.,  &c. 
Illustrated  by  41  engravings.  I2ino.  Cloth.  $1.50. 

"It  is  a  brief  but  comprehensive  statement  of  all  that  needs  to  be  known  upon  the  subject  by 
any  except  professional  engineers.  All  the  principles  of  the  art  of  fiejd  fortification  are  clearly 
explained,  with  copious  illustrations,  drawn  from  military  history,  especially  from  the  opera- 
tions of  our  late  war,  the  whole  made  plain  by  diagrams.1' — Army  and  Navy  Journal. 

T  IPPITT.  The  Special  Operations  of  War  :  comprising  the  Forcing 
J—'  and  Defence  of  Denies  ;  the  Forcing  and  Defence  of  Rivers,  and 
the  Passage  of  Rivers  in  Retreat ;  the  Attack  and  Defence  of  Open 
Towns  and  Villages  ;  the  Conduct  of  Detachments  for  Special  Pur- 
poses, and  Notes  on  Practical  Operations  in  Sieges.  By  FRANCIS  J. 
LIPPITT,  Ex-Colonel  Second  California  Infantry,  &c.,  &c.  With 
illustrative  cuts.  I2mo.  Cloth.  $1.25. 

41  In  the  illustration  of  the  principles  set  forth  by  the  writer,  he  makes  frequent  and  impor- 
tant use  of  the  movements  in  the  late  war  of  the  Rebellion,  as  well  as  of  operations  in  the  wars  of 
Napoleon,  and  other  European  campaigns.  The  work  thus  assumes,  in  some  sense,  the  charac- 
ter of  a  historical  commentary  on  celebrated  military  actions,  and  becomes  of  interest  to  the 
general  reader,  as  well  as  to  the  student  of  the  art  of  war."— New  York  Tribune. 

LIPPITT.     Field  Service  in  War :  comprising  Marches,  Camps,  and 
Cantonments,    Outposts,    Convoys,    Reconnaissances,    Foraging, 
and  Notes  on  Logistics.      By  FRANCIS  J.  LTPPITT,  Ex-Colonel  Second 
California  Infantry,  &c.,  &c.      i  vol.,  I2mo.     Cloth.     $1.25. 

HEAD.     A  New  System  of  Fortifications.      By  GEORGE  E.  HEAD, 
A.    M.,     Capt.     29th    Infantry,   and  Bvt.    Major   U.   S.    Army. 
4to.     Illustrated.     Paper  $1.00. 

SERVICE  MANUAL  for  the  Instruction  of  newly  appointed  Com- 
missioned Officers,  and  the  Rank  and  File  of  the  Army,  as  com- 
piled from  Army  Regulations,  The  Articles  of  War,  and  the  Customs 
of  Service.  By  HENRY  D,  WALLEN,  Bvt.  Brigadier-General  U.  S. 
Army.  i2mo.  Clo.  $1.50. 

In  my  estimation,  Gen.  Wall  tin's  Sbrvice  Manual  is  a  book  of  great  value.  It  contains  not  only  ex- 
tracts from  the  rogalatioas,  but  a'so  includes,  in  a  concise  form,  the  customs  of  service  at  well-regu- 
lated Posts,  as  well  as  i  i  Regime.us, — th,z  uniorittin,  law,  which  takes  so  long  to  learn,  and  which  is 
so  soon  forg)tten  <>r  over  look  jJ.  Icoasider  it  :i  v3-y  useful  c  >mo3adium  for  Junior  Officers,  and  a 
good  book  lor  the  instruction  of  Non-C  >mmissi  >mcl  OIBsers  in  their  duties.  I  havj  prescribed  that  it 
be  taught  in  my  reginuat  an  1  at  tiie  Post  w -lore  I  command. 

J.  VOGDES, 

Colonel  1st  Artillery,  Bvt. -Brig.  Genl.  U.  S.  A., 
Fort  Hamilton,  New  York  Harbor. 


18  D.  Van  Nostrancfs  Publications. 

REBELLION  RECORD.  A  Diary  of  American  Events.  1860- 
1864.  Edited  by  FRANK  MOORE.  Complete  in  12  Volumes. 
Illustrated  with  158  finely  engraved^steel  portraits  of  distinguished 
Generals  and  Prominent  Men,  together  with  numerous  Maps  and 
Plans.  The  work  can  now  be  supplied  complete  in  12  volumes  at 
the  following  prices,  viz.  :  Green  cloth,  $60.00  ;  library  sheep, 
$72.00;  half  calf,  antique,  $78.00;  half  morocco,  $78.00;  half 
Russia,  $84.00. 

This  work  is  a  compendium  of  information,  made  up  of  special  correspondence,  official  re- 
ports, and  gleanings  from  the  newspapers  of  both  sections  of  the  United  States  and  of  Europe 
Of  these  latter,  over  five  hundred  are  used  in  its  preparation. 

The  REBELLION  RECORD  has  now  become  so  firmly  established  as  the  standard  authority  ol 
the  war  that  individuals  in  all  departments  of  the  Army,  Navy,  and  Government  are  constantly 
referring  to  it,  for  narratives  of  important  events,  and  official  reports  unpublished  elsewhere. 

In  addition  to  this,  most  of  the  speeches,  narratives,  &c.,  elsewhere  published,  have  been  re- 
vised by  their  authors,  specially  for  the  RECORD. 

The  editor  has  aimed  at  completeness,  accuracy,  and  impartiality.  Completeness  has  been 
secured  by  the  fullest  possible  sources  of  information.  Accuracy  has  been  attained  by  deferring 
publication  of  all  matter  long  enough  after  events  for  the  accounts  of  them  to  be  sifted.  Im- 
partiality has  been  a  special  object.  Every  authority  from  the  Southern  side  has  been  sought 
for  without  regard  to  labor  or  expense,  and  all  statements  and  documents  have  been  inserted  as 
originally  found,  without  editorial  comment  of  any  kind. 

The  REBELLION  RECORD  is  already  the  main  source  of  history  of  the  war.  Most  of  the  histc- 
rles  of  the  war  yet  published  have  been,  in  a  great  measure,  compiled  from  the  REBELLION 
RECORD.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  documents  cited  in  those  works  are  quoted  in  the  phra- 
seology of  the  copies  revised  by  their  authors  specially  for  the  Record,  and  published  iwwhere  else. 

This  work  is  of  special  value  to  statesmen,  inasmuch  as  the  course  and  policy  of  all  prominent 
men  are  fully  traced  in  it. 

It  is  indispensable  to  lawyers.  A  large  and  increasing  amount  of  litigation  is  arising  on  sub- 
jects connected  with  the  war,  and  the  REBELLION  RECORD  is  the  only  complete  repository  of 
evidence  and  authority.  All  important  Laws  and  leading  Decisions  arising  out  of  the  war  are 
reported  in  it ;  and  it  has  already  be^n  received  as  authentic  evidence  in  trial  for  Piracy  and 
Treason  in  the  United  States  Courts  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Boston,  and  San  Francisco. 

The  Philadelphia  Press,  of  October  26, 1861,  thus  speaks  of  it : 

"  During  the  trial,  which  terminated  yesterday,  for  piracy,  of  one  of  the  crew  of  the  Jeff. 
Davis,  a  great  deal  of  evidence  was  offered  by  the  counsel  for  defence  taken  from  FRANK 
MOORE'S  REBELLION  RECORD,  and  received  by  Judges  Grier  and  Cadwallader,  who  presided. 
This  is  a  remarkable  compliment  to  the  work  in  question  ;  but  not  higher  than  it  merits,  from 
the  fulness  and  fairness  of  its  various  information  respecting  the  rebellion.  It  is  the  first  time 
in  legal  and  literary  history  that  a  book  not  yet  completed  has  been  so  stamped  with  authen- 
ticity as  to  be  admitted  as  evidence  in  a  court  of  law,  and  on  a  trial  for  a  capital  offence." 

"  We  presume  that  there  can  be  no  question  that  there  never  was  so  complete  a  body  of  me- 
moires  pour  servir  published  as  this,  and  at  least  that  it  is  destined  to  be  the  resort  of  all  those 
who  wish  to  study,  from  a  political,  social,  or  military  point  of  view,  the  events  of  the  years 
1860-65.  That  no  libraries  fit  to  be  called  such,  whether  public  or  private,  can  dispense  with  it 
is  certain.  The  portraits  of  prominent  officers  and  politicians  which  have  generally  accompa- 
nied each  monthly  part,  have  been  of  a  high  order  of  excellence,  and  add  materially  to  the  valu« 
and  attractiveness  of  the  RECORD."— T/t£  Nation. 


NAVAL  BOOKS. 


A 


TREATISE  ON  ORDNANCE  AND  NAVAL  GUNNERY. 

Compiled  and  arranged  as  a  Text-Book  for  the  U.  S.  Naval  Acad- 
emy, by  Commander  EDWARD  SIMPSON,  U.  S.  N.  Fourth  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged,  i  vol.,  Svo.  Plates  and  cuts.  Cloth.  $5. 

"As  the  compiler  has  charge  of  the  instruction  in  Naval  Gunnery  at  the  Naval  Academy, 
his  work,  in  the  compilation  of  which  he  has  consulted  a  large  numher  of  eminent  authorities, 
is  probably  well  suited  for  the  purpose  designed  by  it — namely,  the  circulation  of  infor- 
mation which  many  officers,  owing  to  constant  service  afloat,  may  not  have  been  able  to  col- 
lect. In  simple  and  plain  language  it  gives  instruction  as  to  cannon,  gun-carriages,  gun- 
powler,  projectiles,  fuses,  locks  and  primers ;  the  theory  of  pointing  guns,  rifles,  the  practice 
«f  gunnery,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  similar  matters,  interesting  to  fighting  men  on  sea  and 
land."—  Washington  Daily  Globe. 


G 


UNNERY  CATECHISM.  As  applied  to  the  service  of  Naval  Ord- 
nance. Adapted  to  the  latest  Official  Regulations,  and  approved 
by  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  Navy  Department.  By  J.  D.  BRANDT, 
formerly  of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  Revised  edition,  i  vol.,  i8mo. 
Cloth.  $1.50. 

"  BUREAU  OF  ORDNANCE— NAVT  DEPARTMENT,  I 

Washington  City,  July  30, 18(54. 
11  MR.  J.  D.  BRANDT,— 

"  SIR:— Your  '  CATHECHISM  OP  GUNNERY,  as  applied  to  the  service  of  Naval  Ordnance,'  having 
been  submitted  to  the  examination  of  ordnance  officers,  and  favorably  recommended  by  them, 
is  approved  by  this  Bureau.  I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

"H.  A.  WISE,  Chief  of  Bureau." 

ORDNANCE  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES 
NAVY.  Part  I.  Relating  to  the  Preparation  of  Vessels  of  War 
for  Battle,  and  to  the  Duties  of  Officers  and  others  when  at  Quarters. 
Part  II.  The  Equipment  and  Manceuvre  of  Boats,  and  Exercise  of 
Howitzers.  Part  III.  Ordnance  and  Ordnapce  Stores.  Published 
by  order  of  the  Navy  Department,  i  vol.,  Svo.  Cloth.  With 
plates.  $5. 

THE  NAVAL  HOWITZER  ASHORE.     By  FOXHALV  A.  PARKER, 
Captain  U.  S.  Navy,      i  vol.,  Svo.     With  plates.     Cloth.     $4.00. 
Approved  by  the  Navy  Department. 

THE  NAVAL  HOWITZER  AFLOAT.      By  FOXHALL  A.   PARKER, 
Captain  U.  S.  Navy,      i  vol.,  Svo.     With  plates.     Cloth.     $4.00, 
Approved  by  the  Navy  Department. 


N 


20  D.  Van  Nbstrand's  Publications. 

GUNNERY  INSTRUCTIONS.     Simplified  for  the  Volunteer  Officers 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  with  hints  to  Executive  and  other  Officers.     By 
Lieutenant   EDWARD   BARRETT,   U.  §.   N. ,    Instructor   of  Gunnery, 
Navy  Yard,  Brooklyn.      I  vol.,  I2m'o.     Cloth.     $1.25. 

'It  is  a  thorough  work,  treating  plainly  on  its  subject,  and  contains  also  some  valuable  hint* 
to  executive  officers.  No  officer  in  the  volunteer  navy  should  be  without  a  copy."—  Boston 
JSvening  Traveller.  t. 

CALCULATED    TABLES    OF     RANGES     FOR    NAVY    AND 
V^     ARMY  GUNS.     With  a  Method  of  finding  the  Distance  of  an 

Object  at  Sea.     By  Lieutenant  W.  P.  BUCKNER,  U.  S.   N.      i  vol., 

8vo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

AVAL  LIGHT  ARTILLERY.  Instructions  for  Naval  Light  Ar- 
tillery, afloat  and  ashore,  prepared  and  arranged  for  the  U.  S. 
Naval  Academy,  by  Lieutenant  W.  H.  PARKER,  U.  S.  N.  Third 
edition,  revised  by  Lieut.  S.  B.  LUCE,  U.  S.  N.,  Assistant  Instructor 
of  Gunnery  and  Tactics  at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy,  i 
vol.,  8vo.  Cloth.  With  22  plates.  $3.' 

T?  LEMENTARY  INSTRUCTION  IN  NAVAL  ORDNANCE  AND 
J-'     GUNNERY.     By  JAMES   H.    WARD,    Commander  U.   S.    Navy, 
Author  of  "Naval  Tactics,"  and  "Steam  for  the  Million."     New 
Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2. 

"  It  conveys  an  amount  of  information  in  the  same  space  to  be  found  nowhere  else,  and  given 
with  a  clearness  which  renders  it  useful  as  well  to  the  general  as  the  professional  inquirer." — 
XT.  T.  Evening  Post. 

MANUAL  OF  NAVAL  TACTICS ;  Together  with  a  Brief  Critical 
Analysis  of  the  principal  Modern  Naval  Battles.     By  JAMES  H, 
WARD,  Commander  U.  S.  N.     With  an  Appendix,  being  an  extract 
from  Sir  Howard  Douglas's   "Naval  Warfare  with  Steam."     i  vol., 
8vo.     Cloth.     $3. 

NAVIGATION  AND  NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY.      Prepared  for 
the  use  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy.     By  Prof.  J.  H.  C.  COFFIN, 
Fourth  edition,  enlarged,      i  vol.,  121110,     Cloth.     $3.50. 

SQUADRON    TACTICS    UNDER     STEAM.       By    FOXHALL    A. 
PARKER,  Captain  U.  S.  Navy.     Published  by  authority  of  the  Navy 
Department.      I  vol.,  Svo.     With  numerous  plates.     Cloth.     $5. 

"  In  this  useful  work  to  Navy  officers,  the  author  demonstrates— by  the  aid  of  profuse  diagrams 
and  explanatory  text — a  new*  principle  for  manoeuvring  naval  vessels  in  action.  The  author 
contends  that  the  winds,  waves,  and  currents  of  the  ocean  oppose  no  more  serious  obstacles  to 
the  movements  of  a  steam  fleet,  than  do  the  inequalities  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  the 
manoeuvres  of  an  army.  It  is  in  this  light,  therefore,  that  he  views  a  vast  fleet— simply  as  an 
army ;  the  regiments,  brigades,  and  divisions  of  which  are  represented  by  a  certain  ship  or 
phips."— Scientific  American. 

SBON'S  HAND-BOOK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY. 
Being  a  compilation  of  all  the  principal  events  in  the  history  of 
every  vessel  of  the  United  States  Navy,  from  April,  1861,  to  May, 
1864.  Compiled  and  arranged  by  B.  S.  OSBON.  i  vol.,  I2mo. 
Cloth.  $2. 50. 


O 


H 


Naval  Books.  21 

ISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVAL  ACADEMY. 
With  Biographical  Sketches,  and  the  names  of  all  the  Superin- 
tendents, Professors,  and  Graduates  ;  to  which  is  added  a  Record  of 
some  of  the  earliest  votes  by  Congress,  of  Thanks,  Medals,  and 
Swords  to  Naval  Officers.  By  EDWARD  CHAUNCEY  MARSHALL,  A.  M. 
i  vol.,  1 2 mo.  Cloth.  Plates.  $i. 

NAVAL  DUTIES  AND  DISCIPLINE  :  With  the  Policy  and  Prin- 
ciples of  Naval  Organization.     By  F.  A.  ROE,  late  Commander 
U.  S.  Navy,      i  vol.,  I2mo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

"The  author's  design  was  undoubtedly  to  furnish  young  officers  some  general  instruction 
drawn  from  long  experience,  to  aid  in  the  hetter  discharge  of  their  official  duties,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  furnish  other  people  with  a  book  which  is  not  technical,  and  yet  thoroughly 
professional.  It  throws  light  upon  the  Navy — its  organization,  its  achievements,  its  interior 
life.  Everything  is  st  tted  as  tersely  as  possible,  and  this  is  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  book, 
considering  that  the  experience  and  professional  knowledge  of  twenty-five  years'  service, 
are  crowded  somewhere  into  its  pages."— Army  and  Navy  Journal. 

MANUAL  OF  THE  BOAT  EXERCISE  at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Acad- 
emy, designed  for  the  practical  instruction  of  the  Senior  Class  in 
Naval  Tactics.      i8mo.     Flexible  Cloth.     75C. 

MANUAL    OF    INTERNAL     RULES    AND    REGULATIONS 
FOR  MEN-OF-WAR.     By  Commodore  U.  P.  LEVY,  U.  S.  N., 
late  Flag-Officer  commanding  U.   S.   Naval   Force   in  the   Mediter- 
ranean, &c.     Flexible  blue  cloth.     Third  edition,  revised  and  en- 
larged.     50  cents. 

"  Among  the  professional  publications  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  war,  we  willingly  give 
a  prominent  place  to  this  useful  little  Manual  of  Rules  and  Regulations  to  be  observed  on  board 
of  ships  of  war.  Its  authorship  is  a  sufficient  guarantee,  for  its  accuracy  and  practical  value ; 
and  as  a  guide  to  young  officers  in  providing  for  the  discipline,  police,  and  sanitary  government 
of  the  vessels  under  their  command,  we  know  of  nothing  superior." — N.  Y.  Herald. 

TOTTEN'S   NAVAL  TEXT-BOOK.      Naval  Text-Book  and  Dic- 
tionary, compiled   for  the  use  of  the  Midshipmen  of  the  U.  S. 
Navy.     By  Commander  B.  J.  TOTTEN,  U.  S.  N.    Second  and  revised 
edition,      i  vol.,  izmo.     $3. 

"This  work  is  prepared  for  the  Midshipmen  of  the  United  States  Navy.  It  is  a  complete 
manual  of  instructions  as  to  the  duties  which  pertain  to  their  office,  and  appears  to  have  been 
prepared  with  great  care,  avoiding  errors  and  inaccuracies  which  had  crept  into  a  former  edition 
of  the  work,  and  embracing  valuable  additional  matter.  It  is  a  book  which  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  every  midshipman,  and  officers  of  high  rank  in  the  navy  would  often  find  it  a  useful 
companion."— Boston  Journal. 

LUCE'S  SEAMANSHIP  :  Compiled  from  various  authorities,  and 
Illustrated  with  numerous  Original  and  Selected  Designs.  For 
the  use  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy.  By  S.  B.  LUCE,  Lieu- 
tenant-Commander U.  S.  N.  In  two  parts.  Fourth  edition,  revised 
and  improved.  I  vol.,  crown  octavo.  Half  Roan.  $7.50. 

T    ESSONS  AND  PRACTICAL  NOTES  ON  STEAM.     The  Steam- 
J— '     Engine,  Propellers,  &c.,  &c.,  for  Young  Marine  Engineers,  Stu- 
dents, and  others.     By  the  late  W.  R.  KING,  U.  S.  N.     Revised  by 
Chief-Engineer  J.  W.  KING,  U.  S.  Navy.     Twelfth  edition,  enlarged. 
8vo.     Cloth.     $2. 


22  D.  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 

STEAM  FOR  THE  MILLION.     A  Popular  Treatise  on  Steam  and 
its  Application  to  the  Useful  Arts,  especially  to  Navigation.     By  J. 
H.  WARD,   Commander  C.  S.  Navy^    New  and  revised  edition.      I 
vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $i. 

THE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOR,   and  the  Improved  Mano- 
meter Steam  and  Vacuum  Gauges  :  Their  Utility  .and  Application. 
By  PAUL  STILLMAN.     New  edition,      i  vol.,  i2mo.  'Flexible  cloth. 
$i. 

SCREW  PROPULSION.     Notes  on  Screw  Propulsion,  its  Rise  and 
History.     By  Capt.  W.   H.    WALKER,   U.   S.   Navy,      i   vol.,    8vo. 
Cloth.     75  cents. 

POOR'S  METHOD  OF  COMPARING  THE  LINES  AND 
DRAUGHTING  VESSELS  PROPELLED  BY  SAIL  OR 
STEAM,  including  a  Chapter  on  Laying  off  on  the  Mould-Loft 
Floor.  By  SAMUEL  M.  POOK,  Naval  Constructor,  i  vol.,  8vo,  with 
illustrations.  Cloth.  $5. 

HARWOOD'S   LAW  AND   PRACTICE   OF   UNITED   STATES 
NAVAL  COURTS-MARTIAL.     By  A.  A.   HARWOOD,  U.  S.  N. 
Adopted  as  a  Text-Book  at  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy.      Svo.     Law 
binding.     $4. 

FLEET    TACTICS   UNDER    STEAM.      By  FOXHALL  A.  PARKER, 
Captain  U.  S.  Navy.      181110.     Cloth.     Illustrated.     $2.5-; 

NAUTICAL  ROUTINE  AND  STOWAGE.     With  Short  Rules  in 
Navigation.     By  JOHN   McLEOD  MURPHY  and  WM.    N.  JEFFERS, 
Jr.,  U.  S.  N.      i  vol.,  Svo.      Blue  cloth.     $2.50. 

NAVY   REGISTER   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES   FOR    1869. 
Svo.     Paper.     $2. 

SYSTEM  OF  NAVAL  DEFENCES.      By  JAMES  B.   EADS.      With 
illustrations.     4to.     Cloth.     $5. 

HTREATISE  ON  THE  MARINE  BOILERS  OF  THE   UNITED 
1       STATES.      By  H.  H.  BARTOL.     Illustrated.     Svo.    Cloth.    $1.50. 

DEAD  RECKONING;    Or,    Day's  Work.     By  EDWARD   BARRETT, 
U.  S.  Navy.     Svo.     Flexible  cloth.     $1.25. 

O  UBMARINE  WARFARE,  DEFENSIVE  AND  OFFENSIVE.  Com- 
v3  prising  a  full  and  complete  History  of  the  invention  of  the  Torpedo, 
its  employment  in  War,  and  results  of  its  use.  Descriptions  of  the 
various  forms  of  Torpedoes,  Submarine  Batteries  and  Torpedo  Boats 
actually  used  in  War.  Methods  of  ignition  by  Machinery,  Contact 
Fuzes,  and  Electricity,  and  a  full  account  of  experiments  made  to 
determine  the  explosive  Force  of  Gunpowder  under  Water.  Also  a 
discussion  of  the  offensive  Torpedo  system,  its  effect  upon  Iron-Clad 
Ship  systems,  and  influence  upon  Future  Naval  Wars.  By  Lieut.  - 
Commander  JOHN  S.  BARNES,  U.  S.  N.  With  illustrations,  i  vol., 
8vo.  Clo.  $5.00. 


SCIENTIFIC   BOOKS. 


FRANCIS'  (J.  B.)  Hydraulic  Experiments.  Lowell  Hydraulic  Ex* 
periments — being  a  Selection  from  Experiments  on  Hydraulic 
Motors,  on  the  Flow  of  Water  over  Weirs,  and  in  Open  Canals  of 
Uniform  Rectangular  Section,  made  at  ISbwell,  Mass.  By  J.  B. 
FRANCIS,  Civil  Engineer.  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  in- 
cluding many  New  Experiments  on  Gauging  Water  in  Open  Canals, 
and  on  the  Flow  through  Submerged  Orifices  and  Diverging  Tubes. 
With  23  copperplates,  beautifully  engraved,  and  about  100  new 
pages  of  text.  I  vol.,  4to.  Cloth.  $15. 

Most  of  the  practical  rules  given  in  the  books  on  hydraulics  have  been  determined  from  ex- 
periments made  in  other  countries,  with  insufficient  apparatus,  and  on  such  a  minute  scale,  that 
In  applying  them  to  the  large  operations  arising  in  practice  in  this  country,  the  engineer  cannot 
but  doubt  their  reliable  applicability.  The  parties  controlling  the  great  water-power  furnished 
by  the  Merrimack  River  at  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  felt  this  so  keenly,  that  they  have  deemed  it 
necessary,  at  great  expense,  to  determine  anew  some  of  the  most  important  rules  for  gauging 
the  flow  of  large  streams  of  water,  and  for  this  purpose  have  caused  to  be  made,  with  great  care, 
several  series  of  experiments  on  a  large  scale,  a  selection  from  which  are  minutely  detailed  in 
this  volume. 

The  work  is  divided  inlo  two  parts — PART  I.,  on  hydraulic  motors,  includes  ninety-two  experi- 
ments on  an  improved  Fourneyron  Turbine  Water- Wheel,  of  about  two  hundred  horse-power, 
With  rules  and  tables  for  the  construction  of  similar  motors  :— Thirteen  experiments  on  a  model 
of  a  centre-vent  water-wheel  of  the  most  simple  design,  and  thirty-nine  experiments  on  a  centre- 
vent  water-wheel  of  about  two  hundred  and  thirty  horse-power. 

PART  II.  includes  seventy-four  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  form  of 
the  formula  for  computing  the  flow  of  water  over  weirs ;  nine  experiments  on  the  effect  of  back- 
water on  the  flow  over  weirs ;  eighty-eight  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  formula  for  computing  the  flow  over  weirs  of  regular  or  standard  forms,  with  several  tables 
of  comparisons  of  the  new  formula  with  the  results  obtained  by  former  experimenters ;  five  ex- 
periments on  the  flow  over  a  dam  in  which  the  crest  was  of  the  same  form  as  that  built  by  the 
Essex  Company  across  the  Merrimack  River  at  Lawrence,  Massachusetts ;  twenty-one  experi- 
ments on  the  effect  of  observing  the  depths  of  water  on  a  weir  at  different  distances  from  the 
weir ;  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  rules  for  gaug- 
ing streams  of  water  in  open  canals,  with  tables  for  facilitating  the  same ;  and  one  hundred  and 
one  experiments  on  the  discharge  of  water  through  submerged  orifices  and  diverging  tubes,  the 
whole  being  fully  illustrated  by  twenty-three  double  plates  engraved  on  copper. 

In  1855  the  proprietors  of  the  Locks  and  Canals  on  Merrimack  River,  at  whose  expense  most 
of  the  experiments  were  made,  being  willing  that  the  public  should  share  the  benefits  of  the 
scientific  operations  promoted  by  them,  consented  to  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  this 
work,  which  contained  a  selection  of  the  most  important  hydraulic  experiments  made  at  Lowell 
up  to  that  time.  In  this  second  edition  the  principal  hydraulic  experiments  made  there,  subse- 
quent to  1855,  have  been  added,  including  the  important  series  above  mentioned,  for  determin- 
ing rules  for  the  gauging  the  flow  of  water  in  open  canals,  and  the  interesting  series  on  the  flow 
through  a  submerged  Venturi's  tube,  in  which  a  larger  flow  was  obtained  than  any  we  find  re- 
corded. 

FRANCIS  (J.   B.)  On  the  Strength  of  Cast-Iron  Pillars,  with  Tables 
for  the  use  of  Engineers,  Architects,  and  Builders.    By  JAMES  B, 
FRANCIS,  Civil  Engineer,     i  vol.,  8vo.    Cloth.     $2. 


24  D.  Yan  Nostrand's  Publications. 

HOLLEY'S   RAILWAY   PRACTICE.      American   and   European 
Railway  Practice,    in  the  Economical  Generation  of  Steam,  in- 
cluding  the   materials   and  construction  of  Coal-burning   Boilers, 
Combustion,   the  Variable  Blast,   Vaporization,   Circulation,    Super- 
I       heating,  Supplying  and  Heating  Feed-water,  &c.,  and  the  adaptation 
j       of  Wood  and  Coke-burning  Engines  to  Coal-burning  ;  and  in  Por- 
f       manent  Way,  including  Road-bed,  Sleepers,  Rails,  Joint  Fastenings, 
*       Street  Railways,  &c.,  &c.     By  ALEXANDER  L.  HOLLEY,  B.  P.     With 
77  lithographed  plates,      i  vol.-,  folio.     Cloth.     $12. 

*'  This  is  an  elaborate  treatise  by  one  of  our  ablest  civil  engineers,  on  the  construction  and  use 
of  locomotives,  with  a  few  chapters  on  the  building  of  Railroads.  *  *  *  All  these  subjects 
are  treated  by  the  author,  who  is  a  first-class  railroad  engineer,  in  both  an  intelligent  and  intelli- 
gible manner.  The  facts  and  id«as  are  well  arranged,  and  presented  in  a  clear  and  simple  stytej 
accompanied  by  beautiful  engravings,  and  we  presume  the  work  will  be  regarded  as  indispens- 
able by  all  who  are  interested  in  a  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  railroads  and  rolling  stock, 
or  the  working  of  locomotives."  —  Scientific  American. 

HENRICI  (OLAUS).     Skeleton  Structures,  especially  in  their  Appli- 
cation to  the   Building  of  Steel  and   Iron   Bridges.     By  OLAUS 
HENRICI.     With  folding  plates  and  diagrams,     i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth. 


WHILDEN  (J.   K.)    On  the  Strength  of  Materials  used   in   En- 
gineering Construction.     By  J.  K.  WHILDEN.      i  vol.,   izmo. 
Cloth.    $2. 

"  We  find  in  this  work  tables  of  the  tensile  strength  of  timber,  metals,  stones,  wire,  rope, 
hempen  cable,  strength  of  thin  cylinders  of  cast-iron  ;  modulus  of  elasticity,  strength  of  thick 
cylinders,  as  cannon,  &c.,  effects  of  reheating,  &c.,  resistance  of  timber,  metals,  and  stone  to 
crushing;  experiments  on  brick-work;  strength  of  pillars;  collapse  of  tube  ;  experiments  on 
punching  and  shearing  ;  the  transverse  strength  of  materials  ;  beams  of  uniform  strength  ;  table 
of  coefficients  of  timber,  stone,  and  iron  ;  relative  strength  of  weight  in  cast-iron,  transverse 
strength  of  alloys  ;  experiments  on  wrought  and  cast-iron  beams:  lattice  girders,  trussed  cast- 
iron  girders  ;  deflection  of  beams  ;  torsional  strength  and  torsional  elasticity."—  American  Ar- 
ti 


C AMPIN  (F.)  On  the  Construction  of  Iron  Roofs.     A  Theoretical 
and  Practical  Treatise.     By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN.    With  wood-cuts  and 
plates  of  Roofs  lately  executed.     Large  8vo.     Cloth.     $3. 

BROOKLYN  WATER-WORKS  AND  SEWERS.  Containing  a 
Descriptive  Account  of  the  Construction  of  the  Works,  and  also 
Reports  on  the  Brooklyn,  Hartford,  Belleville,  and  Cambridge 
Pumping  Engines.  Prepared  and  printed  by  order  of  .re  Board  of 
Water  Commissioners.  With  illustrations.  i  vol.,  folio.  Cloth. 
$15- 

ROEBLING  (J.  A.)     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges.     By 
JOHN  A.  ROEBLING,  C.  E.     Illustrated  with  large  copperplate  en- 
gravings of  plans  and  views.     Imperial  folio,  cloth.    $25. 

f  LARKE  (T.  C.)     Description  of  the  Iron  Railway  Bridge  across 
\^     the   Mississippi   River  at  Quincy,    Illinois.      By  THOMAS  CURTIS 

CLARKE,  Chief  Engineer.      Illustrated  with  numerous  lithographed 

plans,     i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $7.50. 


Scientific  BooJcs^  25 

WILLIAMSON  (R.  S.)  On  the  Use  of  the  Barometer  on  Surveys 
and  Reconnaissances.  Part  I.  Meteorology  in  its  Connection 
with  Hypsometry.  Part  II.  Barometric  Hypsometry.  By  R.  S. 
WILLIAMSON,  Bvt.  Lieut. -Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of  Engineers. 
With  Illustrative  Tables  and  Engravings.  Paper  No.  15,  Professional 
Papers,  Corps  of  Engineers.  I  vol.,  4to.  Cloth.  $15. 

"  SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.,  Feb.  27, 1867. 
"  Gen.  A.  A.  HUMPHREYS,  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army : 

"  GENERAJy— I  have  the  honor  to  submit  to  you,  in  the  following  pages,  the  results  of  my  in- 
vestigations in  meteorology  and  hypsometry,  made  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  how  far  the 
barometer  can  be  used  as  a  reliable  instrument  for  determining  altitudes  on  extended  lines  of 
survey  and  reconnaissances.  These  investigations  have  occupied  the  leisure  permitted  me  from 
toy  professional  duties  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  I  hope  the  results  will  be  deemed  of  suffi- 
cient value  to  have  a  place  assigned  them  among  the  printed  professional  papers  of  the  United 
States  Corps  of  Engineers.  Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

"K.  S.  WILLIAMSON, 
"Bvt.  Lt.-Col.  U.  S.  A.,  Major  Corps  of  U.  S.  Engineers.*' 

*T^UNNER  (P.)     A  Treatise  on  Roll-Turning  for  the  Manufacture  of 
-L      Iron.     By  PETER  TUNNER.    Translated  and  adapted.     By  JOHN  B. 
PEARSE,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Works.     With  numerous  engrav- 
ings and  wood-cuts,  i  vol.,  8vo.,  with  i  vol.  folio  of  plates.  Cloth.  $10. 
SHAFFNER  (T.  P.)  Telegraph  Manual.     A  Complete  History  and 
Description  of  the  Semaphoric,  Electric,  and  Magnetic  Telegraphs 
of  Europe,   Asia,   and  Africa,  with   625   illustrations.     By  TAL.    P. 
SHAFFNER,  of  Kentucky.    New  edition,    i  vol.,  8vo.    Cloth.     850  pp. 
$6.50. 

MINIFIE  (WM.)  Mechanical  Drawing.     A  Text-Book  of  Geomet- 
rical Drawing  for  the  use  of  Mechanics  and  Schools,  in  which 
'the  Definitions  and  Rules  of  Geometry  are  familiarly  explained  ;  the 
Practical  Problems  are  arranged,  from  the  most  simple  to  the  more 
complex,  and  in  their  description  technicalities  are  avoided  as  much 
as  possible.     With   illustrations  for  Drawing  Plans,   Sections,   and 
Elevations  of  Buildings  and  Machinery ;  an  Introduction  to  Isomet- 
rical  Drawing,  and  an  Essay  on  Linear  Perspective  and  Shadows. 
Illustrated  with  over  200  diagrams  engraved  on   steel.      By  WM 
MINIFIE,  Architect.     Seventh  edition.     With  an  Appendix  on  the 
Theory  and  Application  of  Colors,      i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $4. 
*  It  is  the  best  work  on  Drawing  that  we  have  ever  seen,  aud  is  especially  a  text-book  of  Geo 
metrical  Drawing  for  the  use  of  Mechanics  and  Schools.    No  young  Mechanic,  such  as  a  Ma- 
chinist, Engineer,  Cabinet-Maker,  Millwright,  or  Carpenter  should  be  without  it."— Scientific 
American. 

"  One  of  the  most  comprehensive  works  of  the  kind  ever  published,  and  cannot  but  possess 
great  value  to  builders.  The  style  is  at  ouce  elegant  and  substantial."— Pennsylvania  Inquirer 

"  Whatever  is  said  is  rendered  perfectly  intelligible  by  remarkably  well-executed  diagrams  on 
steel,  leaving  nothing  for  mere  vague  supposition ;  and  the  addition  of  an  introduction  to  iso- 
metrical  drawing,  linear  perspective,  and  the  projection  of  shadows,  winding  up  with  a  useful 
index  to  technical  terms." — Glasgow  Mechanics'  Journal. 

^-  The  British  P^vernment  has  authorized  the  use  of  this  book  in  their  schools  of  art  at 
Somerset  House,  London,  and  throughout  the  kingdom. 

MINIFIE  (WM.)  Geometrical  Drawing.    Abridged  from  the  octavo 
edition,  for  the  use  of  Schools.     Illustrated  with  48  steel  plates. 
Fifth  edition,  i  vol.,  I2mo.      Half  roan.     $1.50. 

"It  is  well  adapted  as  a  text-book  of  drawing  to  be  used  in  our  High  Schools  and  Academieg 
where  this  useful  branch  of  the  fine  arts  has  been  hitherto  too  much  neglected."— Boston  Jour«0r 


26  D.  Van  NostrancPs  Publications. 

pEIRCE'S  SYSTEM  OF  ANALYTIC  MECHANICS.  Physical 
m.  and  Celestial  Mechanics,  by  BENJAMIN  PEIRCE,  Perkins  Professor 
of  Astronomy  and  Mathematics  in^  Harvard  University,  and  Con- 
sulting Astronomer  of  the  American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Al- 
manac. Developed  in  four  systems  of  Analytic  Mechanics,  Celestial 
Mechanics,  Potential  Physics,  and  Analytic  Morphology,  i  vol., 
4to.  Cloth.  $10.  ». 

ILLMORE.  Practical  Treatise  on  Limes,  Hydraulic  Cements,  and 
Mortars.  Papers  on  Practical  Engineering,  U.  S.  Engineer  De- 
partment, No.  9,  containing  Reports  of  numerous  experiments  con- 
ducted in  New  York  City,  during  the  years  1858  to  1861,  inclusive. 
By  Q.  A.  GILLMORE,  Brig.  -General  U.  S.  Volunteers,  and  Major  U. 
S.  Corps  of  Engineers.  With  numerous  illustrations.  One  volume. 
octavo.  Cloth.  $4. 

ROGERS  (H.   D.  )     Geology  of  Pennsylvania.     A  complete  Scien- 
tific Treatise  on  the  Coal  Formations.     By  HENRY  D.   ROGERS, 
Geologist.     3  vols.,  4to.,  plates  and  maps.     Boards.     $30.00. 

BURGH  (N.  P.)  -  Modern  Marine  Engineering,-  applied  to  Paddle 
and  Screw  Propulsion.  Consisting  of  36  colored  plates,  259 
Practical  Woodcut  Illustrations,  and  403  pages  of  Descriptive  -Matter, 
the  whole  being  an  exposition  of  the  present  practice  of  the  follow- 
ing firms  :  Messrs.  J.  Penn  &  Sons  ;  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons,  & 
Field  ;  Messrs.  James  Watt  &  Co.  ,-  Messrs.  J.  &  G.  Rennie  ;  Messrs. 
tR..  Napier  &  Sons  ;  Messrs.  J.  &  W.  Dudgeon  ;  Messrs.  Ravenhill 
&  Hodgson  ;  Messrs.  Humphreys  &  Tenant  ;  Mr.  J.  T.  Spencer, 
and  Messrs.  Forrester  &  Co.  By  N.  P.  BURGH,  Engineer.  In  one 
thick  vol.,  4to.  Cloth.  $30.00.  Half  morocco.  $35.00. 

KING.     Lessons  and  Practical  Notes  on  Steam,  the  Steam-Engine, 
Propellers,  &c.,  &c.,   for  Young  Marine  Engineers,   Students, 
and  others.     By  the  late  W.   R.   KING,  U.  S.  N.     Revised  by  Chief- 
Engineer  J.  W.  KING,  U.  S.  Navy.     Ninth  edition,  enlarged.     8vo. 
Cloth.     $2. 

WARD.     Steam  for  the  Million.     A  Popular  Treatise  on  Steam  and 
its  Application  to  the  Useful  Arts,  especially  to  Navigation.     By 
J.  H.  WARD,   Commander  U.   S.   Navy.     New  and  revised  edition. 
i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $i. 

ALKER.     Screw  Propulsion.      Notes  on   Screw  Propulsion,    its 
Rise  and  History.     By  Capt.  W.   H.  WALKER,  U.  S.  Navy,      i 
vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     75  cents, 

HE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOR,  and  the  Improved  Mano- 
meter Steam  and  Vacuum  Gauges  :  Their  Utility  and  Application. 
By  PAUL  STILLMAN.     New  edition,     i  vol.,  i2mo.     Flexible  cloth. 


W 


T 


T  SHERWOOD.     Engineering  Precedents  for  Steam  Machinery.     Ar- 
1     ranged  in  the  most  practical  and  useful  manner  for  Engineers.     By 

B.   F.   ISHERWOOD,  Civil  Engineer  U.  S.  Navy.     With  illustration? 

Two  volumes  in  one.     8vo,     Cloth.     $2.50. 


Scientific  Books.  27 

POOR'S     METHOD     OF    COMPARING    THE    LINES    AND 
DRAUGHTING    VESSELS    PROPELLED     BY    SAIL    OR 
STEAM,   including  a  Chapter  on   Laying  off  on  the  Mould-Loft 
Floor.      By  SAMUEL  M.    POOR,  Naval  Constructor.      i   vol.,    8vo. 

With  illustrations.     Cloth.     $5. 

SWEET  (S.    H.)     Special  Report  on  Coal;  showing  its  Distribution, 
Classification  and  Cost  delivered  over  different  routes  to  various 
points   in   the  State  of  New  York,  and  the  principal   cities  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast.     By  S.  H.  SWEET.     With  maps,     i  vol.,  8vo.    Cloth. 

$3- 

A  LEXANDER  (J.   H.)     Universal  Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Meas- 
**     ures,  Ancient  and  Modern,  reduced  to  the  standards  of  the  United 
States  of  America.     By  J.    H.  ALEXANDER.     New  edition,      i  vol., 
8vo.     Cloth.     $3.50. 

"  As  a  standard  work  of  reference  this  book  should  be  in  every  library  ;  it  is  one  which  wo 
have  long  wanted,  and  it  will  save  us  much  trouble  and  research."  —  Scientific  American. 


(B.  F.  )     Weights  and  Measures.     An  Account  of  the  Deci- 
>     mal  System,  with  Tables  of  Conversion  for  Commercial  and  Scien- 
tific Uses.     By  B.  F.  CRAIG,   M.  D.     i  vol.,  square  3  2  mo.     Limp 
cloth.      50  cents. 

"  The  most  lucid,  accurate,  and  useful  of  all  the  hand-books  on  this  subject  that  we  have  yet 
geen.  It  gives  forty-seven  tables  of  comparison  between  the  English  and  French  denominations 
of  length,  area,  capacity,  weight,  and  the  centigrade  and  Fahrenheit  thermometers,  with  clear 
instructions  how  to  use  them  ;  and  to  this  practical  portion,  which  helps  to  make  the  transition 
as  easy  as  possible,  is  prefixed  a  scientific  explanation  of  the  errors  in  the  metric  system,  and 
how  they  may  be  corrected  in  the  laboratory."—  Nation. 

BAUERMAN.  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron,  containing 
outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  manufacture,  methods  of  Assay, 
and  analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  processes  of  manufacture  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  H.  BAUERMAN.  First  American  edition.  Re- 
vised and  enlarged,  with  an  appendix  on  the  Martin  Process  for 
making  Steel,  from  the  report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt.  Illustrated 
with  numerous  wood  engravings.  I2rno.  Cloth.  $2.50. 

"  This  is  an  important  addition  to  the  stock  of  technical  works  published  in  this  country.  It 
embodies  the  latest  facts,  discoveries,  and  processes  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  person  interested  in  the  subject,  as  well  as  in  all 
technical  and  scientific  libraries."—  Scientific  American. 

HARRISON.     Mechanic's  Tool  Book,  with  practical  rules  and  sug- 
gestions,  for  the  use  of  Machinists,  Iron  Workers,  and  others. 
By  W.   B.   HARRISON,  associate  editor  of  the  "  American  Artisan/' 
Illustrated  with  44  engravings.      I2mo.     Cloth.     $2.50. 

"  This  work  is  specially  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  Machinists  and  workers  In  Iron  gener- 
ally. It  is  made  up  of  the  work-day  experience  of  an  intelligent  and  ingenious  mechanic,  who 
had  the  faculty  of  adapting  tools  to  various  purposes.  The  practicability  of  his  plans  »n4  sug- 
gestions are  made  apparent  even  to  the  unpractised  eye  by  a  series  of  well-executed 
payings."—  Philadelphia  Inquirer. 


28  D.  Van  Nostrantfs  Publications. 

PLYMPTON.  The  Blow-Pipe  :  A  System  of  Instruction  in  its  prac- 
tical use,  being  a  graduated  course  of  Analysis  for  the  use  of 
students,  and  all  those  engaged  in^the  Examination  of  Metallic 
Combinations.  Second  edition,  with  an  appendix  and  a  copious 
index.  By  GEORGE  W.  PLYMPTON,  of  the  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Brooklyn.  I2mo.  Cloth.  $2. 

**  This  manual  probably  has  no  superior  in  the  English  language  as  a  text-book  for  beginners, 
or  as  a  guide  to  the  student  working  without  a  teacher.  To  the  latter  many  illustrations  of  the 
utensils  and  apparatus  required  in  using  the  blow-pipe,  as  well  as  the  fully  illustrated  descrip- 
tion of  the  blow-pipe  flame,  will  be  especially  serviceable." — New  York  TeacJier. 

NUGENT.     Treatise  on  Optics  :   or,  Light  and  Sight,  theoretically 
and  practically  treated  ;  with  the  application  to  Fine  Art  and  In- 
dustrial Pursuits.     By  E.   NUGENT.     With  one  hundred  and  three 
illustrations.      I2mo.     Cloth.     $2. 

"  This  book  is  of  a  practical  rather  than  a  theoretical  kind,  and  is  designed  to  afford  accurate 
and  complete  information  to  all  interested  in  applications  of  the  science."— Bound  Table. 

C  ILVERSMITH  (Julius).     A  Practical  Hand-Book  for  Miners,  Met- 
W     allurgists,  and  Assayers,  comprising  the  most  recent  improvements 

in  the  disintegration,   amalgamation,   smelting,   and  parting  of  the 

Precious  Ores,  with  a  Comprehensive  Digest  of  the  Mining  Laws. 

Greatly  augmented,  revised,  and  corrected.      By  JULIUS  SILVERSMITH. 

Fourth  edition.    Profusely  illustrated.     I  vol.,  I2mo.    Cloth.    $3. 

C  LOUGH.     The  Contractors'  Manual  and  Builders'  Price-Book.     By 
A.  B.  CLOUGH,  Architect,      i  vol.,  i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 


B 
C 


RUNNOW.      Spherical    Astronomy.     By   F.    BRUNNOW,    Ph.    Dr. 
Translated  by  the  Author  from  the  Second  German  edition,     i 
vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $6.50. 

HAUVENET  (Prof.  Wm.)  New  method  of  Correcting  Lunar  Dis- 
tances, and  Improved  Method  of  Finding  the  Error  and  Rate  of  a 
Chronometer,  by  equal  altitudes.  By  WM.  CHAUVENET,  LL.  D.  i 
vol.,  8vo.  Cloth.  $2. 


A 


SYNOPSIS  OF  BRITISH  GAS  LIGHTING,  comprising  the 
essence  of  the  "London  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting"  from  1849  to 
1868.  Arranged  and  executed  by  JAMES  R.  SMEDBERG,  C.  E.  of  the 
Sari  Francisco  Gas  Works.  Issued  only  to  subscribers.  4to.  Cloth. 
$15.00  In  press. 

GAS  WORKS  OF  LONDON.    By  ZERAH  COLBURN.    i2mo.    Boards. 
60  cents. 

HEWSON.     Principles   and   Practice   of  Embanking   Lands   from 
River  Floods,  as  applied  to  the  Levees  of  the  Mississippi.     By 
WILLIAM  HEWSON,  Civil  Engineer,      i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $2. 

"  This  is  a  valuable  treatise  on  the  principles  and  practice  of  embanking  lands  from  river 
floods,  as  applied  to  Levees  of  the  Mississippi,  by  a  highly  intelligent  and  experienced  engineer. 
The  author  says  it  is  a  first  attempt  to  reduce  to  order  and  to  rule  the  design,  execution,  and 
Measurement  of  the  Levees  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  a  most  ueeiul  and  needvs.  contribution  *» 
•  ientiflc  literature."— Philadelphia  Evening  Journal. 


W 


.     Scientific  Books.  29 

WEISBACH  (Julius).     Principles  of  the  Mechanics  of  Machinery 
and    Engineering.     By   DR.    JULIUS   WEISBACH,    of  Freiburg. 
Translated  from  the  last  German  edition.     Vol.  i.  8vo,  cloth.     $10. 

HUNT  (R.  M.)    Designs  for  the  Gateways  of  the  Southern  Entrances 
to  the  Central  Park.     By  RICHARD  M.  HUNT.     With  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  designs,      i  vol.,  4to.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $5. 

PEET.     Manual  of  Inorganic  Chemistry  for  Students.     By  the  late 
DUDLEY  PEET,  M.  D.    Revised  and  enlarged  by  ISAAC  LEWIS  PEET, 
A.  M.      i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

HITNEY  (J.  P.)  Colorado,  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
Schedule  of  Ores  contributed  by  sundry  persons  to  the  Paris 
Universal  Exposition  of  1867,  with  some  Information  about  the 
Region  and  its  Resources.  By  J.  P.  WHITNEY,  of  Boston,  Com- 
missioner from  the  Territory.  Pamphlet.  8vo.,  with  maps.  Lon- 
don, 1867.  25  cents. 

WHITNEY  (J.  P.)     Silver  Mining  Regions  of  Colorado,  with  some 
account  of  the  different  processes  now  being  introduced   for 
working   the   Gold    Ores   of  that   Territory.      By  J.    P.    WHITNEY. 
1 2 mo.      Paper.     25  cents. 

"  This  is  a  most  valuable  little  book,  containing  a  vast  anumnt  of  practical  information  about 
that  region.  It  will  be  found  useful  to  men  of  a  scientific  turn  of  mind,  should  they  never  con- 
template a  journey  to  the  region  of  silver  and  gold.'1— Fall  River  News. 

ILVER   DISTRICTS   OF   NEVADA.      8vo.,    with    map.     Paper. 
35  cents. 

McCORMICK  (R.  C.)      Arizona  :    Its    Resources   and   Prospects. 
By  Hon.  R.  C.  McCoRMiCK.    With  map.    8vo.    Paper.    25  cents. 

TDETERS.     Notes  on  the  Origin,  Nature,  Prevention,  and  Treatment 
JL       of  Asiatic  Cholera.     By  JOHN  C.  PETERS,  M.  D.     Second  edition. 
With  an  appendix  and  map.     12  mo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 

SEYMOUR.     Western  Incidents  connected  with  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad.     By  SILAS  SEYMOUR.      12 mo.     Cloth.   .  $i. 

EULOGIES   IN  MEMORY  OF   MAJ.-GEN.  JAMES   S.  WADS- 
WORTH  AND  COL.   PETER  A.  PORTER,  before  the  "  Cen- 
tury Association."     Tinted  paper.     8vo.     Paper.     $i. 

PALMER.     Antarctic  Mariners'  Song.     By  JAMES  CROXALL  PALMER, 
U.  S.'  N.     Illustrated.     Cloth,  gilt,  bevelled  boards.     $3. 

"  The  poem  is  founded  upon  and  narrates  the  episodes  of  the  exploring  expedition  of  a  small 
wiling  vessel,  the  '  Flying  Fish,'  in  company  with  the  '  Peacock,'  in  the  South  Seas,  in  1S3S- 
42.  The  '  Flying  Fish'  was  too  small  to  be  safe  or  comfortable  in  that  Antarctic  region,  al- 
though we  find  in  the  poem  but  little  of  complaint  or  murmuring  at  the  hardships  the  sailors 
were  compelled  to  endure."— Atfiencewn. 

FRENCH'S  ETHICS.     Practical  Ethics.     By  Rev.  J.  W.   FRENCH, 

D.  D.,  Professor  of  Ethics,  U.  S.  Military  Academy.  Prepared  for 

the  Uf.e  of  Students  in  the  Military  Academy,     i  vol.  8vo.     Cloth. 

$4.5^ 


S 


30  D.  Van  .Nostrand's  Publications. 

A  UCHINCLOSS.  Application  of  the  Slide  Valve  and  Link  Motion 
«**.  to  Stationary,  Portable,  Locomotive,  and  Marine  Engines,  with  new 
and  simple  methods  for  proportioning  the  parts.  By  WILLIAM  S. 
AUCHINCLOSS,  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Designed  as  a  hand- 
liook  for  Mechanical  Engineers,  Master  Mechanics,  Draughtsmen,  and 
Students  of  Steam  Engineering.  All  dimensions  of  the  valve  are 
found  with  the  greatest  ease  by  means  of  a  PRINTED  SCALE,  and  propor- 
tions of  the  link  determined  wiihout  the  assistance  of  a  model.  Illus- 
trated by  37  woodcuts  and  21  lithographic  plates,  together  with  a  cop- 
perplate engraving  of  the  Travel  Scale,  i  vol.  8vo.  Cloth.  $3. 

H  UMBER'S   STRAINS  IN  GIRDERS.      A   Handy  Book  for  the 
Calculation  of  Strains  in  Girders  and  Similar  Structures,  #nd  their 
Strength,  consisting  of  Formulae   and  Corresponding   Diagrams,  with 
numerous  details   for  practical  application.       By  WILLIAM  HUMBER. 
i   vol.      i8mo.      Fully  illustrated.     Cloth.     $2.50. 


ON  THE  POWER  OF  WATER,  as  applied  to  drive  Flour 
Mills,  and  to  give  motion  to  Turbines  and  other  Hydrostatic  En- 
gines. By  JOSEPH  GLYNN,  F.  R.  S.  Third  edition,  revised  and  en- 
larged, with  numerous  illustrations.  i2mo.  Cloth.  $1.25. 

HOW  TO  BECOME  A  SUCCESSFUL  ENGINEER  ;  being  Hints 
to   Youths   intending   to   adopt   the   Profession.      By   BERNARD 
STUART.     Fourth  edition.      i8mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

*'  Parents  and  guardians,  with  youths  under  their  charge  destined  for  the  profession,  as  well 
as  youths  themselves  who  intend  to  adopt  it,  will  do  well  to  study  and  obey  the  plain  curricu- 
lum in  this  little  hook.  Its  doctrine  will,  we  hesitate  not  to  say,  if  practised,  tend  to  fill  the 
ranks  of  the  profession  with  men  conscious  of  the  heavy  responsibilities  placed  in  their 
charge/1  —  Practical  Mechanic's  Journal. 

HPREATISE    ON   ORE   DEPOSITS.       By  BERNHARD  VON  COTTA, 

JL       Professor  of  Geology  in  the   Royal  School  of  Mines,  Freidberg, 

Saxony.     Translated  from  the  second  German  edition,  by  FREDERICK 

PRIME,  Jr.  ,  Mining  Engineer,  and  revised  by  the  author,  with  numer- 

ous illustrations,      i  vol.     8vo.     In  Press. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE  RICHARDS  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICA- 
**•  TOR,  with  directions  for  its  use.  By  CHARLES  T.  PORTER. 
Revised,  with  notes  and  large  additions  as  developed  by  American 
Practice,  with  an  Appendix  containing  useful  formulae  and  rules  for 
Engineers.  By  F.  W.  BACON,  M.  E.,  member  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  1.2  mo.  Illustrated.  Cloth.  $i 

A  COMPENDIOUS  MANUAL  OF  QUALITATIVE  CHEMICAL 
ANALYSIS.     By  CHAS.  W.  ELIOT,  and  FRANK  H.  STORER,  Profs. 
of  Chemistry  in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.       I2mo. 
Illustrated.     Clo.  $1.50. 

INVESTIGATIONS  OF  FORMULAS,  for  the  Strength  of  the  Iron 
Parts  of  Steam   Machinery.       By  J.  D.  VAN  BUREN,  Jr.,  C.  E.      I 
vol.     8vo.     Illustrated.     Cloth.     $2. 


/Scientific  Books.  31 

THE  MECHANICS  AND  STUDENT'S  GUIDE  in  the  Designing 
and  Construction  of  General  Machine  Gearing,  as  Eccentrics, 
Screws,  Toothed  Wheels,  etc.,  and  the  Drawing  of  Rectilineal  and 
Curved  Surfaces  ;  with  Practical  Rules  and  Details.  Edited  by 
FRANCIS  HERBERT  JOYNSON.  Illustrated  with  18  folded  plates.  8vo. 
Cloth.  $2.00. 

"The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  be  a  guide  to  mechanics  in  the  designing  and  construction 
of  general  machine-gearing.  This  design  it  well  fulfils,  being  plainly  and  sensibly  written,  and 
profusely  illustrated." — Sunday  Times. 

FREE-HAND    DRAWING  :    a  Guide  to  Ornamental,   Figure,  and 
Landscape    Drawing.       By    an    Art    Student.       i8mo.       Cloth. 
75  cents. 

THE  EARTH'S  CRUST  :  a  Handy  Outline  of  Geology.     By  DAVID 
PAGE.      Fourth  edition.      iSmo.     Cloth.      75  cents. 

"  Such  a  work  as  this  was  much  wanted — a  work  giving  in  clear  and  intelligible  outline  the 
leading  facts  of  the  science,  without  amplification  or  irksome  details.  It  is  admirable  in 
arrangement,  and  clear  and  easy,  and,  at  the  same  time,  forcible  in  style.  It  will  lead,  we  hope, 
to  the  introduction  of  Geology  into  many  schools  that  have  neither  time  nor  room  for  the  study 
of  large  treatises." — The  Museum. 

HISTORY    AND    PROGRESS    OF    THE    ELECTRIC    TELE- 
GRAPH,   with   Descriptions   of  some  of  the   Apparatus.       By 
"ROBERT    SABINE,    C.   E.       Second    edition,   with    additions.       I2mo. 
Cloth.     $1.75. 


I 


RON  TRUSS  BRIDGES  FOR  RAILROADS.  The  Method  of 
Calculating  Strains  in  Trusses,  with  a  careful  comparison  of  the 
most  prominent  Trusses,  in  reference  to  economy  in  combination,  etc., 
etc.  By  Brevet  Colonel  WILLIAM  E.  MERRILL,  U.  S.  A.,  Major 
Corps  of  Engineers.  With  illustrations.  4to.  Cloth.  $5.00. 


T  TSEFUL  INFORMATION   FOR   RAILWAY  MEN.      Compiled 
*J      by  W.  G.   HAMILTON,   Engineer.       Second  edition,   revised  and 
enlarged.     570  pages.     Pocket  form.     Morocco,  gilt.     $2.00. 

REPORT   ON   MACHINERY  AND   PROCESSES  OF  THE  IN- 
DUSTRIAL   ARTS  AND   APPARATUS,    OF   THE  EXACT 
SCIENCES.      By  F.  A.  P.  BARNARD,    LL.  D.— Paris   Universal  Ex- 
position, 1867.     i  vol.,  8vo.     Cloth.     $5.00. 

THE  METALS  USED  IN  CONSTRUCTION :  Iron,  Steel,  Bessemer 
Metal,    etc.,    etc.     By   FRANCIS   HERBERT   JOYNSON.     Illustrated. 
i2mo.     Cloth.     75  cents. 

"  In  the  interests  of  practical  science,  we  are  bound  to  .notice  this  work  ;  and  to  those  who 
Wish  further  information,  we  should  say,  buy  it ;  and  the  outlay,  we  honestly  believe,  will  be 
tonsidered  well  spent."— Scientific  Review. 

DICTIONARY  OF  MANUFACTURES,  MINING,  MACHINERY, 
AND  THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS.     By  GEORGE  DODD.     I2mo. 

Cloth.     $2.00. 


32  D.  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 

SUBMARINE    BLASTING    in    Boston    Harbor,     Massachusetts- 
Removal  of  Tower   and    Corwin    Rocks.     By  JOHN   G.    FOSTER, 
U.  S.  A.     Illustrated  with  "7  plates.    ,-4to.     Cloth.     $3. 50. 

TVHRKWOOD.     Report  on  the  Filtration  of  River  Waters,   for  the 
J^-     supply  of  Cities,  as  practised  in  Europe,  made  to  the  Board  of 
Water  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  St.  Louis.     By '.JAMES  P.   KIRK- 
WOOD.       Illustrated   by   30   double-plate   engravings.       4to.       Cloth. 

$15.00. 

LECTURE    NOTES    ON    PHYSICS.       By   ALFRED   M.    MAYER, 
Ph'.  D.,    Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Lehigh  University.      I  vol. 
8vo.     Cloth.     $2. 

THE  PLANE  TABLE,   and  its  Uses  in  Topographical  Surveying. 
From  the  Papers  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey.     8vo.     Cloth.     $2. 

FRENCH'S   GRAMMAR.     Part  of  a  Course  on  Language.     Pre- 
pared for  Instruction  in  the  U.  S.  Corps  of  Cadets.     By  Rev.  J.  W. 
FRENCH,   D.  D.,   Professor  of  Ethics   and   English   Studies  in  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  West  Point,     i  vol.     I2mo.     Cloth. 

$2.50. 

AGNEL.      Elementary  Tabular   System    of  Instruction    in    French. 
Devised  and  arranged  in  practical  form  for  the  use  of  the  Cadets 
of  the  U.   S.   Military  Academy.     By  H.   R.   AGNEL,  Professor  of 
French.      I  vol.     8vo.     Cloth,  flexible.     $3.50. 

WILLIAMSON.     Practical  Tables  in  Meteorology  and  Hypsometry, 
in  connection  with'  the  use  of  the  Barometer.     By  Col.  R.  S. 
Williamson,  U.  S.  A.     I  vol.  4to,  flexible  cloth.     $2. 50. 


•>  •  y.-:,?*  v 


, 


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